African History Study Guide

IDs (Choice of 10, 4 points each)

Brazzaville Conference
-1944
-the move to Decolonization: the French case (after the fall of France during WWII)
Charles de Gaulle recognized need to revise relationship between France and its colonies in Africa (conference arranged to bring political, social, and economic reforms)
-created the Brazzaville Declaration (French Empire would remain the same/united, new colonial assemblies, citizens of colonies have equal rights, right to vote + parliamentary representative, reduction in economic exploitation) Félix Houphouët-Boigny
-1st president of C d’lvoire. He played a leading role in the decolonization of Africa. He is associated with the “Ivorian Miracle” which was economic success in result of cocoa and coffee developments. Also known as “The Sage of Africa”.
-1946: he formed the political party Rassemblement Démocratique Africain
- the move to Decolonization: the French case
-1st president of Côte d’Ivoire (Ivory coast)
-sought to create unity in West Africa against the French
-advocated a nation-state model for decolonization and working toward independence Sekou Touré
-1958: ultimatum by Charles de Gaulle (yes or no to stay with France)
-the move to Decolonization: the french case
-only Guinea chose independence and left
-Sekou Touré was the important person who first embraced independence (1st president of Guinea)
-this lead to 13 French African colonies to become independent in 1960 “Year of Africa”
-1960
-following Guinea’s independence, 13 French colonies became independent
-Cote d’Ivoire, Mali, Senegal, Cameroon, Congo-Brazzaville, Gabon, Central African Republic, Chad, Mauritania, Togo, Burkina Faso, Niger, Benin
- illustrates the domino effect of decolonization
-pressures of Algeria (the French were focussed on keeping Algeria)

Frantz Fanon

-Black psychiatrist from Martinique (French West Indies)
-The Wretched of the Earth (1961)
-Psychological oppression of colonialism required violent revolution
- an intellectual who supported the Algerian struggle for independence
-Fanon identified the two challenges of postcolonial independence 1.Maintaining political and economic autonomy/sovereignty from the West 2.Addressing the interests of peasants and workers who formed the basis of anti-colonial nationalism
-A famous quote of his: “The acceptance of a nominal sovereignty and the absolute refusal of real independence – such is the typical reaction of colonialist nations with respect to their former colonies.”

Algerian Revolution
-1830s French colonized Algeria violently and would not grant independence
-liberation struggle began in 1954 and independence achieved in 1962, Ahmed Ben Bella became president following independence
-terrorism tactics made by the French and the FLN(National Liberation Front - Algerian organized socialist political party) with civilian targets

Kwame Nkrumah

-founded the Convention People’s Party in 1949
-Educated in US
-Attended 1945 Pan-African Congress
-1950: Positive Action Campaign - civil disobedience
-Influenced by Marcus Garvey and DuBois
-believed in first political power and then focusing on economic/social problems
-Declared himself life president of Ghana in 1964, his government was overthrown in 1966 by a CIA backed coup while he was in China -1st Prime Minister of Ghana before becoming 1st president

Neo-colonialism
-world superpowers’ refusal to accept real independence
-former colonialists grant former colonies everything except economic independence
-benefits and targets middle class and intellectuals
-Important to note that the Western powers had by this point become economically dependent on colonies therefore it was difficult not to try and continue to control that asset

Mau Mau Revolt
-1952-1960
-Kenya Kikuyu-based conflict over land in Central Highlands
-best land was reserved for whites (no malaria, great land)
-Kikuyu had very few square miles of land with many settlers and they worked as farm workers and tenants
-Kikuyu Central Association planned disobedience
-Kenya Africa Union (once loyal to British/now anti-colonialism) took a pro-independence stance under Jomo Kenyatta
-many arrested, detention camps, re-villagization, many deaths and hangings
-Independence gained in 1963
-Local grievance over land and labor spurred national movement!! Jomo Kenyatta
-Served as the president of Kenya 1964-1978
-considered the founding father of the Kenyan nation
-1952-1960
-leader of Kenya Africa Union fighting for pro independence in Mau Mau Revolt
-Kenya Kikuyu-based conflict over land in Central Highlands
-best land was reserved for whites (no malaria, great land)
-Kikuyu had very few square miles of land with many settlers and they worked as farm workers and tenants
-Kikuyu Central Association planned disobedience
-Kenya Africa Union (once loyal to British/now anti-colonialism) took a pro-independence stance
-many arrested, detention camps, re-villagization, many deaths and hangs
-Independence gained in 1963
-Local grievance over land and labor spurred national movement!!

