argument essay

In the time of the agricultural age, two civilizations arose out of the plenteous food and raging waters. These two early civilizations were Mesopotamia and Egypt. Although many similarities can be drawn between the two, they each proved to be very different from each other in social, political, and religious systems as well as their stability and defeat.

Although the Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations paved the way modern civilizations, they have more differences that are illustrated in the areas of military, agriculture & society, and government types.

Egypt spent most of its history as a unified monarchy, whereas Mesopotamia seems to have begun as a collection of city-states (known as Sumeria) and continued to be dominated by a pair of mutually hostile powers: Assyria and Babylon. As a result, Mesopotamia's history is significantly more conflict-based than that of Egypt, because Mesopotamia was only united when conquered by a major empire (Egyptian under Thutmose III or Chaldean/Neo-Babylonian under Nabopolassar) However, On the subject of war and armies, the Egyptian army was more effective for longer than its Mesopotamian counterparts, but it was Assyria, an innovative Mesopotamian power, that had the greatest impact on warfare (and indeed the surrounding region), even though its successes were largely limited to the last three centuries of its existence.

Both Egypt and Mesopotamia were occupied by agricultural societies relying upon irrigation for crop yield. In Egypt, the Nile River overflowed its banks annually, depositing rich natural fertilizing elements that enabled Egyptians to grow wheat and barley, often providing a surplus. While the yearly rise of the Nile in Egypt was predictable, this was not the case in Mesopotamia. As a result, Mesopotamian cultures had to develop a system of canals to control flooding and redistribute the water over a greater area because the flood's were unpredictable. Both countries also had a hot, dry climate and fertile soil, good for supporting large populations.

In the time of the agricultural age, two civilizations arose out of the plenteous food and raging waters. These two early civilizations were Mesopotamia and Egypt. Although many similarities can be drawn between the two, they each proved to be very different from each other in social, political, and religious systems as well as their stability and defeat.

One factor they did have in common was the cause of each civilization existence, Irrigated agriculture. Irrigated agriculture was the bridge between a hunter-gatherer lifestyle and an agricultural lifestyle. These two early civilizations had an abundant supply of the number one resource needed for irrigated agriculture, water. "In ancient Mesopotamia, the dual drainage of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers made the first urban civilization possibleIn Egypt, the Nile was the life-giving source of everything the people needed and cherished (Adler Pouwels 2006:11). This plentiful supply of water in conjunction with fertile soil in both civilizations allowed them to produce enough food to support large communities. "Rivers also offered a sure and generally easy form of transport and communication, allowing intervillage trade and encouraging central authorities to extend their powers over a much greater area" (Adler Pouwels 2006:11). Given that water was the key to life, most communities were on or near the river. Having a central resource created community relationships and outward expansion ultimately ending in the formation of these two great civilizations. While each civilizations creation was fueled by the same factors, most of life for the two after was very different.

Achievements of Athens

The Acropolis. The Olympics. Astronomy. Mathematics. Democracy. Philosophy. Drama. 
The fact that the earth goes around the sun.
The diameter of the earth.
The fact that the universe is composed of atoms. produced a great deal of thinkers philosophers and mathematicians so they did authors in literature, arts included tragedies and comedies. They were also fairly good warriors and superb seamen.

