Activities Affecting the Environment
Activities Affecting the Environment
Vegetable Gardens
The aim will be to produce vegetables intensively, in small or larger spaces, in the ground or in containers, as the situation allows. The establishment of vegetable gardens will also aim to ensure that families have a secure food supply, as well as to generate income to improve the participants' quality of life. Production techniques will be organic, and manure or compost will be used to fertilize soil. The types of vegetables produced will be local vegetables that are no longer farmed, but are well suited to local conditions. Other vegetables will also be identified for coastal slums with saline soil. Participants will be encouraged to prepare organically based growth media to produce vegetables not suited to these conditions. Other types of vegetables will be introduced and used, especially those that have already proven to be well suited to Haitian climates.
Positive Environmental Impacts: This activity will enhance the value of spaces and backyards that are generally underused. Growing vegetables in containers will create spaces for agricultural production. The gardens will make it possible to establish more favourable microclimates. They will also conserve local types of vegetables. Cultivation in the ground, in backyards, and on slopes will help to reduce surface run-off. The inclusion of organic matter will help water infiltration.
Adverse Environmental Impacts: The following will be monitored: the use of unsuitable soil, poor-quality organic fertilizers, and dirty irrigation water.
Small-Scale Livestock Breeding
Included in the initiative at the participants' request, this activity will involve producing poultry, rabbits, and guinea pigs. The breeding of these types of livestock is known. However, it is not widespread, due to a lack of means and technical supervision. Setting up these breeding units also aims to ensure food security and generate income for families, to improve their quality of life. Two uses are planned for the livestock: to be eaten at home and to be sold. These animals will be bred in cages, which can be stacked vertically or lined up horizontally. Production sites will be backyards or other spaces used for this purpose. The designated spaces are already available and adapted to the Haitian context. Some producers live in urban areas. Livestock will be fed with residues from food and market crops. Feed will also include domestic kitchen waste. Supplemental feed will be purchased from local feed suppliers to intensify livestock production, especially for poultry. Hillside slum dwellers will be encouraged to use small spaces on slopes to produce fodder for rabbits and guinea pigs. These types of crops will also play a role in protecting slopes.
Positive Environmental Impacts: This activity will produce manure to fertilize urban gardens. Some slaughterhouse waste will be used, such as dried blood in compost, or skins in crafts from re-usable materials. Breeding livestock in pens also has the advantage of eliminating risks of the animals destroying or deteriorating the environment.
Adverse Environmental Impacts: The following adverse effects will be averted through monitoring. Diseases and parasites can spread in poorly run breeding units and can also affect human health. Other adverse effects are the poor management of livestock wastes, and poor management of fodder crops.
Fruit-Tree Seedling and Ornamental Plant Nurseries
The nurseries will be developed in backyards or other spaces developed for this purpose. This activity aims to enable families to increase their income by selling seedlings or produce from fruit trees. This activity also aims to enhance the environment by restoring wooded and eroded areas, and by developing green spaces. Nurseries will occupy small spaces. Participants will be encouraged to grow seedlings in re-used or recycled plastic containers, in an organic growth medium prepared with manure or compost. Species will be mainly local, and will be chosen in consultation with the participants. Other already introduced and adapted species will be chosen. Vegetative reproductive techniques - such as cutting, layering, and grafting - will be used to add value to the plants produced, but also to enable production in shorter timeframes. These nurseries will focus mainly on producing fruit and ornamental plants. However, small forest production will not be ruled out if demand or interest exists. The planting of trees will be conducted by individuals with plants of their choice or by local community organizations involved in environmental improvement activities. These organizations will provide survival control for the area planted. On government lands, local organizations will develop action plans with local authorities.
Positive Environmental Impacts: These include the restoration of vegetation cover, soil protection (especially on slopes), as well as the conservation and multiplication of local species.
Adverse Environmental Impacts: The adverse effects to be monitored will be the same as for vegetable gardens, though the impact is less critical for this activity.
Composting of Household Wastes
This activity will be carried out by families and neighbourhoods, and will reduce random waste disposal on streets, in ravines and on vacant lots. Organic wastes will be recycled as compost, and some non-organic wastes will be used for craft activities. Families are expected to generate income by selling compost and craft products. Families will manage wastes by selective sorting of wastes produced at home and in the immediate neighbourhood. Organic wastes will be used to produce compost, in containers designed for this purpose in urban areas. Participants may dispose of non-organic wastes at waste collection points. At the neighbourhood level, waste management will be promoted by local organizations involved in raising community awareness of, and involvement in, selective sorting of household wastes. Compost produced will be used in vegetable gardens, in nurseries, and for other plants. Compost will also be sold on the local market for this purpose.
Positive Environmental Impacts: This activity will improve the sanitation of the areas of intervention, and thus of the cities of intervention. Communities will change their habits, once they become aware of, and effectively involved in, improving the urban environment. Groundwater, soil, and coastal pollution will greatly decrease. The production of compost will play a definite role in soil improvement and the improvement of agricultural production.
Adverse Environmental Impacts: This activity will be monitored to ensure that the composting process produces compost that is contaminant-free. Environmental nuisances must also be prevented in installing the neighbourhood composting unit.
Small Recycled-Craft Workshops
This activity will use iron, glass, plastic, and paper to make decorative craft items, handy household items, or Haitian art (e.g. papier-mâché masks and fruits, paintings, pottery, toys). These products will be sold, creating jobs and generating household income.
Positive Environmental Impacts: Less non-organic waste will be disposed at dump sites and this waste will be valued more. This will make recycling easier in communities, and therefore in urban areas.
Adverse Environmental Impacts: Monitoring will be related to the work methods and techniques for producing craft items in small workshops. These methods must protect the health of participants and avoid pollution.
Workshops for Processing Agricultural Produce
This activity will process mainly fruits and vegetables bought on the market during the harvesting season. These will be sun-dried or cooked on improved kerosene stoves, or energy-efficient charcoal stoves. The resulting products will be sold on the local market to generate household income. Organic wastes will be recycled in composting units, or in small-scale livestock breeding units. The water used to wash fruit and vegetables will be recycled to irrigate vegetable gardens.
Positive Environmental Impacts: This activity will enhance the value of highly perishable agricultural produce (fruit and vegetables). Organic wastes will be recycled to produce compost, or feed for small livestock. Wastewater will be recycled to produce plants.
Adverse Environmental Impacts: Monitoring will be related to the work methods and techniques for processing produce in workshops. These methods must protect the health of participants and consumers. They must also prevent pollution.
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D) Measures to Mitigate and Monitor Adverse Environmental Impacts
For vegetable gardens, the use of unsuitable soil, poor-quality organic fertilizers, and dirty irrigation water must be monitored. Training for participants includes sessions covering these issues. Participants can then control these issues themselves. The various themes that will be discussed include soil selection criteria for vegetable production in the ground and in containers, production of contaminant-free compost and manure, and the selection of water to irrigate vegetables safely. In the latter case, wastewater recycling and rainwater harvesting will be discussed to avoid any misuse. Prerequisites are defined for setting up vegetable gardens and will be checked with all participants for the particular space they plan to cultivate. Staff will visit and accept sites before providing equipment to begin setting up the garden. Prerequisites defined include prior land use (for in-ground production), soil source for container gardens, and water source and availability. Hands-on training in composting will enable participants to gain an understanding of how to produce compost. Furthermore, for this activity, participants will sort household wastes at home and thus bring the waste needed to practise composting. These measures are already being practised through the Pilot Urban Gardening Initiative.
For small-scale livestock breeding units, breeding units must be well run and monitored to ensure that diseases and parasites do not spread and negatively affect human health. Monitoring will also help to ensure the proper management of wastes produced by these units and the sound management of fodder crops. Participants will be trained to manage the breeding units they have chosen to start up, and to produce and use fodder crops. Planned prerequisites for developing a breeding unit include access to water (availability, source) and availability of space. The size of herds, flocks or colonies will be based on the breeding guidelines of the selected species and on the producer's means (space, access to water, access to feed, availability of labour). The design of the breeding units will take into account the management of the wastes produced. Droppings will be collected and transformed into manure, or incorporated in the production of compost. There will not be much slaughterhouse waste, considering Haitian patterns of food preparation and consumption (e.g. internal organs are eaten, as is skin, after singeing and scraping off hair). Blood may be collected in the case where many animals are slaughtered and then used for food (such as blood pudding) or to prepare dried blood. Where available, some slaughterhouse wastes (such as rabbit or guinea pig skins) may be used in other production chains, if the producer does not scrape them for food. Poultry feathers may be used in making crafts. Diseases and parasites will be controlled by training participants to manage the breeding of selected types of livestock (through veterinary care and hygienic slaughter methods). They will also be controlled through access to health prevention and veterinary treatment services. This will be done in collaboration with the Animal Production Services of the Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, and other agencies working in this field, such as VETERIMED, a non-governmental organization, or the Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture (IICA).
For fruit-tree seedling and ornamental plant nurseries, and for the planting of trees, the same measures will be applied as for vegetable gardens.