ANC Youth League
-1950, Mandela became president
-a product of the resurgence of black activism during the 1950s
-Mandela, Sisulu, Tambo, Anton Lembede (Founder)
-created in 1944

Sauer Report
-1947 report that said the future of South Africa should be built on apartheid
-emphasized the maintenance of racial purity and separate development
-however there existed tension between “political segregation” and “economic integration” where the paradox was that there was still a dependence on black labor though there was a desire for social segregation

“total segregation” versus “practical apartheid” WHAT DO YOU MEAN BY SHORT TERM VERSUS LONG TERM
-long-term vs short -term 1 “practical” – short term apartheid measures a Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act – 1949 b Immorality Act – 1950 c Population Registration Act – 1950 d Suppression of Communism Act – 1950 e Reservation of Separate Amenities Act – 1953
2. “total segregation” long term apartheid measures a Group Areas Act – 1950 b Bantu Authorities Act – 1951 c Bantu Education Act – 1953 d Bantu Urban Areas Act – 1954 e Mines and Work Act – 1956 f Promotion of Black Self-Government Act – 1958 i Homeland (or Bantustan) system set up

Hendrik Verwoerd
-minister of native affairs 1950-1958 then prime minister from 1958 until his assassination in 1966 (of South Africa)
-strongly supported Afrikaner nationalist politics and racial separation
-believed that the more the two cultures (black and white) mingle, the stronger the conflict and friction that will result
-saw apartheid as meaning that both whites and blacks adopt a development divorced from each other
-”architect of apartheid”
-in South Africa

Defiance Campaign
-1952 launched by ANC and SAIC and other anti-apartheid organizations to demonstrate the futility of apartheid by encouraging massive popular noncompliance with the policy
-involved factory and office workers, students, teachers, and the clergy, Africans, coloureds, Indians and Europeans, old and young rallying and defying the pass laws, curfew, railway apartheid regulations
-a step of great political significance, it was an effective way of getting the masses to function politically
-by the end of the year, 8,000 people of all races had defied

Congress of the People
June 26, 1955: Congress of the People in Kliptown
--Similar to a constitutional congress: come up with a set of principles to produce change
--3000 delegates representing ANC, SAIC (S. African Indian Congress), Coloured Peoples Organization, Congress of Democrats (white liberal party)
--multi-racial, not about nationalism, communism, etc
--Freedom Charter adopted
--Non-racialism, equality

Freedom Charter
-political document adopted by ANC that calls for redistribution, but not nationalisation, of land; it provides for nationalisation of mines, banks and monopoly industry
-under the freedom charter, nationalisation would take place in an economy based on private enterprise
-the realisation of the freedom charter would open up fresh fields for a prosperous African population of all classes, including the middle class

Sharpeville Massacre
-anti-pass law campaign sponsored by Pan-African Congress
-police shot into the crowd after protesters burned their pass books in front of them
-1960, 69 killed, 186 injured, and 18,000 arrested
-as a result, PAC and ANC were banned
-Apartheid government declared “state of emergency”

Umkhonto we Sizwe (MK)
-1961: founded the turn of armed struggle (ANC)
-“Spear of the Nation”
-the turn of armed struggle – 134 acts of sabotage between 1961-63
-guerrilla acts against government (seen as terrorist organization to South African government and US, and they were banned)
-carried out numerous bombings of civilian, military, industrial, and infrastructural sites initially geared for sabotage and intimidation of ruling power
-it was an armed component of a strategy of “people’s war” that was primarily geared towards mobilizing mass political support
-MK suspended operations in 1990 in preparation for the dismantling of apartheid, and was finally integrated into the South African National Defense Force by 1994

Robert Sobukwe 1 member of ANC that founded the Pan Africanist Congress in 1959. It objected to ANC's non-racialism; sought black nationalism for black political rights. Dissatisfied w/ outcome of Defiance Campaign and other measures, particularly given the Treason Trial. Sought more militant strategy

Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland 1 Between Decolonization and Apartheid: The Case of British Central Africa a 1953-63: Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland (Central African Federation) i British colonial office seeking a "middle path" between decolonization and white supremacist rule as found in South Africa ii Sought to appease white settler interests in Southern and northern Rhodesia (Zimbabwe and Zambia) while also addressing African interests. iii shows how political compromise was difficult Hastings Kamuzu Banda 1 Malawi Congress Party led by Hastings Kamuzu Banda 2 Post-colonial Leader of Malawi from 1961-94 (1st President) 3 example of the “big man” phenomenon and Gatekeeper State 4 Problem: popular representation still limited

