Canada Birth of a Nation

Canada, The Birth of a Nation after World War 1

If there was a defining moment that made Canada into an independent country, it was the First World War that would lay the foundations for Canadian independence. World War 1 touched the lives of all Canadians and anyone who studies Canadian history cannot ignore the effects of the Great War. The war involved European countries but Canada being a dominion of the British Empire was called upon by England and had no choice but to participate. The war had both positive and negative effects on Canada and while many would rely on the negative aspects of the war, one must not forget what it did for Canada as a country. Canada’s involvement in the war would start a path to being an independent country, and after World War 1, Canada earned the respect from other nations especially after the heroic events at Passchendaele and Vimy Ridge. Canada was no longer to be looked at as a ‘self-governing colony’ but a nation that would have a say in international affairs. After the war, Canada earned a seat in the League of Nations and was now beginning to prosper and look like a truly independent country. After the formation of the League of Nations, Canada continued to demonstrate their will to make their decisions free from Britain’s approval and to influence decisions when it came to international affairs. For Canada to finally earn the respect from Britain and the other nations, they would have to participate in a war that would cost thousands of Canadians lives. Before the war Canada was considered a self-governing colony, but after the war was over, Canada cemented its position as a serious nation that would be more involved in international affairs then they ever did before. World War 1 was the first major war that would be fought by large, centrally organized states since the birth of the Industrial Revolution. Nations like Germany, Austria-Hungary, Italy, Britain and the United States had all encountered industrialization that would allow for new weapons and a new strategic way of fighting on the battlefield.[1] These new mechanized weapons such as the machine gun would take the lives of approximately 12 million casualties and for Canada alone, the total military deaths includes 53,000 killed or missing in action and in 2009-2010, The Commonwealth War Graves Commission Annual Report gave a total of 64,976 military dead.[2] Taking a look at this number, how can anyone think that there was any positive factors coming out of this war? Canadian historians have found that there were positive affects that came out of this tragic war. Before the war, Canada’s experiences with transferring the command and control of military forces to another nation essentially originated with the Boer War that occurred in 1899-1902. During this time, the Canadian army was assigned to, and integrated with British forces. This was a huge situation for Canada because it was the first occasion that Canada sent troops in large numbers for a conflict that was happening overseas. The Boer War saw the British and its dominion forces against the Afrikaner Republics of South Africa and the Orange Free State. By the time the war ended, more than 7300 soldiers and 16 nurses had sailed from Canada to South Africa, and approximately 270 were killed there.[3] The Boer War was not a Canadian war, it was a British war and Canada’s involvement was only because they were a dominion of the British Empire and had no say in the strategies and direction of this war. One must remember that during this war, Canada was still a self-governing colony and had no control over its foreign policy. Canada’s military contribution to this war was very important but it was still Britain who had control over Canada’s military. Britain had the power to issue any order to a Canadian commander no matter what their rank was and they could discipline soldiers and assign any mission for a Canadian regiment that they seemed was necessary.[4] Strictly speaking, Canada was still under major influence from Britain and didn’t have much of a say when concerning foreign issues, especially when dealing with a war. This all changed after World War 1. When comparing Canadian foreign policies of the Boer War and the First World War there is one clear difference. In Africa, Canada had no choice but to surrender its military leadership to Britain, but when World War 1 became a reality for the entire world, Canada had more control over its military strength. Canadian historian Desmond Morton simply believed that this was the birth of Canadian independence because “Canadians were unwilling to surrender control over their own war effort.” [5]Morton is correct in stating that this was the birth of Canadian independence because this was simply a shining moment for the country of Canada to have more control in overseas affairs. What Canada did was field a massive military to join the war effort but by doing this, it did cause problems in the beginning. At this time, Canada was still considered a self-governing colony but as the war went on, Canada cemented its position with a solid reputation on the battlefield. The Canadian government had authority over its military, which led to the creation of the Canadian Expeditionary Force.[6] Needless to say, Britain still maintained some control over Canadian forces but unlike in Africa, Canadian lieutenants like Lieutenant Currie had the right to question and even veto British military plans, which is something that would never have happened in the Boer War.[7] There were two defining moments that illustrated the strength of the Canadian military, and it was the battle of Passchendaele and Vimy Ridge. In Europe, Canadian interests were represented by the British General Headquarters in France commanded by a brigadier who also had responsibility for Canadian units outside the Corps.[8] According to Canadian historian Colonel G.W.L Nicholson, he believed the move to have Canadian representation had dual significance for Canada because “it established a close liaison between the Overseas Military Forces of Canada and the British headquarters that were responsible for tactical employment of Canadian troops and it was an important step in the evolution of Canada’s control over her own forces.”[9] This representation of Canada in Europe allowed Canadian military officials to have more of a say concerning military affairs and this was illustrated in the battle of Passchendaele. The battle of Passchendaele that took place between July and November in 1917 holds an important meaning to Canadians because it symbolizes the strength of the Canadian military. Before Canada came into the battle of Passchendaele, Australia and Britain had unsuccessfully tried to capture the ridge. At this point of the battle, the casualties for Australian and British troops were an estimated 100,000, which was a massive blow for the allies. Lieutenant Currie was reluctant to enter the battle but the British Field Marshal Sir Douglas Haig insisted that the Canadians would get involved.