Ap Biology Chapter 1 Study Guide
Chapter 1- 2
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: THEMES IN THE STUDY OF LIFE
OBJECTIVES
Exploring Life on Its Many Levels 1. Briefly describe the unifying themes that characterize the biological sciences. 1. The cell an organism’s basic unit of structure and function 2. Heritable information: the inheritance of biological information in the form of DNA which is encoded in the nucleotide sequence of DNA. 3. Emergent properties: emerge as a result of interaction among components at the lower. 4. Regulation: it maintains a steady state for internal factors. 5. Interactions with the environment- organisms are open system that exchange material and energy with their surroundings. 6. Energy and life: all organisms must perform work, which required energy. …show more content…
7. Unity and diversity: unity is found through universal genetic code and diversity is grouped into three different domains: bacteria, Archea, and Eukarya. 8. Evolution: explains both unity and diversity of life. 9. Structure and function: form and function are correlated at all level of biological organization. 10. Scientific inquiry: this includes observation based discovery and the testing of explanation through hypothesis- based inquiry. 11. Sciences, technology and society: these are all applications if sciences lead to technologies which are created for the society. 2. Diagram the hierarchy of structural levels in biological organization.
The hierarchy of structural levels of biological organization, from bottom to the top is molecules, organelles, cells, tissue, organs, and organs systems, organism, population, community, ecosystem, and biosphere. 3. Explain how the properties of life emerge from complex organization.
The lowest is atom that order into complex biological molecules. The biological molecules are organized into structure called the organelle, the components of the cells. The cell is a fundamental unit of structure and function of all living things. A group of certain kind of cells completing a function makes up the tissue, which make the organs of organ system. This is need for all individual living things, also known as organism. Organism belong to populations, localize groups if organism belonging to the same species. These populations of several species in the same area comprise a biological community. The populations interact with their physical environment to form an ecosystem. The biosphere consists of all the environments in the earth that ate inhabited by life. 4. Describe the two major dynamic processes of any ecosystem.
The dynamics of any ecosystem include two major processes
1. Cycling of nutrients, in which materials acquired by plants eventually return to the soil
2. The flow of energy from sunlight to producers to consumers
5. Distinguish between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotic cell are smaller and simple, its DNA is not separate from cytoplasm in nucleus. Eukaryotic cells posses a nucleus and many specialized organelles. In most of the eukaryotic cells, the largest organelle is the nucleus, which contains the cell’s DNA as chromosomes. 6. Describe the basic structure and function of DNA.
DNA is a substance of genes and the units of inheritance that transmit information from parents to the offspring. DNA in human cells is organize into chromosome where each these chromosome has DNA molecule with hundred or thousand of genes arranged along its length. 7. Describe the dilemma of reductionism, reducing complex systems to simpler components that are more manageable to study.
8. Discuss the goals and activities of systems biology. List three research developments that have advanced systems biology. 1 High-throughput technology. Systems biology depends on methods that can analyze biological materials very quickly and produce enormous amounts of data. An example is the automatic DNA-sequencing machines used by the Human Genome Project. 2 Bioinformatics. The huge databases from high-throughput methods require the use of computational tools to store, organize, and analyze the huge volume of data.
3. Interdisciplinary research teams. Systems biology teams may include engineers, medical scientists, physicists, chemists, mathematicians, and computer scientists as well as biologists 9. Explain the importance of regulatory mechanisms in living things. Distinguish between positive and negative feedback.
Regulatory mechanism in living things is important for output and product of a process through enzyme that are specialized protein molecule that make sure the chemical process within the cells are catalyzed. In negative feedback, the accumulation of an end product of a process slows down that process. Though less common, some biological processes are regulated by positive feedback, in which an end product speeds up its own production.
Evolution, Unity, and Diversity
10. Distinguish among the three domains of life. List and distinguish among the three kingdoms of multicellular, eukaryotic life. * There are three even higher levels of classification: the domains Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. The first two domains, domain Bacteria and domain Archaea, consist of prokaryotes. Most prokaryotes are single-celled and microscopic. All the eukaryotes are now grouped in domain Eukarya. Domain Eukarya includes the three kingdoms of multicellular eukaryotes, Plantae, Fungi, and Animalia, distinguished partly by their modes of nutrition. Most plants produce their own sugars and other food molecules by photosynthesis. Most fungi absorb dissolved nutrients from their surroundings. Many fungi decompose dead organisms and organic wastes (such as leaf litter and animal feces) and absorb nutrients from these sources. Animals obtain food by ingesting other organisms 11. Explain the phrase “life’s dual nature of unity and diversity.”