Kenneth Kaunda
Post-Colonial Leader of Zambia from 1964-1991 example of the “big man” phenomenon and Gatekeeper State 5 example of the “big man” phenomenon and Gatekeeper State 6 Problem: popular representation still limited
Led Zambian African National Congress

Unilateral Declaration of Independence 1 1965: Southern Rhodesia declares Unilateral Declaration of Independence (UDI) a Rhodesian Front led by Ian Smith b Sought to establish a white supremacist state c 1970s: Second Chimurenga i 1980: Zimbabwe becomes independent

Ian Smith: (1919-2007)
Served as prime minister of Rhodesia from 1964-79.
Led the UDI in Rhodesia.
Supported the creation of the Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland in 1953.
Remained active in Zimbabwean parliament after independence until 1987.

Underdevelopment:
- Act of Colonialism removing resources from Africa and leaving little infrastructure.
- Most of the economic and political development was brought about by colonial powers.
- Once independence occurred, most territories were unprepared with regards to internal development.
The underdevelopment of Africa was a product of colonialism. Colonial powers left countries with little infrastructure and underdeveloped. Walter Rodney holds that political independence was compromised by these economic conditions. Development discourse originated during WWII and continues today. Colonialism “underdeveloped” Africa by removing resources and leaving little infrastructure. African countries’ economies couldn’t take off, leads to neo-colonialism. Rodney identified a postcolonial challenge within the economic realm: a lack of investment during the colonial period and consequent dependence on external aid during the postcolonial period.

Ujamaa
-socialist movement that Julius Nyerere started
Swahili for “familyhood” or “socialism”—convergence of African and socialist values. Julius Nyerere introduces the Arusha Declaration, that’s a proposed plan for ujamaa program that sought to follow a Chinese model of economic transformation. It received direct aid from China and represents the influence of Marxism in Africa.
Example of the Gatekeeper State and responses to neo-colonialism.

Julius Nyerere
-First president of Tanzania (1961 - 1985)
-a pan-African who initiated ujamaa movement
- Another gatekeeper or ‘big man’ state

Bandung Conference 1 1955-Bandung Conference in Indonesia a Conference of newly independent countries in Africa and Asia b Hosted by Indonesia, India, Pakistan, Egypt c 29 countries represented, representing over half the world's population d Creation of Afro-Asia alliance against the West and Soviets i Sought to avoid choosing sides in Cold War Patrice Lumumba
-first Congolese to attempt to put together a party that was truly nationalist i.e. Mouvement National Congolais which articulated a radical critique of Belgian colonialism and looked toward the forging of a Congolese nation
Was declared the first prime minister of the DRC in 1961. He was sympathetic to the Soviets. He was assassinated, and it is widely suspected that this was by the CIA (Congo was seen as valuable to US interests (Uranium for atomic weapons program from Congo)). He has been mythologized. It is an example of military interventions by the West (1960-64) and US operation in Congo to oust Lumumba. The US also had growing strategic interests for resources and to limit Soviet influence. Also an ideological intervention, containment policy.

Non-Aligned Movement
1961-Part of the Origins of the “Third World”
Choice to not take sides in the Cold War

Bretton Woods 1 1945: Bretton Woods Agreement a International Monetary Fund (IMF) i In operation in 1947 ii Regulated trade b World Bank iii In operation in 1946 iv Encouraged investment through loans c General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT)(Defined economic ___) v In operation in 1948 vi Encouraged multilateral, "free" trade through tariff reduction, discouraging preferential trade agreements between countries
Signif. because After WWII, measures to ensure global trade stability.

World Bank and IMF 1 International Monetary Fund (IMF) a In operation in 1947 b Regulated trade c continued to lend money to African countries who needed it to repay already-existing debts with strict conditions: structural adjustment 1 World Bank a In operation in 1946 b Encouraged investment through loans c recently urged combining financial rigor with a return to basic priorities, notably education, health, and the quality of government

TAZARA
-Result of Zhou En Lai tour in Africa (1963-1964)
-construction between 1968-75
-known as Freedom Railway
-Railway that linked DSM, Tanzania and Lusaka,Zambia built by Zambians, Tanzanians in collaboration with Chinese
-during construction, the number of Chinese present constituted the largest Chinese communist overseas presence
-Signif. because it shows socialism as an alternative to West assistance

