Case Study Method Research Paper

Case Study Method
THE CASE STUDY METHOD

- A Research Assessment -

INTRODUCTION

The use of the case study was pioneered by Sigmund Freud in his lengthy and detailed observations with his now famous patient who helped him develop the use of free association, Anna O. Researchers use case studies for a variety of reasons and in a variety of disciplines. For example, the case study is commonly used in psychology, sociology, anthropology and many other fields-like the Harvard Business School which heavily utilizes business case studies as one of its main methods of teaching. Where the medical field is concerned, the case study is used by the physician to collect and share information. The New England Journal of Medicine offers many case studies in the weekly publication of the American Medical Association (AMA). Often these cases detail or chronicle individuals with unique conditions or symptoms that need more attention than regular conditions or symptoms by physicians. This highlights one aspect of the case study and that is its inherently personal, in-depth and unique nature. It is specifically on one individual (one group, one family, one organization, etc.) and localizes instead of generalizes results and information, unlike many other types of research, "A case study is a method used to study an individual in a unique setting or situation in as intense a manner as possible. The word unique here is critical because the researcher is interested in the existing conditions surrounding the person as much as the person. It is the quality of uniqueness that sets this person (and this �case ') apart from others" (Salkind, 1994: 195).

The nature of the case study makes it useful as a research method, even though there is debate as to whether using the case study is an approach or a method. It has a specific nature and character that make it advantageous on one hand and disadvantageous on the other hand when comparing it with other types of research methodologies. The case study is like a microscopic examination of the subject which allows for the perspective or worldview of the subject to enter the research equation. The case study has four aspects that make it advantageous and four that inherently limit its use for research. The following table shows the advantages and limitations of the case study for research:

CASE STUDY RESEARCH ADVANTAGES & LIMITATIONS

______________________________________________________________________________

Advantages:

Case studies focus on only one individual or one thing (e.g., a person or school district). This allows for very close examination and scrutiny and the collection of a great deal of detailed data.

Case studies encourage the use of several different techniques to get the necessary information ranging from personal observations to interviews of others who might know the focus of the case study to schools ' or doctors ' records regarding health and other matters.

There is simply no other way to get a richer account of what is occurring than through a case study.

While case studies do not necessarily result in hypotheses being tested, they suggest directions for further study.

Limitations:

The case study if the most time-consuming research method imaginable. Data need collected in a wide variety of settings, under a variety of conditions.

The notes you record in a log or journal may accurately reflect reality or what is being observed or they may not. Researchers must try not to let bias interfere with data collection and interpretation.

What case studies make up for in depth, they lack in breadth. They are not nearly as comprehensive as other research methods.

No cause-and-effect conclusions are possible from the case study approach. There is insufficient data to conclude that a cause-effect relationship exists and is not the purpose of the method. Study of causal relationship require different research tools.

(Salkind, 1994: 196)

This analysis will analyze the use of the case study method as a research tool. For ease of understanding and clarity the analysis will refer to case studies that involve one person or individual so as not to continually repeat the other single entities on which a case study may focus. A conclusion will address the future use of case studies as a research method.

BODY

When doing research the case study method is a way of empirically investigation which "investigates a contemporary phenomenon within its real-life context when: The boundaries between phenomenon and context are not clearly evident; and in which multiple sources of evidence are used" (Yin, 1992: 123). The case study is limited in the sense that statistical analysis is not practical since the data points have no variance. Yet, the case study should include relevant quantitative data when possible. This limitation can at times prove to be an advantage because the case study is not required to be all-qualitative or all-quantitative in nature and can be a combination of both. Other than this limitation the case study method of research is comparable and used in a similar manner as empirical-based methodologies. Because of this, research that is conducted using the case study method should be assessed based on similar levels of internal validity, construct validity and reliability.