For household waste composting, monitoring of the composting process must ensure that the resulting product is contaminant-free and prevent environmental nuisances when neighbourhood composting units are installed. The composting training developed in the Pilot Urban Gardening Initiative focuses on the importance of sorting household wastes and proposes practices in this regard. This will continue in the Urban Agriculture Initiative. Production methods will be discussed with participants. For neighbourhood composting, which involves production on a larger scale, the local organizations will have access to coaching in setting up small production units. This coaching will consider the selection of the composting site and production methods. In this regard, a consultant's services will be needed to evaluate production sites proposed by local organizations. The Pilot Urban Gardening Initiative has already referred to the services of a sanitary engineering consultant to study the feasibility of this activity for four local organizations. The Urban Agriculture Initiative will follow the same approach. Compost produced will be quality-controlled on a regular basis. Laboratory analyses will track and quantify the presence of contaminants. The Urban Gardening Initiative has already used the services of the Centre de Recherche Industrielle du Québec (CRIQ) [Quebec industrial research centre] for this purpose. The Urban Agriculture Initiative will do likewise, until Haitian laboratories are set up for this type of analysis. The Faculty of Agronomy and Veterinary Medicine (FAMV) and the Faculty of Sciences are working on this. The FAMV of Université Quisqueya (UNIQ), and the Agricultural Research and Documentation Centre (CRDA), are expected to provide support in carrying out applied research in compost production.
For small recycled-craft workshops, the adverse environmental impacts to be monitored are related to the work methods and techniques for producing craft items in small workshops. These methods must protect the health of participants and avoid pollution. Attention will focus primarily on the protective equipment needed to work safely in a healthy, well-aired environment. The choice of production techniques will also be based on work already done by the National Office for Handicrafts (ONART).
For workshops processing agricultural produce, monitoring will relate to the work methods and techniques for processing produce in workshops. These methods must protect the health of participants and consumers. They must also prevent pollution. Participants will be trained in environmentally friendly processing techniques and practices, hygiene in preparing produce, and the nutritional value of produce used. Attention will focus on equipping workshops to ensure product health and quality. Contacts will be made with local organizations that have developed several traditional fruit and vegetable processing techniques in Haiti. They include the Congrégation des Petits Frères et Soeurs de Sainte-Thérèse, the Ferme des Rochelois and the Papaya Centre in the Central Plateau.
In Port-au-Prince, the key environmental risks associated with natural disasters that may influence the Urban Agriculture Initiative's activities are surface run-off and landslides in periods of heavy rain and hurricanes. However, when hurricane Georges struck, minimal damage was reported to the Urban Gardening Initiative's activities. In Gonaïves, flooding is mostly of concern during rainy, stormy, or hurricane seasons. Participants in the Urban Gardening Initiative in these areas got around this problem by developing their gardens mainly on piles and hard roofs. Apart from the initiative discussed here, drainage works in some neighbourhoods have diminished the effect of this problem.
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E) Conclusion
After reviewing the proposed activities, staff are convinced that the implementation of this initiative would have no adverse effects on the biophysical and human environment in the areas of intervention. On the contrary, the initiative was designed with the participation of slum community representatives to gain a good understanding of how to improve the living conditions of families in these slums. Environmental management of Haiti's urban areas is not simply an objective of the Urban Agriculture Initiative.
It is also a basic guideline in planning the initiative. Controlling and monitoring environmental effects, as well as the effectiveness of the Urban Agriculture Initiative's mitigation measures, will form an integral part of the system for monitoring and evaluating the activities to be promoted. The initiative's progress and evaluation reports will systematically discuss these elements.
Zoning Ordinances and Regulations
Zoning ordinances and regulations are laws that define and restrict how you can use your property. Cities, counties, townships, and other local governments adopt zoning plans in order to set development standards to assure that land is used for the common good.
Why Zoning Is Such a Big Issue
Zoning laws come into play on every single real estate development, regardless of how big or small, so if you are thinking about buying property or making improvements to property you already own, you’d better be sure you understand the zoning restrictions before you commit to anything. One zoning use is typically not compatible with another. For example, a commercial building usually cannot be constructed on property that’s zoned for residential uses.
If you buy open ground to build your dream house that is in an agricultural zone, you may not be able to build it without a change in the zoning. Getting the zoning changed on property is a very difficult process. It requires a process of giving public notice and then having a variance approved by government agencies that oversee enforcement of the zoning plan. Opposition to zoning changes by neighbors and other interested parties can be fierce.
You can find out how property is zoned by calling your local planning department. They can also explain what you would need to do to get a variance. Before getting too involved in a zoning issue, it would no doubt be in your best interests to hire a local land use attorney to help you through the process.
Zoning Restrictions
Use requirements refer to how property can be used. Typical zonings categories include:
• Residential
• Commercial
• Industrial
• Agricultural
• Recreational
These categories usually break down into further subcategories. For example, there are subcategories for single-family (i.e., residences) and multiple-family (e.g., apartments or condominiums) residential use.
Zoning laws will set forth many use restrictions, such as:
• The height and overall size of buildings;
• Their proximity to one another;
• What percentage of the area of a building lot may contain structures;
• What particular kinds of facilities must be included with certain kinds of uses.
Zoning ordinances will typically limit the number of stories and total height of a building, require a certain number of parking spaces for a commercial building, and require a driveway and garage on a suburban residential property. The bulk requirements of a zoning ordinance refer to:
• The height and size restrictions on buildings including the number of stories in a building;
• The square feet of space which a building provides;
• The percentage of area it covers on a building lot;
• The minimum lot size requirements, if any.
The setback and side-yard requirements of a zoning ordinance refer to the distance between the front and back property lines and from the side property lines
.......Stage 1: - the haccp team
To fully understand the process and be able to identify all likely hazards and CCPs, it is important that the HACCP team is made up of people from a wide range of disciplines. There are a number of functions that the team must cover:
· There must be a chairman to convene the group and to direct the work of the team ensuring that the concept is properly applied. This person must be familiar with the technique, be a good listener and allow all participants to contribute.
· Someone with a detailed knowledge of the production processes (a production specialist) is required to draw up the initial flow diagrams.
· Several specialists may be involved in the team, each with an understanding of particular hazards and associated risks, e.g. a microbiologist, a chemist, a QC manager, a process engineer.
· People, such as packaging specialists, raw material buyers, distribution staff or production staff who are involved with the process, and have working knowledge of it, may be brought into the team temporarily in order to provide relevant expertise.
· The team's progress and results of the analysis should be recorded by a technical secretary.
If any changes are made to composition or operational procedures, it may be necessary to alter the CCPs or change methods of monitoring.
.......Stage 2: - describe the product
A full description of the product should be prepared. This should include information relevant to safety information, e.g. composition, physical/chemical structures of the raw materials and the final product, the amount of water available for microbial growth (aw), the amount of acid or alkalii in the product (pH); any treatments that will eliminate or reduce the level of micro-organisms such as heating, cooling, freezing, brining , smoking. Information regarding how the product is to be packaged, stored and transported should also be considered together with facts regarding its’ shelf life and recommended storage temperatures. Where appropriate labelling information and an example of the label should be included. An example of a form that can be used by the team is included in Appendix III.
.......Stage 3: - identify the products' intended use
How the product is intended to be used is an important consideration, i.e. is it to be cooked before eating? Consumers like to experiment with food so it is possible for food to be consumed raw, even when the manufacturer recommends cooking before consumption. All eventualities should be considered at this stage. Target groups in the population should be identified to whom the product may present a higher risk, e.g. the young, elderly, immuno-compromised, or pregnant women.
.......Stage 4: - the process flow diagram
The first function of the team is to draw up a detailed flow diagram of the process. The expertise of the production specialist is important at this stage. Processes will differ in detail in different plants, and an accurate flow diagram depends on detailed knowledge of the process. An example of a process flow diagram for Criol sausage is included in Appendix IV.
.......Stage 5: - on site verification of flow diagram
Upon completion of the process flow diagram (PFD), members of the team should visit the manufacturing area to compare what information is present on the PFD compared to what actually happens during production. This is known as "walking the line", a step by step practice to check that all information regarding materials, equipment, controls etc. have been taken into consideration by the team during the preparation of the process flow diagram. Aspects such as time of production, deviations caused by different shift patterns, startup, shut down, cleaning and especially night shifts should be monitored.
.......Stage 6: - identification of hazards and consider any measures required to control the identified hazards
Effective hazard identification and risk assessment are the keys to a successful HACCP. All real or potential hazards that may occur in each ingredient and at each stage of production should be considered. Potential hazards can be identified by the following means:
· Aetiological information, collected by Public Health laboratories, will provide data regarding factors known to have given rise to outbreaks of food-borne illness for particular products.
· Technical information collated on all aspects of production, raw material storage and handling, processing, storage, distribution and use of the product. This should include looking at the hygienic design of equipment and layout of the plant, hygiene and sanitation procedures in the plant, and health and hygiene of personnel.
· Complaints records; shelf-life and challenge testing; modelling; libraries; consultancy.