The process of evolution explains both the similarities and differences among all living things. There is unity in the kinship among species that descended from common ancestors and diversity in modifications that evolves as species branched from their common ancestors.
12. Describe the observations and inferences that led Charles Darwin to his theory of evolution by natural selection.
Darwin inferred natural selection due to two observations. Unity in the kinship among species that descended from common ancestors and diversity in the modifications that evolved as species branched from their common ancestors. Darwin’s second point was a proposed mechanism for descent with modification: natural selection. 13. Explain why diagrams of evolutionary relationships have a treelike form.
The Process of Science
Diagrams of evolutionary relationship have a tree like form because just like individuals have a family tree, each species in one twig if branching tree of life.
14. Distinguish between discovery science and hypothesis-based science. Explain why both types of exploration contribute to our understanding of nature. * Discovering science is basically about discovering nature while the hypothesis-based science is about explaining nature. Discovery science describes natural structure and the process as accurately as possible through careful observation and analysis of data. In hypothesis-based science, deduction usually takes the form of predictions about what scientists should expect if a particular hypothesis is correct. Scientific hypotheses must be testable and falsifiable some way to check the validity of the idea.
15. Distinguish between quantitative and qualitative data. Qualitative data may be in the form of recorded descriptions. Also collected volumes of quantitative data, which are generally recorded as measurements.
16. Distinguish between inductive and deductive reasoning. Induction reasoning derives generalizations based on a large number of specific observations. In deductive reasoning, logic flows from the general to the specific.
17. Explain why hypotheses must be testable and falsifiable but are not provable.
The ideal in hypothesis-based science is to frame two or more alternative hypothesis and design experiment to falsify it, while testing falsifies alternative hypothesis,
18. Describe what is meant by a controlled experiment.
Scientists design experiment to test the effect of one variable by canceling out the effects of the unwanted.
19. Distinguish between the everyday meaning of the term theory and its meaning to scientists.
The everyday use of the term theory implies an untested speculation; theory has a very different meaning in science. A scientific theory is much broader in scope than a hypothesis.
20. Explain how science is influenced by social and cultural factors.
Cultural factors are new ideas that come up in science, such as new hypothesis tested and falsified and new theories from the same observations by growth of knowledge. The social factor is the type of scientists now field and the new ideas they bring.
21. Distinguish between science and technology. Explain how science and technology are interdependent.
The goal of science is to understand natural phenomena. In contrast, technology applies scientific knowledge for some specific purpose. Scientists benefit from inventions as they put new technology to work in their research. Science and technology are thus interdependent
Chapter 2 Chemical Context of Life
Objectives
Elements and Compounds 1. Distinguish between an element and a compound. * An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into other substances by chemical reactions.
* A compound is a substance that consists of two or more elements in a fixed ratio.
2. Identify the four elements that make up 96% of living matter.
Four elements—oxygen (O), carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and nitrogen (N)—make up 96% of living matter 3. Define the term trace element and give an example.
Trace element is required by an organism but only in minute quantities.
Some trace elements, like iron (Fe), are required by all organisms.
Atoms and Molecules 4. Draw and label a simplified model of an atom. Explain how this model simplifies our understanding of atomic structure.
Nucleus
(a)
(b)
In this even more simplified model, the electrons are shown as two small blue spheres on a circle around the nucleus. Cloud of negative charge (2 electrons)
Electrons
This model represents the electrons as a cloud of negative charge, as if we had taken many snapshots of the 2 electrons over time, with each dot representing an electron‘s position at one point in time.
5. Distinguish between each of the following pairs of terms: a. neutron and proton * Two subatomic particles, neutrons and protons, are packed together to form a dense core, the atomic nucleus, at the center of an atom.
b. atomic number and atomic mass
The number of protons in the nucleus is atomic number. The number of protons plus neutrons is atomic mass
c. atomic weight and mass number * Atomic weight is a weighted mean of masses of the naturally occurring isotopes .The mass number is the sum of the number of protons and the number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
6.