[10] The objectives in taking Passchendaele was to reach and clear the Belgian coast, capture the Passchendaele Ridge and the village of Passchendaele and wearing down the enemy in preparation for a decisive offensive.[11] What made Passchendaele Ridge ideal and beneficial for the allies was that the Ridge was on high ground and could be used to launch an attack on the German-occupied channel ports. The conditions were absolutely terrible and things got worse in August when Belgium experienced their worst rainfall in 30 years. While Canadian soldiers pushed through, they were waist high in water and at the same time they had to defend themselves from constant German bombardment. Despite this, Canadian soldiers never stopped pursuing the ridge and the Germans even called the Canadian soldiers “storm troopers” because of how fast they would attack.[12] Canada’s tactic was that of a ‘bite and hold’ approach where they would advance in intervals and consolidate territory, take another piece of land, consolidating it, and inching forward every few days. This would allow Canada to spare the fewest amount of casualties then sending in the entire battalion all at once and facing a slaughter by the Germans. What made this battle so special for Canada was that the Canadians never stopped, never turned back and kept moving forward, piece by piece. They got to the top of the ridge in ten days and accomplished what Australia and Britain couldn’t do in three months.[13] Despite the amount of casualties, the battle of Passchendaele cemented Canada’s role in the world. By showing dedication to the war front, Canada became a serious player in the war and were looked at as equals with Britain and France. This was one battle that turned began to turn Canada into a full-fledged nation that took control of its foreign policies. The Battle of Vimy Ridge is another battle that helped transcend Canada into an independent nation. On Easter Monday, April 9th 1917, beginning at 5:28 am the battle began for Canada. In a memoir written by a British soldier Private Harold Saunders, he writes, “The trenches were crowded with men all packed up and unable to go, and it rained - heavens, how it rained! Hour after hour we stood there in the rising flood, helpless as sheep in the pen, while the guns did their worst.”[14] These conditions were very similar to that of Passchendaele and Private Saunders gives us a clear image of how brutal conditions were during this horrible battle. What the Canadians were going to do was bombard the German military with cannons that would create a smoke screen for the Canadian troops to hide behind. The cannons would aim higher every three minutes and the foot soldiers were expected to advance and occupy German positions without any hesitations.[15] This battle eventually was won by Canada, but it would come with great cost. In four days, 3600 Canadian soldiers died and 5000 were wounded.[16] This battle was similar to Passchendaele because other established militaries like France and Britain believed Vimy Ridge was impregnable after suffering a combined death toll of 150,000 soldiers. According to historians like Mark Zuehlke, he believed Vimy Ridge was undeniably the greatest Allied victory in the war and illustrated Canada’s innovation with the use of creeping and a continuous military barrage to protect their foot soldiers.[17] This marked the second time Canada showed its military strength and resilience, which would help illustrate them as a powerful country. When discussing the importance of the capture of Vimy Ridge, Brigadier General Alexander Ross, who had commanded the 28th Battalion in 1917, said “It was Canada from the Atlantic to the Pacific on parade. I thought then … that in those few minutes I witnessed the birth of a nation.”[18] This quote symbolizes that a massive battle like Vimy had such a major importance for Canada being independent despite the amount of deaths they experienced. After the war ended on November 11th, 1918, there was to be a peace conference to discuss what to do with the Triple Alliance. During these discussions, the British Empire stated they wanted to maintain the unity of the British Empire. The Prime Minister of Britain, Lloyd George did not want independent representation from the dominions during the peace conference, which was against Canadian Prime Minister Sir Robert Borden’s wishes. What upset Borden and Canadians was that countries who put in fewer men towards the war would have more of a presence.[19] Lloyd George eventually allowed representation for Canada but the Americans were still in disagreement stating that Canada should have no reason to be concerned with European affairs. Lloyd George rightfully stated that Canada left thousands of dead soldiers in Europe, which were more then the American soldiers death toll.[20] Canada continued to search for independence but Britain continued to declare that they spoke on behalf of their dominions.[21] The Americans were against the idea of Canadian independence simply because they didn’t want the British to have so much control. If the British were to speak on behalf of the dominions then they would certainly have a large degree of influence in the League of Nations. Despite American concerns, the Treaty of Versailles was signed on June 28th, 1919. Canada’s signature was a symbol of recognition amongst other countries that they were not just a colony, but also an important player in the global scale. The signature was a massive step towards international recognition within the British Empire and in the world. Another factor that made it so important for Canada was that they debated the treaty in Canadian parliament before Britain could say the empire was in agreement.[22] No one could deny that Canada was no longer just a self-governing colony, but a country who was now globally recognized. Despite Canada wanting independence from Britain, they still played a small role in terms of foreign relations similar to the way they were before the First World War. Now with regards to the League of Nations, Canada was involved in the creation of an organization that could resolve international disputes. Before the war, if the League of Nations were established, there would be contention that Canada would not have its own seat and would be represented by Britain. Now with the war being over and the League of Nations being formed, Canada had its own seat.[23] Sir Robert Borden who was Prime Minister during the war believed that Canada successfully achieved her goal for independence and that Canada should be a sovereign power within the British Empire.