A list of some specific hazards that may be associated with a range of food products is included in Appendix V. The list is by no means exhaustive and should be used only as a guide. There is also a list of bibliographic references at the end of this chapter. Microbiological hazards have been listed according to severity, i.e. will they make the consumer ill or are they life threatening? The severity of hazard is based on the stringency plan in relation to degree of health hazard and conditions for use presented by the ICMSF (1986). A similar approach can be used for other hazards.
Analysis of hazards is ideally both qualitative and quantitative as it needs to provide useful information on the potential severity of risks. The risk expresses the chance of a hazard occurring and the severity relates to the magnitude of the hazard. The resources allocated to controlling the hazard will be dependent on these factors. Control measures may control more than one hazard and more than one control measure may be required to control a single hazard.
.......Stage 7: - determining ccps
All ingredients and each stage of the process are taken in turn and the relevance of each identified hazard is considered. The team must determine whether the hazard can increase at this stage or whether it can be reduced, prevented or eliminated. If the hazard can be reduced, controlled, prevented or eliminated through exerting some form of control at a particular stage, it is a CCP. A decison tree can be used to determine CCPs, and an example of the Codex decision tree is included in APPENDIX VI. However, the judgement and expertise of the HACCP team are the major factors in establishing CCP.
It is important that all CCP are controlled. When deciding on the extent to which the CCP will be monitored, a judgement of risk must be made so that a level of concern can be ascribed to it. There are four levels of concern:
(a) High concern - An expert judgement that without control there is a life threatening risk.
(b) Medium concern - An expert judgement that there is a threat to the consumer that must be controlled.
(c) Low concern - An expert judgement that there is little threat to the consumer . It may still be advantageous to control it.
(d) No concern - An expert judgement that there is no threat to the consumer.
The points where control can be exerted, but are not critical because of low risk or severity, need less control and monitoring. If a hazard can be controlled at more than one point, the most effective place to control it must be determined.
.......Stage 8: - target levels or critical limits
The team must next identify means by which to control the hazard at each CCP. These may include for example: chlorine levels in wash water; temperatures during storage, use of documented procedures. All must be documented as statements or included as specifications in operating manuals. Critical limits and target values should be stated wherever appropriate.
.......Stage 9: - monitoring procedures
Monitoring is the mechanism for confirming that processing or handling procedures at each CCP are under control. The method chosen for monitoring must be able to detect any loss of control, and to provide information early enough for corrective action to be taken and for loss of product to be avoided or minimised.
Monitoring can be carried out by observation or (although preferably continuous) by measurement on samples taken in accordance with a statistically based sampling plan. Monitoring by visual observation is basic but gives rapid results, and can therefore be acted upon quickly. It is applicable to assessment of raw materials, worker hygiene, hygiene and sanitation procedures, and processing procedures. The most common measurements taken are time, temperature and pH. For raw materials however, tests for toxins, additives, contaminants and microbiological tests may also be requested and the supplier may be required to use HACCP procedures.
......Stage 10: -corrective action
If monitoring indicates that criteria are not being met, or that the process is out of control, corrective action must be taken as soon as possible. The corrective action should take into account the worst case scenario, but must also be based on the assessment of hazards, risk and severity, and on the final use of the product.
The specific action will depend on the process. In a fruit and vegetable processing system, this may included re-washing of fruit and vegetables, altering the chlorine concentration of water, or re-cleaning of equipment. However, the traceability system must permit the quarentining of all potentially defetive product made while the critical limit was being infringed.
......Stage 11: -verification
Once the HACCP plan has been drawn up it must be reviewed before being installed, and regularly reviewed once the system is operating. This might be a task of the person within the company with the responsibility for Quality Assurance (QA), e.g QA Manager. The appropriateness of CCPs and control criteria can thus be determined, and the extent and effectiveness of monitoring can be verified. Microbiological tests can be used to confirm that the plan is in control and the product is meeting customer specifications. A formal internal auditing plan of the system will also demonstrate an ongoing commitment by the company to keeping the HACCP plan up to date, as well as representing an essential verification activity.
Ways in which the system can be verified include:
· collecting samples for analysis by a method different from the monitoring procedure
· asking questions of staff , especially CCP monitors
· observing operations at CCPs.
· formal audit by independent person
It is important to remember that the HACCP system is set up for a particular formulation of product handled and processed in a given way.
......Stage 12: -documentation
Although not specifically required by law, record keeping is an essential part of the HACCP process. It demonstrates that the correct procedures have been followed from the start to the end of the process, offering product traceability. It provides a record of compliance with the limits set, and can be used to identify problem areas. Furthermore, the documentation can be used by a company as evidence of ..."Due Diligence Defence"... required by the Food Safety Act 1990 (HMSO). An example of a control chart that can be used to summarise the HACCP plan is given in Appendix VII.
There will be documents recording the actual HACCP study, e.g. hazard identification and selection of critical limits, but the bulk of the documentation will be concerned with the monitoring of CCPs and corrective actions taken. Record keeping can be carried our in a number of ways, ranging from simple check-lists, to records and control charts. Manual and computer records are equally appropriate, but most auditors prefer to work from paper records.
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Steps to develop a better waste management plan for your business
Follow these steps to effectively manage waste in your business:
Step 1 - Measure business waste
For a quick visual waste assessment, go around to all the bins presented for collection just before the collection truck arrives and see how full they are. Don't worry if there are different sized bins; simply note down the sizes, an estimate of how full they are, and how often waste is collected.
For example, there might be a standard domestic 240L wheelie bin that is 50% full and collected once a week, thus equalling 120L of waste per week. Use the bin conversion chart (PDF, 596KB) to help determine the size of bins.
Once you have collated this information, you will know how much waste material your business produces within a given time frame.
Step 2 - Reduce waste going to landfill
Identify options to: • Reduce - can waste be avoided or reduced by the way your business obtains goods and services or by changing the way it operates? • Reuse - does another local business have a use for the waste materials you produce? • Recycle - what materials can be targeted for recycling?
Step 3 - Identify local collectors of recyclable materials
By knowing how much material your business produces over a period of time, and the types of materials that can be diverted from landfill, you can identify the most suitable waste and recycling collection contractors.
Planet Ark's business recycling directory lists private and local government recycling services (including collection, transport or drop-off points) across Queensland and Australia. You can search by type of material and location to easily find the recycling services you want.
Step 4 - Understand waste and recycling collection contracts
You should try to secure the most appropriate collection arrangement for the recoverable materials you produce. Your first contact should be your current waste service provider, who may be a private operator or the local council.
As part of investigating what can be recycled, you also need to consider what impact your waste or recycling contract arrangements are going to have on your ability to recycle. For example, if your recycling is picked up fortnightly, ensure that your recycling bin is large enough to hold 2 weeks worth of recycling or change your contract to have your bin picked up weekly.
Think about what your current contract offers and how this may affect your waste and recycling practices. Remember that a waste or recycling contract is a legal document and you may require independent legal advice.
Step 5 - Implement material collection systems at business premises
Different businesses generate different types of recoverable materials. The bins emptied into the collection truck, typically wheelie bins and bulk bins, may not be the same bins used for collecting the material around your business premises. How you separate materials in your business will be determined by how waste is collected.
For example, if you have separate paper or cardboard collection services, then paper and cardboard will need to be separated from other recyclable materials, preferably at the point where they are generated. This requires clear communication and signage to be available to staff, cleaners and, in some cases, clients.
If your business is in a strip of shops or a shopping centre with shared bins, communicate with other business owners to ensure waste is being sorted correctly.
Use signage to help your business implement an effective recycling system.
POLITICAL ISSUES
The political environment can affect a business either positively, or negatively, depending on the prevailing situation in a country. It mainly forms the external factors - which are part of the macro-environment, control of which is beyond the ability of human beings.
These factors touch on the way politics are conducted in a country, which directly reflects on what is happening within the government itself.
This means that a democratic country will accord freedom to its people to vote for a government which has their interests at heart, and thus business will thrive - owing to the good policies the government implements.
On the other hand, a dictatorial government will not earn the respect of its citizens - leading to economic as well as political instability and uncertainty.
Even though such a government will eventually go, businesses suffer a lot during the government's tenure, since they are not sure of their future. This underlines the importance of a democratic government to a country and to business.
Needless to say, once a country is stable, more investment opportunities will be realised, thus attracting more and more investors. This will reflect positively and directly on local businesses, as citizens will be able to have full confidence in them.
Business success depends on politics to a high degree, and in many ways. Politicians are usually the people controlling the operations of a government, and will decide which countries to trade with, as well as on setting the trading conditions.
This means that, if a certain business or its owners are not on good terms with the politicians, then they will suffer.
Furthermore, the rules that govern and regulate the manner in which trade is conducted are enacted by the politicians - thus good relations are needed between stakeholders in the business sector and politicians, to facilitate success.
Ag-Alternatives is a series of factsheets designed to help you evaluate the feasibility of a new agricultural or rural based business. Worksheets in each factsheet help you personalize the information.
You have an idea for a new enterprise and you've discussed the idea with your family, assessed your resources, researched the market, defined production requirements, and analysed profitability and cash flow. The enterprise looks feasible, but how do you decide whether to proceed? This factsheet, the last of seven factsheets in the Ag-Alternatives series, outlines a decision-making framework to help you focus on your decision. It also includes information on business plans. We end the series with 10 keys to success gathered from farmers who have started successful agricultural ventures.