The design of the case study used for research or evaluation should be a crucial element in planning this method of research. Theory and context are important in case study research and the design of the case study is integral to both. The literature reveals that the use of the case study is valid only when the type of research being undertaken is conducive to the strengths/limits of the case study method. If we look at one particular type of research-the evaluation-we see that of the different types of evaluation research the case study offers the most advantages from a design standpoint while it also offers more flexibility on the type of data to be analyzed:

DIFFERENCES IN ASSUMPTION AMONG FOUR EVALUATION METHODS

______________________________________________________________________________ Types Of Evaluation

Grounded Quasi-

Case Study Ethnography theory experiment

______________________________________________________________________________

Design

Assumes a single objective Yes No Yes Yes

reality that can be investigated

by following the traditional

rules of scientific inquiry

Can be used for theory- Yes Yes Yes Yes

building

Also favors theory-testing Yes No No Yes

Considers context as essential Yes Yes Yes Yes

part of phenomenon being

evaluated

Data Collection and Analysis

Favored data collection Multiple Participant- Multiple Multiple

technique Observation

Type of data to be analyzed Quantitative Mostly Qualitative Mostly

or qualitative qualitative only quantitative

______________________________________________________________________________

(Yin, 1992: 128)

The unique aspect of the case study is that is allows for understanding of the directly involved subject 's perspective on a phenomenon. One problem this creates is that few case studies are designed in order to allow an understanding of how the case study researcher arrived at the same understanding of the phenomenon as does the subject, "Most case studies demonstrate the situated nature of a phenomenon and how those who are directly involved make sense of that phenomenon, but most case studies do not illustrate how the author of the case came to understand that phenomenon as the participants do" (Johnson, 1996: 556).

The case study is not based on the same principles as most other types of research, especially empirical research. In empirical research the information is typically collected from a number of individuals and reliability and validity are achieved through averaging all data collected. The case study does not work in this manner where research purposes are concerned. Instead it is the close examination or understanding of one entity or individual. Even in case studies where there are more than one individual involved, the main unit of assessment is the individual case study on each participant. The case study is excellent for research requiring an in-depth multifaceted analysis of the subject. Once again we refer back to the unique that is trying to be uncovered in this type of research, not the typical or common element or factor, "The advantage of case studies is that researchers who unitize them can deal with the reality behind appearances, with contradictions and dialectical nature of social life, as well as with a whole that is more than the sum of its parts. I am talking about case study as a method of obtaining data and not a specific language to express and idea or a theory" (Sokolovsky, 1996: 282).

The usefulness of qualitative research comes under scrutiny in modern science because of the high degree of difficulty in obtaining valid and reliable data. There are two primary methods to raising the reliability quotient of qualitative research. The first is triangulation and the second is internal consistency. The triangulation of data "enables researchers to understand a phenomenon from multiple perspectives, thus accounting for the participants ' socially constructed understanding of that phenomenon" (Johnson, 1996: 556). The focus in using case study research methodology is on depth not breadth and experts argue that this is why internal consistency is more valuable for raising reliability with the case study method, "The characteristic trait of case studies-an accent on deep, rather than broad understanding-places not triangulation but internal consistency at the prime place among methods of increasing reliability of case study. The idea of this approach is to analyze parts of the whole amount of data and compare the results of the analysis of different fragments of data with each other" (Sokolovsky, 1996: 283).

The normal route for achieving this is sequential and similar to the method used in grounded theory research. A researcher typically develops hypotheses that are predicated on data already collected and uses data follow up to verify its validity. Sometimes this technique is called reconstructive analysis but it is also commonly referred to as critical sequential examination. The ideal case study observation is one that includes moments of interpretation as verification of those interpretations is constructed with a high degree of reliability. The problem with the nature of the case study for research is that it is difficult to deduce when the interpretations being made are valid because there is little way to insure that "correct" or "right" interpretations are made. For example, many different people could read a case history or observe a subject during the research for a case study and interpret what they are seeing and hearing differently. It is difficult to make a distinction between one interpretation and another in terms of validity from this type of research which is one in-built limitation of the case study method that triangulation tries to overcome, "Triangulation is based on the idea that if several independent different actions give similar results, the results have higher reliability. There are several types of triangulation: theoretical triangulation, when different theoretical frameworks are used; data triangulation based on using different sources of data; investigator triangulation, when research is conducted by several independent researchers; and methodological triangulation based on the utilization of different methods of research" (Sokolovsky, 1996: 283).