Roman Republic
Cato the Elder, statesman (234–149 B.C.)
Gracchi, (Tiberius Sempronius Graccus [d. 133B.C.] and Caius Sempronius Gracchus [d. 121 B.C.], statesmen and social reformers
Caius Marius, general and consul (157–86 B.C.)
Lucius Cornelius Sulla, general and consul (138–78 B.C.)
Pompey, general and member of First Triumvirate with Julius Caesar and Crassus (106–48B.C.)
Marcus Licinius Crassus, member of First Triumvirate with Caesar and Pompey (d. 53 B.C.)
Cato the Younger, statesman (95–46 B.C.)
Julius Caesar, general and statesman (100?–44 B.C.)
Marc Antony, politician and soldier, member of Second Triumvirate with Lepidus and Octavian (Augustus) (83–30 B.C.)
Lepidus, member of Second Triumvirate with Marc Antony and Octavian (d. 13 B.C.)
Roman Empire
Augustus, (Octavian) first emperor, grandnephew of Julius Caesar, (27 B.C.–A.D. 14)
Tiberius, stepson of Augustus, (14–37)
Caligula, grandnephew of Tiberius (37–41)
Claudius, uncle of Caligula (41–54)
Nero, stepson of Claudius (54–68)
Galba, proclaimed emperor by his soldiers (68–69)
Otho, military commander (69)
Vitellius, military commander (69)
Vespasian, military commander (69–79)
Titus, son of Vespasian (79–81)
Domitian, son of Vespasian (81–96)
Nerva, elected interim ruler (96-98)
Trajan, adopted son of Nerva (98–117)
Hadrian, ward of Trajan (117–138)
Antoninus Pius, adopted by Hadrian (138–161)
Marcus Aurelius, adopted by Antoninus Pius (161–180)
Lucius Verus, adopted by Antoninus Pius; ruled jointly with Marcus Aurelius (161–169)
Commodus, son of Marcus Aurelius (180–192)
Pertinax, proclaimed emperor by the Praetorian Guard (193)
Didius Julianus, bought office from the Praetorian Guard (193)
Severus, proclaimed emperor (193–211)
Caracalla, son of Severus (211–217)
Geta, son of Severus, ruled jointly with Caracalla (211–212)
Macrinus, proclaimed emperor by his soldiers (217–18)
Heliogabalus, cousin of Caracalla (218–222)
Alexander Severus, cousin of Heliogabalus (222–235)
Maximin, proclaimed emperor by soldiers, (235–238)
Gordian I, made emperor by the senate (238)
Gordian II, son of Gordian I, ruled jointly with his father (238)
Balbinus, elected joint emperor by the senate (238)
Pupienus Maximus, elected joint emperor with Balbinus by the senate (238)
Gordian III, son of Gordian II (238–244)
Philip (the Arabian), assassin of Gordian III (244–249)
Decius, proclaimed emperor by the soldiers (249–2251)
Hostilianus, son of Decius, colleague of Gallus (251)
Gallus, military commander (251–253)
Aemilianus, military commander (253)
Valerian, military commander (253–260)
Gallienus, son of Valerian, coemperor with his father and later sole emperor (253–268)
Claudius II, military commander (268–270)
Aurelian, chosen by Claudius II as successor (270–275)
Tacitus, chosen by the senate (275–276)
Florianus, half brother of Tacitus (276)
Probus, military commander (276–282)
Carus, proclaimed by the Praetorian Guard (282–283)
Carinus, son of Carus (283–285)
Numerianus, son of Carus, joint emperor with Carinus (283–284)
Diocletian, military commander, divided the empire; ruled jointly with Maximian and Constantius I 284–305)
Maximian, appointed joint emperor by Diocletian (286–305)
Constantius I, joint emperor and successor of Diocletian (305–306)
Galerius, joint emperor with Constantius I (305–310)
Maximin, nephew of Galerius (308–313)
Licinius, appointed emperor in the West by Galerius; later emperor in the East (308–324)
Maxentius, son of Maximian (306–312)
Constantine I (the Great), son of Constantius I (306–337)
Constantine II, son of Constantine I (337–340)
Constans, son of Constantine I (337–350)
Constantius II, son of Constantine I (337–361)
Magnentius, usurped Constans' throne, (350–353)
Julian (the Apostate), nephew of Constantine I (361–363)
Jovian, elected by the army (363–364)
Valentinian I, proclaimed by the army; ruled in the West (364–375)
Valens, brother of Valentinian I; ruled in the East (364–378)
Gratian, son of Valentinian I; coruler in the West with Valentinian II (375–383)
Maximus, usurper in the West (383–388)
Valentinian II, son of Valentinian I, ruler of the West (375–392)
Eugenius, usurper in the West (393–394)
Theodosius I (the Great), appointed ruler of the East (379–395) by Gratian; last ruler of united empire (394–395)
Emperors in the East
Arcadius, son of Theodosius I (395–408)
Theodosius II, son of Arcadius, (408–450)
Marcian, brother-in-law of Theodosius II (450–457)
Leo I, chosen by the senate (457–474)
Leo II, grandson of Leo I (474)
Zeno (474–475)
Basilicus (475–476)
Emperors in the West
Honorius, son of Theodosius (395–423)
Maximus, usurper in Spain (409–411)
Constantius III, named joint emperor by Honorius (421)
Valentinian III, nephew of Honorius and son of Constantius III (425–455)
Petronius Maximus, bought office by bribery (455)
Avitus, placed in office by Goths (455–456)
Majorian, puppet emperor of Ricimer (457–461)
Libius Severus, puppet emperor of Ricimer (461–465)
Anthemius, appointed by Ricimer and Leo I (467–472)
Olybrius, appointed by Ricimer (472–473)
Glycerius, appointed by Leo I (473–474)
Julius Nepos, appointed by Leo I (474–475)
Romulus Augustulus, put in office by Orestes, his father (474–476)

The main difference between the Roman Republic and the Roman Empire is the rule of the government. The Roman Republic was based on a rule of law and reason. The Roman Empire was based on rulings of the emperor of Rome.
The Roman Republic was what made Rome great. The Roman Empire was what brought about its decline and fall.

When Rome became a Republic in 509BC, Rome's territory consisted of little more than the city itself. Rome was barely more than a collection of villages. By the time the Republic weffectively abolished by Octavian at the end of the 1st century BC, Rome had become a huge empire.

The Republic was a system that, in its heyday from c.500BC to c.100BC, was based on the rule of law, and a cleverly balanced constitution that was not a written document, but consisted of an accord between the 3 elements, democracy, monarchy, and oligarchy. As the historian Polybius wrote, it is this balance which gave ancient Rome its greatest strength.

Rome was not ruled by any single man. That was contrary to the whole philosophy of the Republic, which was about having a balance of power. Two annually elected Consuls held the highest position of power. They could veto each other, so neither had absolute power, and they were strictly limited to one year in power.

This system greatly helped to prevent the kind of tyrannical abuse of power that happens all to often in dictatorships and monarchies. Nobody was above the law, and all free men were citizens with a stake in their future. All citizens could vote, and the assembly of the people could pass laws that applied to all.

All of this contrasts with the Roman Empire, which was a system based on an emperor. One man had total, absolute power. And as we all know, complete power corrupts a man completely. Corrupt, insane tyrants like Nero, Caligula and Commodus often ruled the empire with appalling cruelty and incompetence. Under the Empire, Rome slowly began to decline. By the time of the third century crisis, the empire was at the point of collapse. That it held together for another century and a half was a miracle, due largely to a series of strong soldier-emperors. But they failed to reform the system, and since it was largely a matter of luck who came to the throne next, sooner or later weak emperors took power again, and Rome entered its final decline.