Making the Decision
Many business people follow their intuition. They have a gut feeling that they should go ahead. It just feels right.
In all likelihood, this gut feeling is because the new enterprise is a good fit with three critical business factors: values, goals and resources.
Values are what a person considers to be important in life. Examples of business values are to develop superior products, to grow pure medicinal food, to care for the environment or to develop long-term customer relationships. What are your values? Does your business idea mesh with them?
Goals are what you want to achieve with your new business. Goals should be stated in specific, measurable and achievable terms. For example: We want to earn an extra $10,000 a year from our bed and breakfast within three years of start up.
Resources include both your personal resources (skills and abilities), your financial resources and other resources such as land, machinery and equipment.
A Decision-making Framework
Maybe you don't have that gut feeling. You're still indecisive. Here's a seven step process to help you focus your thinking. If you've worked through the six factsheets in the Ag-Alternative series, you've gone through all these steps in detail. This decision-making process is a review.
Define Your Problem
Why do you want to start a new enterprise? Is it to increase income, to bring in another family member, to utilize resources, to spread risk, to gain more control over prices, to use skills or to challenge yourself? Is there a problem with your current business? Will the new enterprise help to alleviate it?
Look at Alternatives
Think about all the different ways your business could change. Is the alternative you're considering the best one to solve the problem you've identified?
Assess Alternatives
Review your options. How will each option impact your existing operation? Consider how well the option solves your problem or achieves long-term business goals. Is there another way to look at business goals?
Select the Best Alternative
A decision-making checklist is a tool that can be especially useful when you're trying to decide between alternatives. The checklist helps you to rate alternatives based on what is important to you, your family and the business.
For example, Joe and Anita want their new venture to do four things: • increase family living income • utilize personal skills • provide a good return for the time involved • utilize resources
They are trying to decide between starting a bed and breakfast on the farm, or Anita taking an off-farm job at the hotel in town.
They've put their criteria into a chart and rated each alternative on a scale of 1 to 10. They decided each criteria was of equal weighting to their decision.
|[pic] |Bed and Breakfast |Manage Local Hotel |
|Increase family living income |5 |6 |
|Utilize personal skills |8 |6 |
|Good return from time involvement |5 |8 |
|Utilize resources |8 |3 |
|Increase time together |8 |3 |
|Reduce risk |3 |8 |
|Total |37 |34 |
This decision-making framework helped Joe and Anita look at their decision from a new perspective.
As a business team it's important to decide how to make a choice. Your decision can be made by a single person or the entire family. You could search for consensus among the group or require a majority vote. Each person must think that they have been heard so that they are comfortable in expressing concerns and opinions in the future. You want buy-in from everyone involved.
Take Action
There comes a time when you have to move ahead and make the decision. Do you go ahead, or not? If your research, ratings and analysis have helped you clearly see how the business might look and run after your decision is implemented, the image of your new business can energize your entire team. If you've done the market research and financial analysis, you are able to proceed with confidence.
To put your decision to proceed into action there are several activities you need to do. Develop an implementation plan, including a development timetable, production schedules, marketing plan, management structure and a financial plan.
Evaluate
You need a process to monitor the effectiveness of your decision. For example, Anita and Joe need to identify the impact the bed and breakfast has on their family living income, their time together and themselves due to the risk they've taken on.
Accept Responsibility
You and your business team must be prepared to accept the consequences of your decision. If the business works out, celebrate your success. If the business doesn't work out, analyse why and learn from your mistakes.
If you decide not to proceed with your business idea, don't be discouraged. It's better to find out that your business idea has some weaknesses before you invest a lot of time, energy and money. The skills you've learned through the Ag-Alternatives factsheets will be useful in other business endeavors.
Prepare a Business Development Time Line
Once you've verified that your business opportunity is right for you and made the decision to proceed, there are steps that you need to take to make your business a reality. The gathering of business information continues. Even after you've started your business there will be lots of unanswered questions. Write them down. Set out a time line to get answers to the questions.
Business Plans
A long, detailed written business plan isn't an essential component to business start-up, but it's essential that you consider the components of the plan prior to your start-up. A business plan that you develop and revise on an ongoing basis is a valuable tool. It's the process of planning that pays dividends. Most businesses fail not because of lack of motivation, but because of lack of planning.
A business plan helps you formalize the thinking and planning process. Writing a plan helps you systematically think through the steps involved in your business development. By completing a business plan you better understand the markets, costs and competitive factors that influence the future of your new business. A well thought out plan gives you increased confidence and better prepares you to obtain necessary financing and resources. Think of a business plan as a working document, one that changes, expands and shifts with the times. If you've completed the worksheets in the Ag-Alternatives series, you've already done a lot of the initial planning.
There are times when a formal business plan is a requirement. If you need a loan from a financial institution, you'll likely be asked for a business plan. The following is an outline of a business plan that Agriculture Financial Services Corporation (AFSC) recommends. Depending on your situation and your business idea, you may not need to include all the information, but the questions are all worth considering.
Executive Summary
Include a few sentences on each: • the company's goals • factors critical to the success of the company • products and services • markets and industry • management • financial position and performance (both current and projected)
The Business • What business are you in? • What are the company's goals? • What are your past achievements and strengths? • What are your past problems and current weaknesses?
Products/Services
• What is the planned output and sales mix for your products or services? • For each product or service, what is the cost and profit? • Who buys each product or service? • Are there any patents or proprietary services? • How up to date are your products or services? • What plans are there for expanding or redesigning product or service lines? • For each product or service, what changes in sales mix, cost and profit do you project? Why?
Industry Analysis • What is the size, maturity and competitive nature of the industry? • What are the barriers to entry and growth? • How does economic development affect the industry? • What is the industry's financial position and performance? • What is the role of innovation and technological change? • How is the industry affected by government regulations?
Market Analysis • What is the target market and to whom are you trying to sell? • How can you segment your target market? • What are the trends in your target market? • Who are your competitors and what is their market size, market share, competitive strengths and weaknesses, and prospects? • Who are your customers and what are their product/service preferences and reasons for purchasing? • What are your sales and profits by market segment? • What is your current and projected market share?
Marketing Strategy • What customer groups will your business target? • To generate sales, what product or service attributes will you emphasize? • What location advantage and disadvantages do you have? • What distribution channels will your business use? • What about sales personnel? • What service and warranty policies will be observed? • How will the product be priced? • Will credit be extended and under what circumstances? • How will the company advertise and otherwise promote its products or services?
Management and Organization • List the officers, shareholders and their shareholdings • What is the current and anticipated organizational structure of the business? • How do decisions actually get made? • What is the company's decision-making and management philosophy?
Implementation Plan • What actions or activities are necessary for the business to achieve its goals? • When do you need to perform each action or activity?
Potential Risk and Pitfalls • What, if any, critical risks does your business face and how can you minimize them? • What problems may hinder or prevent implementation of your business plan? • How can the business avoid or offset each of these potential problems?
Financial
• Financial statements and projections: • How will the company perform financially? Project yearly income statements for two to five years. • What will be the company's cash position? A monthly cash flow projection for the next year is required. • What will be the company's financial position? Project year-end balance sheets for the next two to five years. • What are the significant assumptions used in preparing the financial statement projections? These would include items that are sensitive to variations, deviations from historic trends or items that are especially uncertain. • Personal net worth statements of principals.
Sensitivity Analysis • How will the financial statements look if the company does as well as it possibly could? • What would the worst case financial statements look like? • What are the most likely financial projections?
Keys to Success
There are no easy answers to business success. Farmers who have started successful agricultural ventures recommend the following: 1. Choose something that you love to do. 2. Create a high quality product. 3. Start small and grow naturally. 4. Make decisions based on good records. 5. Produce what your customers want. 6. Establish a loyal customer base. 7. Provide more than just a food, product or service. Provide an experience. 8. Get the whole family or partners involved. 9. Keep informed. 10. Plan for the future. Set goals for your business and establish a plan of action to achieve them
CRITICAL RISK AND PROBLMS
|Functional orientation |Strategy |Type of risk reduced |
|Production |Use of stable enterprises |Yield, technology, policy |
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| |Use of tolerant cultivars | |
| |Diversification | |
| | |in crops | |
| | |in livestock | |
| | |within seasons | |
| | |across seasons | |
| | |across space | |
| |Maintain flexibility | |
| | |over time | |
| | |in durable assets | |
| |Keep reserves seed | |
| | |seed | |
| | |fodder | |
| |Use risk-reducing inputs | |
| |Share-leasing | |
| |Assess new technology | |
| |Seek information | |
|Marketing |Spread sales over time |Price |
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| |Arrange alternative outlets | |
| |Seek barter opportunities | |
|Financial |Maintain high equity ratio |Financial, yield, price |
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| |Maintain credit worthiness | |
| |Maintain a cash reserve | |
| |Maintain fungible assets | |
| |Maintain social network | |
| |Off-farm employment | |
Vegetable Gardens
The aim will be to produce vegetables intensively, in small or larger spaces, in the ground or in containers, as the situation allows. The establishment of vegetable gardens will also aim to ensure that families have a secure food supply, as well as to generate income to improve the participants' quality of life. Production techniques will be organic, and manure or compost will be used to fertilize soil. The types of vegetables produced will be local vegetables that are no longer farmed, but are well suited to local conditions. Other vegetables will also be identified for coastal slums with saline soil. Participants will be encouraged to prepare organically based growth media to produce vegetables not suited to these conditions. Other types of vegetables will be introduced and used, especially those that have already proven to be well suited to Haitian climates.