Jonas Savimbi
Led UNITA which was supported by South Africa and the US anti-marxist RENAMO 1 Mozambican National Resistance (RENAMO) founded and supported by the Rhodesian and South governments with the intent of destabilizing FRELIMO (FRELIMO< Marxist-Lininst gave shelter to anti-apartheid activists and anti Rhodesian guerillas) a Machel died in plane crash in 1986
Significant because:the importance of late decolonization is that it added new regional pressures to South Africa. South African govt found itself isolated

Second Chimurenga 1 Civil war (Second Chimurenga) from 1970 -80 a 1961: Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU) i Pro-USSR ii Joshua Nkomo iii 1963: Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU) 1 Maoist, pro-China 2 Robert Mugabe iv Guerilla struggle during the 70s v 1970-80: Lancaster House agreements vi 80: independence with Robert Mugabe of ZANU elected

Lancaster House Agreement principle that white minority rule could not continue indefinitely. 1979-1980.

Robert Mugabe
-Zimbabwe leader from 1980-present
-Part of Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU)

Steve Biko
-highly intellectual who contributed to the change in the consciousness of black South Africans
-soweto uprising
-started a new generation of activists
-an author who contributed much to the philosophy of black consciousness, Bantustans, African culture, the institutional church, the quest for true humanity, and Western involvement in apartheid
-through his essays, he transformed the agenda of South African politics
-murdered in his prison cell when he was only 31(beat to death while in custody of police)
-political martyr

Idi Amin Dada
-became President of Uganda in 1971-1979
-his regime was responsible for 100,000 to 500,000 deaths during his reign
-Chairman of the Organisation of African Unity

Coup d’etat 1 Coup d'etat as political instrument a w/democracy limited, few options for political change b Change by force through military became one option c Political leaders sought close relations with military d 61-2004: 80 successful coups, 191 failed attempts e Ruth First: black leaders were a parody of white colonial leaders i Fanon argued this as well significant because it the role of military for power in the response to Neo-Colonialism

Black Consciousness
-a movement greatly supported by Steve Biko
-the realisation by the black man of the need to rally together with his brothers around the cause of their operation-the blackness of their skin
-takes cognizance of the deliberateness of God’s plan in creating black people black
-of paramount importance to the movement is the interrelationship between the consciousness of the self and the emancipatory programme

SASO
-South African Students’ Organisation
-Biko elected president when first formed
-one of its aims was to crystallise the needs and aspirations of the non-white students and to seek to make known their grievances
-another aim was to heighten the degree of contact not only amongst these and the rest of the non-white students but also amongst these and the rest of the South African student population

Soweto Uprising
-June 16th 1976
-police shot 95 protesters (most were children and teens)
-est. 500 killed
-Protesting because of Afrikaans language instruction
-protesting continued though and Biko was arrested on August 18th 1977 (Beaten to death in police custody-died sept.2)

UDF
1983, United Democratic Front (UDF) formed in Cape Town a Founded in response to tri-cameral parliament b Embraced non-racialism; moved away from Black Consciousness and exhibited the return of the ANC's approach during the 1950s c Coalition of 565 organizations d Reverend Allan Boesak and Archbishop Desmond Tutu
(Activism of 1980s)

Desmond Tutu founder of UDF led TRC in 1996 received Noble Peace Price in 1984

SWAPO
South West African Peoples Organization; formed as part of Namibian independence movement (Namibia independent 1989)

Samora Machel-fought Portuguese in Mozambique as member of FRELIMO; became Mozambique’s first president in 1975

gatekeeper state 1 Key problem :postcolonial leaders inherited colonial state infrastructure that was centralized 1 Institutional continuity 1 Popular representation remained limited a Bier reading: women in Egypt 1 Power was vertically structured, hierarchical with presidents and other leaders wielding enormous power

CODESA 1 Dec. 20, 1991: Convention for a Democratic South Africa (CODESA) a Constitutional convention b 19 organizations placed into 5 working groups c US lifted sanctions in 1991; EC lifted sanctions in 1992 i Sign of international support 1 Conflict at CODESA a Debate over whether there would be a 2 part transition (first a transitional government, favored by de Klerk) vs. a 1 part transition (election and majority rule, favored by Mandela) b Competing priorities i Mandela sought a transition to majority rule ii De Klerk against complete majority rule 1 Sought a system that would allow minority communities to be represented in government by constitution law 2 "rights of minorites" iii De Klerk against socialism or any other economic measure that would de-stabilize the economy

Truth and Reconciliation Commission 1 1996, Truth and Reconciliation Commission (TRC) begins a Led by Desmond Tutu b Amnesty would be granted to those who confessed to crimes during the apartheid era