Explain how the atomic number and mass number of an atom can be used to determine the number of neutrons.
Atomic number is the number of proton or electron
The number of neutron is equal mass number minus atomic number.
The isotopes are similar because they have the same number of electrons which determines the properties of an element. They are different because they have a different number of neutrons. 7. Explain how two isotopes of an element are similar. Explain how they are different. * Two atoms of the same element that differ in the number of neutrons are isotopes. Neutrons are the neutral particles found in atoms. The isotopes have the same number of electrons which determine the properties of the element. 8. Describe two biological applications that use radioactive isotopes.
Radioactive isotopes have many applications in biological research. * Radioactive decay rates can be used to date fossils. * Radioactive isotopes can be used to trace atoms through metabolic processes.
9. Define the terms energy and potential energy. Explain why electrons in the first electron shell have less potential energy than electrons in higher electron
shells.
Energy is the ability to cause change, by doing work. Energy exists in several forms such as heat, kinetic energy, light, potential energy, electrical, or other form.
Potential energy is the energy that matter stores because of its structure or location. 10. Distinguish among nonpolar covalent, polar covalent and ionic bonds.
Electrons in a covalent bond are shared equally in a nonpolar covalent bond.
When two atoms that differ in electronegativity bond, they do not share the electron pair equally, and they form a polar covalent bond.
An ionic bond can form if two atoms are so unequal in their attraction for valence electrons that one atom strips an electron completely from the other.
11. Explain why strong covalent bonds and weak bonds are both essential in living organisms.
Strong Covalent bonds link atoms to form a cell's molecules. Weak bonds can be broken down and can be made again easily. 12. Give an example that illustrates how a molecule’s shape can determine its biological function. * The three-dimensional shape of a molecule is an important determinant of its function in a cell. For example, morphine, heroin, and other opiate drugs are similar enough in shape that they can bind to the same receptors as natural signal molecules called endorphins.
13. Explain what is meant by a chemical equilibrium.
Chemical equilibrium is the rate of formation of products is the same as the rate of breakdown of products (formation of reactants).
CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION: THEMES IN THE STUDY OF LIFE
OBJECTIVES
Exploring Life on Its Many Levels 1. Briefly describe the unifying themes that characterize the biological sciences. 1. The cell an organism’s basic unit of structure and function 2. Heritable information: the inheritance of biological information in the form of DNA which is encoded in the nucleotide sequence of DNA. 3. Emergent properties: emerge as a result of interaction among components at the lower. 4. Regulation: it maintains a steady state for internal factors. 5. Interactions with the environment- organisms are open system that exchange material and energy with their surroundings. 6. Energy and life: all organisms must perform work, which required energy. …show more content…
7. Unity and diversity: unity is found through universal genetic code and diversity is grouped into three different domains: bacteria, Archea, and Eukarya. 8. Evolution: explains both unity and diversity of life. 9. Structure and function: form and function are correlated at all level of biological organization. 10. Scientific inquiry: this includes observation based discovery and the testing of explanation through hypothesis- based inquiry. 11. Sciences, technology and society: these are all applications if sciences lead to technologies which are created for the society. 2. Diagram the hierarchy of structural levels in biological organization.
The hierarchy of structural levels of biological organization, from bottom to the top is molecules, organelles, cells, tissue, organs, and organs systems, organism, population, community, ecosystem, and biosphere. 3. Explain how the properties of life emerge from complex organization.
The lowest is atom that order into complex biological molecules. The biological molecules are organized into structure called the organelle, the components of the cells. The cell is a fundamental unit of structure and function of all living things. A group of certain kind of cells completing a function makes up the tissue, which make the organs of organ system. This is need for all individual living things, also known as organism. Organism belong to populations, localize groups if organism belonging to the same species. These populations of several species in the same area comprise a biological community. The populations interact with their physical environment to form an ecosystem. The biosphere consists of all the environments in the earth that ate inhabited by life. 4. Describe the two major dynamic processes of any ecosystem.