Positive Environmental Impacts: This activity will enhance the value of spaces and backyards that are generally underused. Growing vegetables in containers will create spaces for agricultural production. The gardens will make it possible to establish more favourable microclimates. They will also conserve local types of vegetables. Cultivation in the ground, in backyards, and on slopes will help to reduce surface run-off. The inclusion of organic matter will help water infiltration.
Adverse Environmental Impacts: The following will be monitored: the use of unsuitable soil, poor-quality organic fertilizers, and dirty irrigation water.
Small-Scale Livestock Breeding
Included in the initiative at the participants' request, this activity will involve producing poultry, rabbits, and guinea pigs. The breeding of these types of livestock is known. However, it is not widespread, due to a lack of means and technical supervision. Setting up these breeding units also aims to ensure food security and generate income for families, to improve their quality of life. Two uses are planned for the livestock: to be eaten at home and to be sold. These animals will be bred in cages, which can be stacked vertically or lined up horizontally. Production sites will be backyards or other spaces used for this purpose. The designated spaces are already available and adapted to the Haitian context. Some producers live in urban areas. Livestock will be fed with residues from food and market crops. Feed will also include domestic kitchen waste. Supplemental feed will be purchased from local feed suppliers to intensify livestock production, especially for poultry. Hillside slum dwellers will be encouraged to use small spaces on slopes to produce fodder for rabbits and guinea pigs. These types of crops will also play a role in protecting slopes.
Positive Environmental Impacts: This activity will produce manure to fertilize urban gardens. Some slaughterhouse waste will be used, such as dried blood in compost, or skins in crafts from re-usable materials. Breeding livestock in pens also has the advantage of eliminating risks of the animals destroying or deteriorating the environment.
Adverse Environmental Impacts: The following adverse effects will be averted through monitoring. Diseases and parasites can spread in poorly run breeding units and can also affect human health. Other adverse effects are the poor management of livestock wastes, and poor management of fodder crops.
Fruit-Tree Seedling and Ornamental Plant Nurseries
The nurseries will be developed in backyards or other spaces developed for this purpose. This activity aims to enable families to increase their income by selling seedlings or produce from fruit trees. This activity also aims to enhance the environment by restoring wooded and eroded areas, and by developing green spaces. Nurseries will occupy small spaces. Participants will be encouraged to grow seedlings in re-used or recycled plastic containers, in an organic growth medium prepared with manure or compost. Species will be mainly local, and will be chosen in consultation with the participants. Other already introduced and adapted species will be chosen. Vegetative reproductive techniques - such as cutting, layering, and grafting - will be used to add value to the plants produced, but also to enable production in shorter timeframes. These nurseries will focus mainly on producing fruit and ornamental plants. However, small forest production will not be ruled out if demand or interest exists. The planting of trees will be conducted by individuals with plants of their choice or by local community organizations involved in environmental improvement activities. These organizations will provide survival control for the area planted. On government lands, local organizations will develop action plans with local authorities.
Positive Environmental Impacts: These include the restoration of vegetation cover, soil protection (especially on slopes), as well as the conservation and multiplication of local species.
Adverse Environmental Impacts: The adverse effects to be monitored will be the same as for vegetable gardens, though the impact is less critical for this activity.
Composting of Household Wastes
This activity will be carried out by families and neighbourhoods, and will reduce random waste disposal on streets, in ravines and on vacant lots. Organic wastes will be recycled as compost, and some non-organic wastes will be used for craft activities. Families are expected to generate income by selling compost and craft products. Families will manage wastes by selective sorting of wastes produced at home and in the immediate neighbourhood. Organic wastes will be used to produce compost, in containers designed for this purpose in urban areas. Participants may dispose of non-organic wastes at waste collection points. At the neighbourhood level, waste management will be promoted by local organizations involved in raising community awareness of, and involvement in, selective sorting of household wastes. Compost produced will be used in vegetable gardens, in nurseries, and for other plants. Compost will also be sold on the local market for this purpose.
Positive Environmental Impacts: This activity will improve the sanitation of the areas of intervention, and thus of the cities of intervention. Communities will change their habits, once they become aware of, and effectively involved in, improving the urban environment. Groundwater, soil, and coastal pollution will greatly decrease. The production of compost will play a definite role in soil improvement and the improvement of agricultural production.
Adverse Environmental Impacts: This activity will be monitored to ensure that the composting process produces compost that is contaminant-free. Environmental nuisances must also be prevented in installing the neighbourhood composting unit.
Small Recycled-Craft Workshops
This activity will use iron, glass, plastic, and paper to make decorative craft items, handy household items, or Haitian art (e.g. papier-mâché masks and fruits, paintings, pottery, toys). These products will be sold, creating jobs and generating household income.
Positive Environmental Impacts: Less non-organic waste will be disposed at dump sites and this waste will be valued more. This will make recycling easier in communities, and therefore in urban areas.
Adverse Environmental Impacts: Monitoring will be related to the work methods and techniques for producing craft items in small workshops. These methods must protect the health of participants and avoid pollution.
Workshops for Processing Agricultural Produce
This activity will process mainly fruits and vegetables bought on the market during the harvesting season. These will be sun-dried or cooked on improved kerosene stoves, or energy-efficient charcoal stoves. The resulting products will be sold on the local market to generate household income. Organic wastes will be recycled in composting units, or in small-scale livestock breeding units. The water used to wash fruit and vegetables will be recycled to irrigate vegetable gardens.
Positive Environmental Impacts: This activity will enhance the value of highly perishable agricultural produce (fruit and vegetables). Organic wastes will be recycled to produce compost, or feed for small livestock. Wastewater will be recycled to produce plants.
Adverse Environmental Impacts: Monitoring will be related to the work methods and techniques for processing produce in workshops. These methods must protect the health of participants and consumers. They must also prevent pollution.
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D) Measures to Mitigate and Monitor Adverse Environmental Impacts
For vegetable gardens, the use of unsuitable soil, poor-quality organic fertilizers, and dirty irrigation water must be monitored. Training for participants includes sessions covering these issues. Participants can then control these issues themselves. The various themes that will be discussed include soil selection criteria for vegetable production in the ground and in containers, production of contaminant-free compost and manure, and the selection of water to irrigate vegetables safely. In the latter case, wastewater recycling and rainwater harvesting will be discussed to avoid any misuse. Prerequisites are defined for setting up vegetable gardens and will be checked with all participants for the particular space they plan to cultivate. Staff will visit and accept sites before providing equipment to begin setting up the garden. Prerequisites defined include prior land use (for in-ground production), soil source for container gardens, and water source and availability. Hands-on training in composting will enable participants to gain an understanding of how to produce compost. Furthermore, for this activity, participants will sort household wastes at home and thus bring the waste needed to practise composting. These measures are already being practised through the Pilot Urban Gardening Initiative.
For small-scale livestock breeding units, breeding units must be well run and monitored to ensure that diseases and parasites do not spread and negatively affect human health. Monitoring will also help to ensure the proper management of wastes produced by these units and the sound management of fodder crops. Participants will be trained to manage the breeding units they have chosen to start up, and to produce and use fodder crops. Planned prerequisites for developing a breeding unit include access to water (availability, source) and availability of space. The size of herds, flocks or colonies will be based on the breeding guidelines of the selected species and on the producer's means (space, access to water, access to feed, availability of labour). The design of the breeding units will take into account the management of the wastes produced. Droppings will be collected and transformed into manure, or incorporated in the production of compost. There will not be much slaughterhouse waste, considering Haitian patterns of food preparation and consumption (e.g. internal organs are eaten, as is skin, after singeing and scraping off hair). Blood may be collected in the case where many animals are slaughtered and then used for food (such as blood pudding) or to prepare dried blood. Where available, some slaughterhouse wastes (such as rabbit or guinea pig skins) may be used in other production chains, if the producer does not scrape them for food. Poultry feathers may be used in making crafts. Diseases and parasites will be controlled by training participants to manage the breeding of selected types of livestock (through veterinary care and hygienic slaughter methods). They will also be controlled through access to health prevention and veterinary treatment services. This will be done in collaboration with the Animal Production Services of the Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, and other agencies working in this field, such as VETERIMED, a non-governmental organization, or the Inter-American Institute for Cooperation on Agriculture (IICA).
For fruit-tree seedling and ornamental plant nurseries, and for the planting of trees, the same measures will be applied as for vegetable gardens.