Where validity is concerned with the case study method of research an expanded definition of the term is needed to cover not the verification of facts or numerical data but the validation of meanings. For example, if two different researchers observe and write a case study based on the same subject 's behavior or disclosure it is very difficult to determine which one is more or less "correct" than the other. If a woman is interviewed and discusses her lifetime survival of hardships, we could very well have one researcher suggest that she has survived hardships through courage and hope, while another researcher might take her disclosure to demonstrate how a high degree of faith saw her through many harsh experiences. It would be difficult to determine or distinguish which result may be the more valid or correct one-if we can even apply the word correct to such analysis. If we cannot disprove either assessment it is impossible to determine which one is correct. Where qualitative research is concerned, there are three primary ways of validating the research, "Through innate and universal reasonableness, through a universal trial-and-error learning, and through the use of pluralistic epistemologies. In case studies, reasonableness or persuasiveness is the most important way to validate interpretations. It includes meaningful agreement with all the data in general and broader context" (Sokolovsky, 1996: 288-289).

The general and the particular are two distinctions in research. The way they are related is through representation. For example, while a part of the body like the jaw does not represent the whole animal, there is enough information in it to construct what the animal would appear like and many of its lifestyle habits. In other words, a part reflect the whole but with an individual the parts are very often more than the sum of the whole and for this reason the case study method allows for an examination of the particular, not the general. The individual is related to the general not by similarity, but by differences. This is why the large number of subjects is required for quantitative research, but for qualitative research like the case study method the exact opposite is required, "The scientific point that the particular represents the general is based on the analysis of variability of a given variable in a group of people. A large number of subjects and low dispersion of scores gives the ground for generalization in quantitative research; saturation is the basis for a similar conclusion for qualitative research" (Sokolovsky, 1996: 290).

In other words, if the information collected in a case study is linked to the general, then the researcher would have to do case studies on many other individuals to determine if the information was similar or representative of any types of characteristics or traits in the general population. However, this would end up being quantitative research and definitely not classified as a case study. A case study does not focus on the general but on the differences that exist in relation to the general. The case study focuses on the atypical or not common. In this way it gives more understanding and deepens our knowledge of the individual and uniqueness more than other types of research. This can have many benefits because it allows a refinement of predictions and generalizations because information about unusual or uncommon facets of life and human nature reduce generalizing and sweeping predictions. The validity of a case study is also connected to the general and the individual-the nature of the difference between a consensual worldview and the unique details of a case study. Because of this relationship case study research can only be significant when it relates to a theory. For example, no matter how data is manipulated it cannot validate a researcher 's analysis of the case study. Why the analysis is done and the theoretical viewpoint of the researcher are more critical for the case study. In effect, there are five main goals that case study research is designed to address: "(1) Furthering scientific analysis by introducing a negative (or deviant) case; (2) Investigating what is beyond the boundaries of reasonable by using an extreme case; (3) Supplementing reductionism of analytic research by holistic perspective; (4) providing social minorities with a voice; and (5) Describes cases that have some special importance, for instance, ones that may be believed to anticipate future social changes" (Sokolovsky, 1996: 291). The interviewer or researcher is only able to use his or her understanding in order to present a theoretical approach to the research because what is recorded or observed will be limited to what the interviewer believes or understands (from other proven theory) what is important, interesting or trustworthy from the research. The theory adopted by the researcher is often as critical to shaping the case study research as is the actual disclosure by the subject themselves. Because of this the researcher is able to have a major impact on the research in a case study by the conscious and unconscious processes they exhibit which can manipulate or alter the data that is collected, "Through focusing on some issues and switching away from other ones an interviewer is able to control �thickness ' of description of different aspects of the research problem-which represents �the individual ' and contributes to the validity and importance of a case study" (Sokolovsky, 1996: 291).