The dynamics of any ecosystem include two major processes
1. Cycling of nutrients, in which materials acquired by plants eventually return to the soil
2. The flow of energy from sunlight to producers to consumers
5. Distinguish between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells.
Prokaryotic cell are smaller and simple, its DNA is not separate from cytoplasm in nucleus. Eukaryotic cells posses a nucleus and many specialized organelles. In most of the eukaryotic cells, the largest organelle is the nucleus, which contains the cell’s DNA as chromosomes. 6. Describe the basic structure and function of DNA.
DNA is a substance of genes and the units of inheritance that transmit information from parents to the offspring. DNA in human cells is organize into chromosome where each these chromosome has DNA molecule with hundred or thousand of genes arranged along its length. 7. Describe the dilemma of reductionism, reducing complex systems to simpler components that are more manageable to study.
8. Discuss the goals and activities of systems biology. List three research developments that have advanced systems biology. 1 High-throughput technology. Systems biology depends on methods that can analyze biological materials very quickly and produce enormous amounts of data. An example is the automatic DNA-sequencing machines used by the Human Genome Project. 2 Bioinformatics. The huge databases from high-throughput methods require the use of computational tools to store, organize, and analyze the huge volume of data.
3. Interdisciplinary research teams. Systems biology teams may include engineers, medical scientists, physicists, chemists, mathematicians, and computer scientists as well as biologists 9. Explain the importance of regulatory mechanisms in living things. Distinguish between positive and negative feedback.
Regulatory mechanism in living things is important for output and product of a process through enzyme that are specialized protein molecule that make sure the chemical process within the cells are catalyzed. In negative feedback, the accumulation of an end product of a process slows down that process. Though less common, some biological processes are regulated by positive feedback, in which an end product speeds up its own production.
Evolution, Unity, and Diversity
10. Distinguish among the three domains of life. List and distinguish among the three kingdoms of multicellular, eukaryotic life. * There are three even higher levels of classification: the domains Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. The first two domains, domain Bacteria and domain Archaea, consist of prokaryotes. Most prokaryotes are single-celled and microscopic. All the eukaryotes are now grouped in domain Eukarya. Domain Eukarya includes the three kingdoms of multicellular eukaryotes, Plantae, Fungi, and Animalia, distinguished partly by their modes of nutrition. Most plants produce their own sugars and other food molecules by photosynthesis. Most fungi absorb dissolved nutrients from their surroundings. Many fungi decompose dead organisms and organic wastes (such as leaf litter and animal feces) and absorb nutrients from these sources. Animals obtain food by ingesting other organisms 11. Explain the phrase “life’s dual nature of unity and diversity.”
The process of evolution explains both the similarities and differences among all living things. There is unity in the kinship among species that descended from common ancestors and diversity in modifications that evolves as species branched from their common ancestors.
12. Describe the observations and inferences that led Charles Darwin to his theory of evolution by natural selection.
Darwin inferred natural selection due to two observations. Unity in the kinship among species that descended from common ancestors and diversity in the modifications that evolved as species branched from their common ancestors. Darwin’s second point was a proposed mechanism for descent with modification: natural selection. 13. Explain why diagrams of evolutionary relationships have a treelike form.
The Process of Science
Diagrams of evolutionary relationship have a tree like form because just like individuals have a family tree, each species in one twig if branching tree of life.
14. Distinguish between discovery science and hypothesis-based science. Explain why both types of exploration contribute to our understanding of nature. * Discovering science is basically about discovering nature while the hypothesis-based science is about explaining nature. Discovery science describes natural structure and the process as accurately as possible through careful observation and analysis of data. In hypothesis-based science, deduction usually takes the form of predictions about what scientists should expect if a particular hypothesis is correct. Scientific hypotheses must be testable and falsifiable some way to check the validity of the idea.
15. Distinguish between quantitative and qualitative data. Qualitative data may be in the form of recorded descriptions. Also collected volumes of quantitative data, which are generally recorded as measurements.
16. Distinguish between inductive and deductive reasoning. Induction reasoning derives generalizations based on a large number of specific observations. In deductive reasoning, logic flows from the general to the specific.
17. Explain why hypotheses must be testable and falsifiable but are not provable.
The ideal in hypothesis-based science is to frame two or more alternative hypothesis and design experiment to falsify it, while testing falsifies alternative hypothesis,
18. Describe what is meant by a controlled experiment.
Scientists design experiment to test the effect of one variable by canceling out the effects of the unwanted.