For household waste composting, monitoring of the composting process must ensure that the resulting product is contaminant-free and prevent environmental nuisances when neighbourhood composting units are installed. The composting training developed in the Pilot Urban Gardening Initiative focuses on the importance of sorting household wastes and proposes practices in this regard. This will continue in the Urban Agriculture Initiative. Production methods will be discussed with participants. For neighbourhood composting, which involves production on a larger scale, the local organizations will have access to coaching in setting up small production units. This coaching will consider the selection of the composting site and production methods. In this regard, a consultant's services will be needed to evaluate production sites proposed by local organizations. The Pilot Urban Gardening Initiative has already referred to the services of a sanitary engineering consultant to study the feasibility of this activity for four local organizations. The Urban Agriculture Initiative will follow the same approach. Compost produced will be quality-controlled on a regular basis. Laboratory analyses will track and quantify the presence of contaminants. The Urban Gardening Initiative has already used the services of the Centre de Recherche Industrielle du Québec (CRIQ) [Quebec industrial research centre] for this purpose. The Urban Agriculture Initiative will do likewise, until Haitian laboratories are set up for this type of analysis. The Faculty of Agronomy and Veterinary Medicine (FAMV) and the Faculty of Sciences are working on this. The FAMV of Université Quisqueya (UNIQ), and the Agricultural Research and Documentation Centre (CRDA), are expected to provide support in carrying out applied research in compost production.
For small recycled-craft workshops, the adverse environmental impacts to be monitored are related to the work methods and techniques for producing craft items in small workshops. These methods must protect the health of participants and avoid pollution. Attention will focus primarily on the protective equipment needed to work safely in a healthy, well-aired environment. The choice of production techniques will also be based on work already done by the National Office for Handicrafts (ONART).
For workshops processing agricultural produce, monitoring will relate to the work methods and techniques for processing produce in workshops. These methods must protect the health of participants and consumers. They must also prevent pollution. Participants will be trained in environmentally friendly processing techniques and practices, hygiene in preparing produce, and the nutritional value of produce used. Attention will focus on equipping workshops to ensure product health and quality. Contacts will be made with local organizations that have developed several traditional fruit and vegetable processing techniques in Haiti. They include the Congrégation des Petits Frères et Soeurs de Sainte-Thérèse, the Ferme des Rochelois and the Papaya Centre in the Central Plateau.
In Port-au-Prince, the key environmental risks associated with natural disasters that may influence the Urban Agriculture Initiative's activities are surface run-off and landslides in periods of heavy rain and hurricanes. However, when hurricane Georges struck, minimal damage was reported to the Urban Gardening Initiative's activities. In Gonaïves, flooding is mostly of concern during rainy, stormy, or hurricane seasons. Participants in the Urban Gardening Initiative in these areas got around this problem by developing their gardens mainly on piles and hard roofs. Apart from the initiative discussed here, drainage works in some neighbourhoods have diminished the effect of this problem.
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E) Conclusion
After reviewing the proposed activities, staff are convinced that the implementation of this initiative would have no adverse effects on the biophysical and human environment in the areas of intervention. On the contrary, the initiative was designed with the participation of slum community representatives to gain a good understanding of how to improve the living conditions of families in these slums. Environmental management of Haiti's urban areas is not simply an objective of the Urban Agriculture Initiative.
It is also a basic guideline in planning the initiative. Controlling and monitoring environmental effects, as well as the effectiveness of the Urban Agriculture Initiative's mitigation measures, will form an integral part of the system for monitoring and evaluating the activities to be promoted. The initiative's progress and evaluation reports will systematically discuss these elements.
Zoning Ordinances and Regulations
Zoning ordinances and regulations are laws that define and restrict how you can use your property. Cities, counties, townships, and other local governments adopt zoning plans in order to set development standards to assure that land is used for the common good.
Why Zoning Is Such a Big Issue
Zoning laws come into play on every single real estate development, regardless of how big or small, so if you are thinking about buying property or making improvements to property you already own, you’d better be sure you understand the zoning restrictions before you commit to anything. One zoning use is typically not compatible with another. For example, a commercial building usually cannot be constructed on property that’s zoned for residential uses.
If you buy open ground to build your dream house that is in an agricultural zone, you may not be able to build it without a change in the zoning. Getting the zoning changed on property is a very difficult process. It requires a process of giving public notice and then having a variance approved by government agencies that oversee enforcement of the zoning plan. Opposition to zoning changes by neighbors and other interested parties can be fierce.
You can find out how property is zoned by calling your local planning department. They can also explain what you would need to do to get a variance. Before getting too involved in a zoning issue, it would no doubt be in your best interests to hire a local land use attorney to help you through the process.
Zoning Restrictions
Use requirements refer to how property can be used. Typical zonings categories include:
• Residential
• Commercial
• Industrial
• Agricultural
• Recreational
These categories usually break down into further subcategories. For example, there are subcategories for single-family (i.e., residences) and multiple-family (e.g., apartments or condominiums) residential use.
Zoning laws will set forth many use restrictions, such as:
• The height and overall size of buildings;
• Their proximity to one another;
• What percentage of the area of a building lot may contain structures;
• What particular kinds of facilities must be included with certain kinds of uses.
Zoning ordinances will typically limit the number of stories and total height of a building, require a certain number of parking spaces for a commercial building, and require a driveway and garage on a suburban residential property. The bulk requirements of a zoning ordinance refer to:
• The height and size restrictions on buildings including the number of stories in a building;
• The square feet of space which a building provides;
• The percentage of area it covers on a building lot;
• The minimum lot size requirements, if any.
The setback and side-yard requirements of a zoning ordinance refer to the distance between the front and back property lines and from the side property lines
.......Stage 1: - the haccp team
To fully understand the process and be able to identify all likely hazards and CCPs, it is important that the HACCP team is made up of people from a wide range of disciplines. There are a number of functions that the team must cover:
· There must be a chairman to convene the group and to direct the work of the team ensuring that the concept is properly applied. This person must be familiar with the technique, be a good listener and allow all participants to contribute.
· Someone with a detailed knowledge of the production processes (a production specialist) is required to draw up the initial flow diagrams.
· Several specialists may be involved in the team, each with an understanding of particular hazards and associated risks, e.g. a microbiologist, a chemist, a QC manager, a process engineer.
· People, such as packaging specialists, raw material buyers, distribution staff or production staff who are involved with the process, and have working knowledge of it, may be brought into the team temporarily in order to provide relevant expertise.
· The team's progress and results of the analysis should be recorded by a technical secretary.
If any changes are made to composition or operational procedures, it may be necessary to alter the CCPs or change methods of monitoring.
.......Stage 2: - describe the product
A full description of the product should be prepared. This should include information relevant to safety information, e.g. composition, physical/chemical structures of the raw materials and the final product, the amount of water available for microbial growth (aw), the amount of acid or alkalii in the product (pH); any treatments that will eliminate or reduce the level of micro-organisms such as heating, cooling, freezing, brining , smoking. Information regarding how the product is to be packaged, stored and transported should also be considered together with facts regarding its’ shelf life and recommended storage temperatures. Where appropriate labelling information and an example of the label should be included. An example of a form that can be used by the team is included in Appendix III.
.......Stage 3: - identify the products' intended use
How the product is intended to be used is an important consideration, i.e. is it to be cooked before eating? Consumers like to experiment with food so it is possible for food to be consumed raw, even when the manufacturer recommends cooking before consumption. All eventualities should be considered at this stage. Target groups in the population should be identified to whom the product may present a higher risk, e.g. the young, elderly, immuno-compromised, or pregnant women.
.......Stage 4: - the process flow diagram
The first function of the team is to draw up a detailed flow diagram of the process. The expertise of the production specialist is important at this stage. Processes will differ in detail in different plants, and an accurate flow diagram depends on detailed knowledge of the process. An example of a process flow diagram for Criol sausage is included in Appendix IV.
.......Stage 5: - on site verification of flow diagram
Upon completion of the process flow diagram (PFD), members of the team should visit the manufacturing area to compare what information is present on the PFD compared to what actually happens during production. This is known as "walking the line", a step by step practice to check that all information regarding materials, equipment, controls etc. have been taken into consideration by the team during the preparation of the process flow diagram. Aspects such as time of production, deviations caused by different shift patterns, startup, shut down, cleaning and especially night shifts should be monitored.
.......Stage 6: - identification of hazards and consider any measures required to control the identified hazards
Effective hazard identification and risk assessment are the keys to a successful HACCP. All real or potential hazards that may occur in each ingredient and at each stage of production should be considered. Potential hazards can be identified by the following means:
· Aetiological information, collected by Public Health laboratories, will provide data regarding factors known to have given rise to outbreaks of food-borne illness for particular products.
· Technical information collated on all aspects of production, raw material storage and handling, processing, storage, distribution and use of the product. This should include looking at the hygienic design of equipment and layout of the plant, hygiene and sanitation procedures in the plant, and health and hygiene of personnel.
· Complaints records; shelf-life and challenge testing; modelling; libraries; consultancy.