The case study more often reveals a diversity and richness to behavior of some type, whether it is the behavior of the individual or the behavior of the business organization. The case study research method is not designed and does not result in ground breaking basic research as other types of research methodologies are and can. The findings of a case study are very limited in the sense that it is very difficult if not impossible to generalize the findings. The case study is very valuable as a research tool for certain fields and disciplines, however. Often it is ideal for the medical field because it is a way for the medical community to share information on rare or unique cases that will help provide additional knowledge and accuracy to the field. In addition, it is excellent for psychology because it is an in-depth examination of the individual which allows for information that often can be obtained through no other method, "To understand an individual 's behavior, we must know how he perceives the situation, the obstacles he believed he had to face, the alternatives he saw opening up to him. We cannot understand the effects of the range of possibilities, delinquent subcultures, social norms and other explanations of behavior which are commonly invoked, unless we consider them from the actor 's point of view" (Hamel, 1993: 17).

While the case study has been hailed for its excellence as an in-depth tool of investigation it has faults which bring it a great deal of criticism in some scientific and research communities. The biggest faults of the case study research method that generally come under fire are its limitation of representation to the whole and its flexible and lack of stringent requirements concerning the collection of materials and data:

Its lack of representativeness, and especially the lack of representativeness of the case used as a point of observation for the social phenomenon or issue constituting the object of study; and

Its lack of rigor in the collection, construction and analysis of the empirical materials that give rise to this study. This lack of rigor is linked to the problem of bias. Such bias is introduced by the subjectivity of the researcher, as well as of the field informants on whom the researcher relies to get an understanding of the case under investigation.

(Hamel, 1993: 23)

The very nature of the diversity of the materials used in formulating the case study, whether it be medical information on an individual 's symptoms or the market trends affecting a business organization pose a problem because all of the primary and secondary sources must be interpreted by the individual researcher as they understand them and from their theoretical framework. Further, these materials represent the empirical information through which the study 's subject must be understood. Because of the variety of these materials analysis becomes problematic. It is problematic not only from the treatment of materials but also because of their diversity. The types of materials utilized in case study research methods are of many types and from many sources:

[Case study empirical materials] may be news reports, official documents, remarks in context, personal writings, literary works such as novels, and so forth. The case study thus considers materials of different origins, which are produced by different types of knowledge, whereas news reports involve a more elaborate form of knowledge (although this characterization is not meant to denigrate the personal knowledge revealed by what informants say). Official documents from political authorities, for example, produce a knowledge that lends itself to their inherently administrative purposes, whereas fiction is the product or result of an elaboration of knowledge that obeys narrative rules. How can empirical materials be used in an analysis aimed at a sociological, not to say scientific, knowledge if they have been treated differently, in accordance with their different intellectual origins?

(Hamel, 1993: 45)

One of the most useful benefits of the case study is that it can provide valuable insight and information when shared between individuals. This is why the research in case studies in The New England Journal of Medicine are published to give physicians a higher chance for accuracy and correct diagnosis and treatment in their profession because they are able to share information about unique symptoms and illnesses that have come from in-depth research not based on common illnesses or symptoms or general populations of people. Because of the valuable information they contain about specific cases or rare conditions, they are often valuable as a research aid or a study aid to students or others who are learning their profession or gaining knowledge in their field. They often provide specific examples so that they are a good way of making others who read them aware of unique situations and specific types of problems that they may not encounter in their broader studies of things that are not so unique to their field or professional course of study. Advanced physiological education is often imparted to students by using the research contained in case studies. As one professor comments, "Providing a case study for each of the major body systems covered in the course made the cases a practical study aid and promoted immediate reinforcement of the lecture material as it was present in class. Students also used their corrected case analyses to study for their exams" (Cliff and Wright, 1996: S19).