[24] The Americans, who from the very beginning were against Canadian membership, didn’t want Canada in the International Labour Organization. It was inevitable that Borden would be completely against this idea due to the fact that countries like Liberia and Cuba would have membership, but Canada now a strong industrial country would not have membership. Borden stated that if Canada were not in the ILO, then they would withdraw from the League.[25] Borden firmly believed that the League would not be able to handle international affairs and he proved correct when Article X came about. Article X of the League of Nations Covenant stated that the signatories would “ to respect and preserve against external aggression the territorial integrity and existing political independence of all States members of the League.”[26] Canada saw the brutality of such a major war and acknowledged how many soldiers they lost for a war that wasn’t even on their soil. Canada was against Article X also because if countries like France, Italy and Germany were embroiled into a war, then Canada would have to answer, which is something they weren’t willing to do. C.J Doherty who was Borden’s minister of Justice believed that war would never hit Canadian soil nor would it be invaded by anyone so to be dragged into other wars was not in Canada’s best interest.[27] Before the Great War, Canada had no choice but to answer the call if Britain went to war but now Canada who had been fighting to gain independent recognition was now tied to the Covenant of Article X. This means that Canada would have to fulfill an even greater responsibility to fight other countries’ wars, which is not far off from the position they were in before the war. At the Imperial Conference the discussion of the renewal of an English-Japan alliance came about and Canada was completely against the alliance due to the fact that it might hurt the relations between the United States and Britain. Australia was for the Alliance believing that it would offer protection for the entire empire.[28] Eventually Britain was afraid that this alliance would compromise its relations with the Americans so a Four Power Treaty was signed in Washington in 1921 between the United States, France, Britain and Japan where all parties made the agreement to maintain the status quo in the Pacific. Each country in the treaty would not look for territorial expansion and if there were a dispute, there would be a non-aggressive consultation.[29] According to Norman Hillmer and J.L Granatstein, in their book “Empire to Umpire” they believed this was a huge blow to Canada and Britain. What this treaty would do was illustrate the weakness of the empire with Australia’s wish to renew the Anglo-Japan alliance being ignored. Canada would also have to rely on the Americans for help in the Pacific and for a future chief of the naval staff said “the defence of the country of Canada laid entirely in the hands of the friendly neighbour.”[30] The Power Treaty showed that Borden’s wish to be independent but maintain an alliance with the British Empire was going to be almost impossible. Prime Ministers within the empire had to constantly be in London, and for countries like Australia and New Zealand, that is a long journey for a Prime Minister to be away from his own country. This just further illustrates that Canada needed to be independent from the empire and to ‘control their own future’.[31] A major event occurred in 1922 that illustrated Canada was serious about independence when the British government requested Canadian troops to support them in the demilitarized zone of Chanak. Canada’s Prime Minister during this time was William Lyon Mackenzie King who refused to send Canadian troops to Chanak to show that they were to be independent from the British Empire.[32] The issue had been debated in the Canadian House of Commons but eventually the threat at Chanak had been forgotten and the issue was resolved. Raoul Dandurand, a Canadian emissary to the League of Nations believed the attitude of Canada was that of someone “living in a fireproof house, far from the sources of conflagration.”[33] Now to believe that Canada would immediately be involved in a war that wasn’t theirs, especially after World War 1 would be obscene given the amount of casualties and the economic blow they took after such a terrible war. King made his point clear that the Canadian Parliament would have control on all matters regarding foreign policies and could operate independently from the British government. In King’s diary, he made it clear that he wanted independence from the British Empire. On June 29th, 1937, King wrote in his diary “Every step we had taken toward independence and self expression had really brought us closer together than would have been the case had there been any attempt at control or compulsion on the part of Britain.”[34] It is evident in his writings that King strongly believed that independence would only bring Canada closer to Britain then it would have been had Canada still been under the British Empire. In conclusion, Canadian foreign policies changed drastically after the events that transpired in World War 1. When looking back at the war of course we will be reminded of the brutal and horrific conditions that our Canadian soldiers had to withstand, but in the end, what came out of this war was the birth of the country of Canada. The country was independent and no longer a colony of Britain. The importance of the battle of Passchendaele and Vimy Ridge will forever be remembered as the beginning of a nation. Canada illustrated their strength to other countries and showed the world that they aren’t just a mere ‘self-governing colony’ but an independent country. Even after the war, with the formation of the League of Nations, Canada remained adamant that they would seek autonomy and would have a say on international affairs, without looking to Britain for approval. World War 1 demonstrated that Canada no longer had to rely on Britain for political affairs, but also military affairs as well. No matter how one looks at the Great War, there is no denying the importance that such a devastating war had on Canada. Before the war began, Canada was seen as strictly a dominion of Britain who would have no choice but to answer them if needed, but after the war, Canada made its point that they are more than just a dominion, they are a free country which will have a say on the international scene. What happened in Europe during 1914 to 1918 was a devastating war for Canada and the entire world, but one important thing Canada could take from it, was that they were a free nation, and would decide, with their own free will, whether they would participate in international affairs.