A list of some specific hazards that may be associated with a range of food products is included in Appendix V. The list is by no means exhaustive and should be used only as a guide. There is also a list of bibliographic references at the end of this chapter. Microbiological hazards have been listed according to severity, i.e. will they make the consumer ill or are they life threatening? The severity of hazard is based on the stringency plan in relation to degree of health hazard and conditions for use presented by the ICMSF (1986). A similar approach can be used for other hazards.
Analysis of hazards is ideally both qualitative and quantitative as it needs to provide useful information on the potential severity of risks. The risk expresses the chance of a hazard occurring and the severity relates to the magnitude of the hazard. The resources allocated to controlling the hazard will be dependent on these factors. Control measures may control more than one hazard and more than one control measure may be required to control a single hazard.
.......Stage 7: - determining ccps
All ingredients and each stage of the process are taken in turn and the relevance of each identified hazard is considered. The team must determine whether the hazard can increase at this stage or whether it can be reduced, prevented or eliminated. If the hazard can be reduced, controlled, prevented or eliminated through exerting some form of control at a particular stage, it is a CCP. A decison tree can be used to determine CCPs, and an example of the Codex decision tree is included in APPENDIX VI. However, the judgement and expertise of the HACCP team are the major factors in establishing CCP.
It is important that all CCP are controlled. When deciding on the extent to which the CCP will be monitored, a judgement of risk must be made so that a level of concern can be ascribed to it. There are four levels of concern:
(a) High concern - An expert judgement that without control there is a life threatening risk.
(b) Medium concern - An expert judgement that there is a threat to the consumer that must be controlled.
(c) Low concern - An expert judgement that there is little threat to the consumer . It may still be advantageous to control it.
(d) No concern - An expert judgement that there is no threat to the consumer.
The points where control can be exerted, but are not critical because of low risk or severity, need less control and monitoring. If a hazard can be controlled at more than one point, the most effective place to control it must be determined.
.......Stage 8: - target levels or critical limits
The team must next identify means by which to control the hazard at each CCP. These may include for example: chlorine levels in wash water; temperatures during storage, use of documented procedures. All must be documented as statements or included as specifications in operating manuals. Critical limits and target values should be stated wherever appropriate.
.......Stage 9: - monitoring procedures
Monitoring is the mechanism for confirming that processing or handling procedures at each CCP are under control. The method chosen for monitoring must be able to detect any loss of control, and to provide information early enough for corrective action to be taken and for loss of product to be avoided or minimised.
Monitoring can be carried out by observation or (although preferably continuous) by measurement on samples taken in accordance with a statistically based sampling plan. Monitoring by visual observation is basic but gives rapid results, and can therefore be acted upon quickly. It is applicable to assessment of raw materials, worker hygiene, hygiene and sanitation procedures, and processing procedures. The most common measurements taken are time, temperature and pH. For raw materials however, tests for toxins, additives, contaminants and microbiological tests may also be requested and the supplier may be required to use HACCP procedures.
......Stage 10: -corrective action
If monitoring indicates that criteria are not being met, or that the process is out of control, corrective action must be taken as soon as possible. The corrective action should take into account the worst case scenario, but must also be based on the assessment of hazards, risk and severity, and on the final use of the product.
The specific action will depend on the process. In a fruit and vegetable processing system, this may included re-washing of fruit and vegetables, altering the chlorine concentration of water, or re-cleaning of equipment. However, the traceability system must permit the quarentining of all potentially defetive product made while the critical limit was being infringed.
......Stage 11: -verification
Once the HACCP plan has been drawn up it must be reviewed before being installed, and regularly reviewed once the system is operating. This might be a task of the person within the company with the responsibility for Quality Assurance (QA), e.g QA Manager. The appropriateness of CCPs and control criteria can thus be determined, and the extent and effectiveness of monitoring can be verified. Microbiological tests can be used to confirm that the plan is in control and the product is meeting customer specifications. A formal internal auditing plan of the system will also demonstrate an ongoing commitment by the company to keeping the HACCP plan up to date, as well as representing an essential verification activity.
Ways in which the system can be verified include:
· collecting samples for analysis by a method different from the monitoring procedure
· asking questions of staff , especially CCP monitors
· observing operations at CCPs.
· formal audit by independent person
It is important to remember that the HACCP system is set up for a particular formulation of product handled and processed in a given way.
......Stage 12: -documentation
Although not specifically required by law, record keeping is an essential part of the HACCP process. It demonstrates that the correct procedures have been followed from the start to the end of the process, offering product traceability. It provides a record of compliance with the limits set, and can be used to identify problem areas. Furthermore, the documentation can be used by a company as evidence of ..."Due Diligence Defence"... required by the Food Safety Act 1990 (HMSO). An example of a control chart that can be used to summarise the HACCP plan is given in Appendix VII.
There will be documents recording the actual HACCP study, e.g. hazard identification and selection of critical limits, but the bulk of the documentation will be concerned with the monitoring of CCPs and corrective actions taken. Record keeping can be carried our in a number of ways, ranging from simple check-lists, to records and control charts. Manual and computer records are equally appropriate, but most auditors prefer to work from paper records.
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Steps to develop a better waste management plan for your business
Follow these steps to effectively manage waste in your business:
Step 1 - Measure business waste
For a quick visual waste assessment, go around to all the bins presented for collection just before the collection truck arrives and see how full they are. Don't worry if there are different sized bins; simply note down the sizes, an estimate of how full they are, and how often waste is collected.
For example, there might be a standard domestic 240L wheelie bin that is 50% full and collected once a week, thus equalling 120L of waste per week. Use the bin conversion chart (PDF, 596KB) to help determine the size of bins.
Once you have collated this information, you will know how much waste material your business produces within a given time frame.
Step 2 - Reduce waste going to landfill
Identify options to: • Reduce - can waste be avoided or reduced by the way your business obtains goods and services or by changing the way it operates? • Reuse - does another local business have a use for the waste materials you produce? • Recycle - what materials can be targeted for recycling?
Step 3 - Identify local collectors of recyclable materials
By knowing how much material your business produces over a period of time, and the types of materials that can be diverted from landfill, you can identify the most suitable waste and recycling collection contractors.
Planet Ark's business recycling directory lists private and local government recycling services (including collection, transport or drop-off points) across Queensland and Australia. You can search by type of material and location to easily find the recycling services you want.
Step 4 - Understand waste and recycling collection contracts
You should try to secure the most appropriate collection arrangement for the recoverable materials you produce. Your first contact should be your current waste service provider, who may be a private operator or the local council.
As part of investigating what can be recycled, you also need to consider what impact your waste or recycling contract arrangements are going to have on your ability to recycle. For example, if your recycling is picked up fortnightly, ensure that your recycling bin is large enough to hold 2 weeks worth of recycling or change your contract to have your bin picked up weekly.
Think about what your current contract offers and how this may affect your waste and recycling practices. Remember that a waste or recycling contract is a legal document and you may require independent legal advice.
Step 5 - Implement material collection systems at business premises
Different businesses generate different types of recoverable materials. The bins emptied into the collection truck, typically wheelie bins and bulk bins, may not be the same bins used for collecting the material around your business premises. How you separate materials in your business will be determined by how waste is collected.
For example, if you have separate paper or cardboard collection services, then paper and cardboard will need to be separated from other recyclable materials, preferably at the point where they are generated. This requires clear communication and signage to be available to staff, cleaners and, in some cases, clients.
If your business is in a strip of shops or a shopping centre with shared bins, communicate with other business owners to ensure waste is being sorted correctly.
Use signage to help your business implement an effective recycling system.
POLITICAL ISSUES
The political environment can affect a business either positively, or negatively, depending on the prevailing situation in a country. It mainly forms the external factors - which are part of the macro-environment, control of which is beyond the ability of human beings.
These factors touch on the way politics are conducted in a country, which directly reflects on what is happening within the government itself.
This means that a democratic country will accord freedom to its people to vote for a government which has their interests at heart, and thus business will thrive - owing to the good policies the government implements.
On the other hand, a dictatorial government will not earn the respect of its citizens - leading to economic as well as political instability and uncertainty.
Even though such a government will eventually go, businesses suffer a lot during the government's tenure, since they are not sure of their future. This underlines the importance of a democratic government to a country and to business.
Needless to say, once a country is stable, more investment opportunities will be realised, thus attracting more and more investors. This will reflect positively and directly on local businesses, as citizens will be able to have full confidence in them.
Business success depends on politics to a high degree, and in many ways. Politicians are usually the people controlling the operations of a government, and will decide which countries to trade with, as well as on setting the trading conditions.
This means that, if a certain business or its owners are not on good terms with the politicians, then they will suffer.
Furthermore, the rules that govern and regulate the manner in which trade is conducted are enacted by the politicians - thus good relations are needed between stakeholders in the business sector and politicians, to facilitate success.
Ag-Alternatives is a series of factsheets designed to help you evaluate the feasibility of a new agricultural or rural based business. Worksheets in each factsheet help you personalize the information.
You have an idea for a new enterprise and you've discussed the idea with your family, assessed your resources, researched the market, defined production requirements, and analysed profitability and cash flow. The enterprise looks feasible, but how do you decide whether to proceed? This factsheet, the last of seven factsheets in the Ag-Alternatives series, outlines a decision-making framework to help you focus on your decision. It also includes information on business plans. We end the series with 10 keys to success gathered from farmers who have started successful agricultural ventures.