The above scenario also demonstrates how the specific and in-depth nature of the case study and case study research provides an ability to understand or learn about specific and detailed incidents and cases. Because of the microscopic examination nature of the case study those who use them are able to learn much more about types of illnesses or conditions that they would not encounter often in the general field or in quantitative studies that generalize. One example of how they can be used in such a manner comes from their use in research at the Woodrow Wilson Biology Institute. The Institute uses a unique approach to case studies by using films that depict various issues that are being researched or taught to students. Adrenoleuko- dystrophy (ALD) is a rare inherited genetic disorder and the Institute used the film Lorenzo 's Oil as the method by which it taught its students to understand and interpret the disease by fashioning their own case study after its viewing. As the rationale for the activity is explained by one instructor, "The purpose is to expose the students to an inherited genetic disorder by viewing the film Lorenzo 's Oil. The students will be able to learn about this rare disease and follow the progression of the disease from the initial diagnosis through the 32 month ordeal that the family endured. They will experience the frustrations and triumphs with the Odone family as they follow the challenges of finding a cure for ALD. The students will observe the scientific method being put into practice. This is a true-life drama which depicts the social, financial, ethical and political ramifications of a little-known genetic disease that doesn 't get much attention from doctors nor the research community" (Gostinger, 1994: 1).

The case study is also a valuable investigative tool once it is completed. The case study involves a past record of particular moments, events or times in the life of an individual or organization. While there are some who criticize the methods used to conduct such research, especially the bias of those collecting and interpreting the data, there are instances when the type of data used in case histories is more significant than other types of information used to interpret particular situations. One such situation is the use of the case study to chronicle and record the events the unfold when an individual must go through the legal and judicial process because of being accused of a crime. Medical technology has advanced and case studies that were thought to be merely informational have proven to be useful long after their actual recording and publication or sharing among professionals. Case study methods are often cited for an inaccuracy based on researcher bias or understanding, but other methods of investigation have proven inferior to them in many cases of law. For example, case study records have been used to prove how inaccurate other types of evidence can be now that DNA evidence is often used to prove that someone who has been convicted and sentenced to jail time is actually innocent. One study documenting 28 cases proved that in all of them the types of information relied upon during the recording of the case study details was inferior or inaccurate to new information available from DNA analysis, "As the 28 cases collected in this report demonstrate, when we subject new scientific techniques such as DNA typing to evidence, such as eyewitness testimony. In all 28 cases, without the benefit of DNA evidence, the triers of fact had to rely on eyewitness testimony, which turned out to be inaccurate" (Connors, Lundregan, Miller and McEwen, 1996: 3). This shows one aspect of the case study method that makes it valuable for research. The case study does not alter or have that much impact as basic research or in anything that evolves from it that is of a ground-breaking manner. Rather, it is particular useful for applying evolving theories and technologies to in order to determine if the interpretations are valid or reliable.

The case study contains two types of information and it is more than a simple reconstruction of facts that have been assembled by the researcher after data collection. It is descriptive in nature and involves details that have been deemed interesting or significant from the researcher 's point of view. It also is valuable as a source of interpretations of meaning that can be linked to the information that has been collected in the study. The case study is different from other types of research methods because of five main aspects. First, it is a descriptive method of processes, events and the context in which they were played out. Second, it is a narrowly focused method of research. Third, it is highly detailed because of its narrow focus and in-depth nature. Fourth, the case study method combines objective and subjective data. Fifth, it is a process-oriented method of research which "enables the researcher to explore and describe the nature of processes which occur over time�in contrast to the experimental method, which basically provides a stilled snapshot of processes which may be continuing over time" (Dyer, 1995: 49).