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[1] Samuel Marshall, World War 1 (New York: American Heritage, 1992), 8.
[2] The Commonwealth War Graves Commission, 2009-2010.
[3] Harold A. Skaarup, Out of Darkness—Light: A History of Canadian Military Intelligence (Nebraska: iUniverse, 2005), 11.
[4] Desmond Morton, The Command of the Overseas Military Force, (Toronto: Directorate of History, 1994) 102.
[5] Desmond Morton, A Peculiar Kind of Politics (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1982) 26.
[6] Briton C. Busch, Canada and the Great War: Western Front Association Papers (Canada: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 2003) 28.
[7] Shane B. Schreiber, Shock Army of the British Empire (St. Catharines: Vanwell Publishing, 2004) 19.
[8] Henry Dodwell, The Cambridge History of the British Empire (Cambridge: The University Press, 1929) 721.
[9] Major General Daniel Gosselin, Canada’s Participation in the Wars of the Early 20th Century (Canadian Military Journal, 2005) 74.
[10] Mark Zuehlke, Brave Battalion: The Remarkable Saga of the 16th Battalion (Mississauga: Canadian Cataloguing, 2008) 131.
[11] Ibid. p 132.
[12] Ibid. p 134.
[13]John Simpson, Unreliable Sources: How the 20th Century was Reported, (London: Macmillan, 2010) 229
[14] Private Harold Saunders, Trenches at Vimy Ridge, (Everyman at War, 1930)
[15] Doug Taylor, There was Never a Better of Time: Toronto’s Yesterday, (Bloomington: iUniverse, 2008) 357
[16] Derek Hayes, Canada: An Illustrated History, (Vancouver: Canada Cataloguing, 2004) 205
[17] Mark Zuehlke, Brave Battalion: The Remarkable Saga of the 16th Battalion (Mississauga: Canadian Cataloguing, 2008) 198
[18] Ken Stewart. Once We Lived (USA: Library of Congress, 2010) 39
[19] Norman Hillmer & J.L. Granatstein, Empire to Umpire: Canada and the World into the Twenty-First Century, (Canada: Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing, 1994) 66
[20] Ibid. p.66
[21] John Horne, A Companion to World War 1, (USA: Blackwell Publishing, 2010), 536
[22] Norman Hillmer & J.L. Granatstein, Empire to Umpire: Canada and the World into the Twenty-First Century, (Canada: Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing, 1994) 68
[23] Ibid. p.68
[24] Ian M. Drummond, British Economic Policy and the Empire 1919-1939 (England: Routledge, 1972), 147
[25] Norman Hillmer & J.L. Granatstein, Empire to Umpire: Canada and the World into the Twenty-First Century, (Canada: Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing, 1994) 69
[26] Ibid. p 69.
[27] Ibid. p 69.
[28] Ibid. p 71.
[29] John Dewey, The Middle Works, 1899-1924, (Illinois: Board of Trustees, 1983) 216
[30] Norman Hillmer & J.L. Granatstein, Empire to Umpire: Canada and the World into the Twenty-First Century, (Canada: Library and Archives Canada Cataloguing, 1994) 73
[31] Ibid. p 74.
[32] Ibid. p. 82
[33] Desmond Morton, A Military History of Canada, (Canada: McClelland and Stewart, 2007) 348
[34] William L. Mackenzie King, The Diaries of William Lyon Mackenzie King (Canada: Library and Archives Canada, 1937) 461