Making the Decision
Many business people follow their intuition. They have a gut feeling that they should go ahead. It just feels right.
In all likelihood, this gut feeling is because the new enterprise is a good fit with three critical business factors: values, goals and resources.
Values are what a person considers to be important in life. Examples of business values are to develop superior products, to grow pure medicinal food, to care for the environment or to develop long-term customer relationships. What are your values? Does your business idea mesh with them?
Goals are what you want to achieve with your new business. Goals should be stated in specific, measurable and achievable terms. For example: We want to earn an extra $10,000 a year from our bed and breakfast within three years of start up.
Resources include both your personal resources (skills and abilities), your financial resources and other resources such as land, machinery and equipment.
A Decision-making Framework
Maybe you don't have that gut feeling. You're still indecisive. Here's a seven step process to help you focus your thinking. If you've worked through the six factsheets in the Ag-Alternative series, you've gone through all these steps in detail. This decision-making process is a review.
Define Your Problem
Why do you want to start a new enterprise? Is it to increase income, to bring in another family member, to utilize resources, to spread risk, to gain more control over prices, to use skills or to challenge yourself? Is there a problem with your current business? Will the new enterprise help to alleviate it?
Look at Alternatives
Think about all the different ways your business could change. Is the alternative you're considering the best one to solve the problem you've identified?
Assess Alternatives
Review your options. How will each option impact your existing operation? Consider how well the option solves your problem or achieves long-term business goals. Is there another way to look at business goals?
Select the Best Alternative
A decision-making checklist is a tool that can be especially useful when you're trying to decide between alternatives. The checklist helps you to rate alternatives based on what is important to you, your family and the business.
For example, Joe and Anita want their new venture to do four things: • increase family living income • utilize personal skills • provide a good return for the time involved • utilize resources
They are trying to decide between starting a bed and breakfast on the farm, or Anita taking an off-farm job at the hotel in town.
They've put their criteria into a chart and rated each alternative on a scale of 1 to 10. They decided each criteria was of equal weighting to their decision.
|[pic] |Bed and Breakfast |Manage Local Hotel |
|Increase family living income |5 |6 |
|Utilize personal skills |8 |6 |
|Good return from time involvement |5 |8 |
|Utilize resources |8 |3 |
|Increase time together |8 |3 |
|Reduce risk |3 |8 |
|Total |37 |34 |
This decision-making framework helped Joe and Anita look at their decision from a new perspective.
As a business team it's important to decide how to make a choice. Your decision can be made by a single person or the entire family. You could search for consensus among the group or require a majority vote. Each person must think that they have been heard so that they are comfortable in expressing concerns and opinions in the future. You want buy-in from everyone involved.
Take Action
There comes a time when you have to move ahead and make the decision. Do you go ahead, or not? If your research, ratings and analysis have helped you clearly see how the business might look and run after your decision is implemented, the image of your new business can energize your entire team. If you've done the market research and financial analysis, you are able to proceed with confidence.
To put your decision to proceed into action there are several activities you need to do. Develop an implementation plan, including a development timetable, production schedules, marketing plan, management structure and a financial plan.
Evaluate
You need a process to monitor the effectiveness of your decision. For example, Anita and Joe need to identify the impact the bed and breakfast has on their family living income, their time together and themselves due to the risk they've taken on.
Accept Responsibility
You and your business team must be prepared to accept the consequences of your decision. If the business works out, celebrate your success. If the business doesn't work out, analyse why and learn from your mistakes.
If you decide not to proceed with your business idea, don't be discouraged. It's better to find out that your business idea has some weaknesses before you invest a lot of time, energy and money. The skills you've learned through the Ag-Alternatives factsheets will be useful in other business endeavors.
Prepare a Business Development Time Line
Once you've verified that your business opportunity is right for you and made the decision to proceed, there are steps that you need to take to make your business a reality. The gathering of business information continues. Even after you've started your business there will be lots of unanswered questions. Write them down. Set out a time line to get answers to the questions.
Business Plans
A long, detailed written business plan isn't an essential component to business start-up, but it's essential that you consider the components of the plan prior to your start-up. A business plan that you develop and revise on an ongoing basis is a valuable tool. It's the process of planning that pays dividends. Most businesses fail not because of lack of motivation, but because of lack of planning.
A business plan helps you formalize the thinking and planning process. Writing a plan helps you systematically think through the steps involved in your business development. By completing a business plan you better understand the markets, costs and competitive factors that influence the future of your new business. A well thought out plan gives you increased confidence and better prepares you to obtain necessary financing and resources. Think of a business plan as a working document, one that changes, expands and shifts with the times. If you've completed the worksheets in the Ag-Alternatives series, you've already done a lot of the initial planning.
There are times when a formal business plan is a requirement. If you need a loan from a financial institution, you'll likely be asked for a business plan. The following is an outline of a business plan that Agriculture Financial Services Corporation (AFSC) recommends. Depending on your situation and your business idea, you may not need to include all the information, but the questions are all worth considering.
Executive Summary
Include a few sentences on each: • the company's goals • factors critical to the success of the company • products and services • markets and industry • management • financial position and performance (both current and projected)
The Business • What business are you in? • What are the company's goals? • What are your past achievements and strengths? • What are your past problems and current weaknesses?
Products/Services
• What is the planned output and sales mix for your products or services? • For each product or service, what is the cost and profit? • Who buys each product or service? • Are there any patents or proprietary services? • How up to date are your products or services? • What plans are there for expanding or redesigning product or service lines? • For each product or service, what changes in sales mix, cost and profit do you project? Why?
Industry Analysis • What is the size, maturity and competitive nature of the industry? • What are the barriers to entry and growth? • How does economic development affect the industry? • What is the industry's financial position and performance? • What is the role of innovation and technological change? • How is the industry affected by government regulations?
Market Analysis • What is the target market and to whom are you trying to sell? • How can you segment your target market? • What are the trends in your target market? • Who are your competitors and what is their market size, market share, competitive strengths and weaknesses, and prospects? • Who are your customers and what are their product/service preferences and reasons for purchasing? • What are your sales and profits by market segment? • What is your current and projected market share?
Marketing Strategy • What customer groups will your business target? • To generate sales, what product or service attributes will you emphasize? • What location advantage and disadvantages do you have? • What distribution channels will your business use? • What about sales personnel? • What service and warranty policies will be observed? • How will the product be priced? • Will credit be extended and under what circumstances? • How will the company advertise and otherwise promote its products or services?
Management and Organization • List the officers, shareholders and their shareholdings • What is the current and anticipated organizational structure of the business? • How do decisions actually get made? • What is the company's decision-making and management philosophy?
Implementation Plan • What actions or activities are necessary for the business to achieve its goals? • When do you need to perform each action or activity?
Potential Risk and Pitfalls • What, if any, critical risks does your business face and how can you minimize them? • What problems may hinder or prevent implementation of your business plan? • How can the business avoid or offset each of these potential problems?
Financial
• Financial statements and projections: • How will the company perform financially? Project yearly income statements for two to five years. • What will be the company's cash position? A monthly cash flow projection for the next year is required. • What will be the company's financial position? Project year-end balance sheets for the next two to five years. • What are the significant assumptions used in preparing the financial statement projections? These would include items that are sensitive to variations, deviations from historic trends or items that are especially uncertain. • Personal net worth statements of principals.
Sensitivity Analysis • How will the financial statements look if the company does as well as it possibly could? • What would the worst case financial statements look like? • What are the most likely financial projections?
Keys to Success
There are no easy answers to business success. Farmers who have started successful agricultural ventures recommend the following: 1. Choose something that you love to do. 2. Create a high quality product. 3. Start small and grow naturally. 4. Make decisions based on good records. 5. Produce what your customers want. 6. Establish a loyal customer base. 7. Provide more than just a food, product or service. Provide an experience. 8. Get the whole family or partners involved. 9. Keep informed. 10. Plan for the future. Set goals for your business and establish a plan of action to achieve them
CRITICAL RISK AND PROBLMS
|Functional orientation |Strategy |Type of risk reduced |
|Production |Use of stable enterprises |Yield, technology, policy |
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| |Use of tolerant cultivars | |
| |Diversification | |
| | |in crops | |
| | |in livestock | |
| | |within seasons | |
| | |across seasons | |
| | |across space | |
| |Maintain flexibility | |
| | |over time | |
| | |in durable assets | |
| |Keep reserves seed | |
| | |seed | |
| | |fodder | |
| |Use risk-reducing inputs | |
| |Share-leasing | |
| |Assess new technology | |
| |Seek information | |
|Marketing |Spread sales over time |Price |
| | | |
| |Arrange alternative outlets | |
| |Seek barter opportunities | |
|Financial |Maintain high equity ratio |Financial, yield, price |
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| |Maintain credit worthiness | |
| |Maintain a cash reserve | |
| |Maintain fungible assets | |
| |Maintain social network | |
| |Off-farm employment | |
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