CONCLUSION

While we have seen that the case study method of doing research does have certain in-built limitations that make it truly useful for only some types of research, its particular nature and strengths seem to make it more desirable for the disciplines that involve discovery based on understanding meaning to arrive at truth, "Its [the case study] accent on in-depth understanding coincides with the increasing popularity of interpretation of psychology, sociology and social sciences in general as sciences of understanding of human nature, when access to the facts is provided by the understanding of meaning, not observation" (Sokolovsky, 1996: 281-282). We have seen that the case study method has very defined limitations that make it disadvantageous for some types of studies or research, however, we have also seen how these make it unique and advantageous for other types of research. For example, because of the fact that it involves the actor in the equation the method is excellent for psychology because the professional is able to observe and hear from the participant first-hand which makes them able to use their professional knowledge that is more involved and considerable than the understanding the participant might have. In a sense, the "investigator may understand the subject better than the subject understands himself or herself. Even the subject 's ignorance or misunderstandings can be turned to advantage in helping to explain behavior and make sense of the case" (Bromley, 1996: 16). Thus, one can see that the case study method of doing research must be aligned with those areas or fields of investigation where its specific nature and design are most beneficial to a fuller understanding and deeper appreciation of the facts. It is no different than other methods of research in that it is only as useful as the degree of reliability and validity that are built in to the overall research design.

REFERENCES

Bromley, D. B. (1996) The Case Study Method in Psychology and Related Disciplines. John Wiley & Sons, NY.

Cliff, W. H. and Wright, A. W. (1996) "Directed Case Study Method for Teaching Human Anatomy and Physiology." American Journal of Physiology. pp. S19-S28.

Connors, E., Lundregan, T., Miller, N. and McEwen, T. (June 1996) "Convicted by Juries, Exonerated by Science: Case Studies in the Use of DNA Evidence to Establish Innocence After Trial." http://www.ncjrs.org/txtfiles/dnaevid.txt Institute for Law and Justice. pp. 1-6.

Dyer, C. (1995) Beginning Research in Psychology. Blackwell Publishers, UK: 1995.

Gostinger, L. (1994) Adrenoleukodystrophy (ADL): A Case Study Using the Film Lorenzo 's Oil." Woodrow Wilson Biology Institute. http://outcast.gene.com/ae/AE/AEPC/WWC/1994/adreno.html pp. 1-5.

Hamel, J. (1993) Case Study Methods. SAGE Publications, Inc., CA.

Johnson, K. H. (Winter 1996) "The Art of Case Study Research." The Modern Language Journal. Vol. 80. No. 4. pp. 556-557.

Salkind, N. J. (1994) Exploring Research. Macmillan College Publishing, Inc., NY.

Savolainen, R. (1996) "Research Methods." Library and Information Science Research. Vol. 18. No. 3. pp. 291-293.

Sokolovsky, M. (1996) "Case Study as a Research Method to Study Life Histories of Elderly People." Journal of Aging Studies. Vol. 10. No. 4. pp. 281-294.

Stake, R. E. The Art of Case Study Research. SAGE Publications, CA: 1995.

Yin, R. K. (Spring 1992) "The Case Study Method as a Tool for Doing Evaluation." Current Sociology. Vol. 40. No. 1. pp. 121-137.

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References: Bromley, D. B. (1996) The Case Study Method in Psychology and Related Disciplines. John Wiley & Sons, NY. Cliff, W. H. and Wright, A. W. (1996) "Directed Case Study Method for Teaching Human Anatomy and Physiology." American Journal of Physiology. pp. S19-S28. Dyer, C. (1995) Beginning Research in Psychology. Blackwell Publishers, UK: 1995. Gostinger, L. (1994) Adrenoleukodystrophy (ADL): A Case Study Using the Film Lorenzo 's Oil." Woodrow Wilson Biology Institute. http://outcast.gene.com/ae/AE/AEPC/WWC/1994/adreno.html pp. 1-5. Hamel, J. (1993) Case Study Methods. SAGE Publications, Inc., CA. Johnson, K. H. (Winter 1996) "The Art of Case Study Research." The Modern Language Journal. Vol. 80. No. 4. pp. 556-557. Salkind, N Savolainen, R. (1996) "Research Methods." Library and Information Science Research. Vol. 18. No. 3. pp. 291-293. Sokolovsky, M. (1996) "Case Study as a Research Method to Study Life Histories of Elderly People." Journal of Aging Studies. Vol. 10. No. 4. pp. 281-294. Yin, R. K. (Spring 1992) "The Case Study Method as a Tool for Doing Evaluation." Current Sociology. Vol. 40. No. 1. pp. 121-137.