19. Distinguish between the everyday meaning of the term theory and its meaning to scientists.
The everyday use of the term theory implies an untested speculation; theory has a very different meaning in science. A scientific theory is much broader in scope than a hypothesis.
20. Explain how science is influenced by social and cultural factors.
Cultural factors are new ideas that come up in science, such as new hypothesis tested and falsified and new theories from the same observations by growth of knowledge. The social factor is the type of scientists now field and the new ideas they bring.
21. Distinguish between science and technology. Explain how science and technology are interdependent.
The goal of science is to understand natural phenomena. In contrast, technology applies scientific knowledge for some specific purpose. Scientists benefit from inventions as they put new technology to work in their research. Science and technology are thus interdependent
Chapter 2 Chemical Context of Life
Objectives
Elements and Compounds 1. Distinguish between an element and a compound. * An element is a substance that cannot be broken down into other substances by chemical reactions.
* A compound is a substance that consists of two or more elements in a fixed ratio.
2. Identify the four elements that make up 96% of living matter.
Four elements—oxygen (O), carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and nitrogen (N)—make up 96% of living matter 3. Define the term trace element and give an example.
Trace element is required by an organism but only in minute quantities.
Some trace elements, like iron (Fe), are required by all organisms.
Atoms and Molecules 4. Draw and label a simplified model of an atom. Explain how this model simplifies our understanding of atomic structure.
Nucleus
(a)
(b)
In this even more simplified model, the electrons are shown as two small blue spheres on a circle around the nucleus. Cloud of negative charge (2 electrons)
Electrons
This model represents the electrons as a cloud of negative charge, as if we had taken many snapshots of the 2 electrons over time, with each dot representing an electron‘s position at one point in time.
5. Distinguish between each of the following pairs of terms: a. neutron and proton * Two subatomic particles, neutrons and protons, are packed together to form a dense core, the atomic nucleus, at the center of an atom.
b. atomic number and atomic mass
The number of protons in the nucleus is atomic number. The number of protons plus neutrons is atomic mass
c. atomic weight and mass number * Atomic weight is a weighted mean of masses of the naturally occurring isotopes .The mass number is the sum of the number of protons and the number of neutrons in the nucleus of an atom.
6.
Explain how the atomic number and mass number of an atom can be used to determine the number of neutrons.
Atomic number is the number of proton or electron
The number of neutron is equal mass number minus atomic number.
The isotopes are similar because they have the same number of electrons which determines the properties of an element. They are different because they have a different number of neutrons. 7. Explain how two isotopes of an element are similar. Explain how they are different. * Two atoms of the same element that differ in the number of neutrons are isotopes. Neutrons are the neutral particles found in atoms. The isotopes have the same number of electrons which determine the properties of the element. 8. Describe two biological applications that use radioactive isotopes.
Radioactive isotopes have many applications in biological research. * Radioactive decay rates can be used to date fossils. * Radioactive isotopes can be used to trace atoms through metabolic processes.
9. Define the terms energy and potential energy. Explain why electrons in the first electron shell have less potential energy than electrons in higher electron
shells.
Energy is the ability to cause change, by doing work. Energy exists in several forms such as heat, kinetic energy, light, potential energy, electrical, or other form.
Potential energy is the energy that matter stores because of its structure or location. 10. Distinguish among nonpolar covalent, polar covalent and ionic bonds.
Electrons in a covalent bond are shared equally in a nonpolar covalent bond.
When two atoms that differ in electronegativity bond, they do not share the electron pair equally, and they form a polar covalent bond.
An ionic bond can form if two atoms are so unequal in their attraction for valence electrons that one atom strips an electron completely from the other.
11. Explain why strong covalent bonds and weak bonds are both essential in living organisms.
Strong Covalent bonds link atoms to form a cell's molecules. Weak bonds can be broken down and can be made again easily. 12. Give an example that illustrates how a molecule’s shape can determine its biological function. * The three-dimensional shape of a molecule is an important determinant of its function in a cell. For example, morphine, heroin, and other opiate drugs are similar enough in shape that they can bind to the same receptors as natural signal molecules called endorphins.
13. Explain what is meant by a chemical equilibrium.
Chemical equilibrium is the rate of formation of products is the same as the rate of breakdown of products (formation of reactants).