Chapter 12

Pols 104 – Chapter 12 Theories /01.03

Bir kisi bir oy yaklasimi temsil konusunda is so simplisticbecause it equates representation with voting and elections and see politicians as a representative just becausethey have been elected.

Theories of representation:

Representative government ne anlama gelir daha mi bilgilidir halktan, yada halktan aldigi fikirler dogrultusunda mi hareket eder???
Siyasetciler secim zamani verilen vaatlere uymali midir yoksahalkin cikarlarini tanimlayip kamuoyunu yonlendirmek amaciyla mi secilirler???

1.Trustee:

Burke 1774: the essence of rep. is to serve one's constituents by exercise of the maturejudgements and enlightened conscience.
Bilgili egitimli temsilciler kendilerinden degitim alma konusunda daha sanssiz kisilerein menfaatleri yonunde devam etmelidir
Ya eger halk menfaatleri hakkinda bilgisizse?o zmn temsilciler kendi menfaatleri dogrultusunda hareket ederler.

JsMill: liberal theory of representation:
Not all political opinions are of equal values although everybody has equal rigth to vote .therefore, he proposed a new plural voting system that gives different number of voting rigts to people by classifying them according their education level and status.and also he believes that rational voter would support the representative who could act wisely on their behalf rather than those who only reflect their voter's ideas.
Representatives sould be well educated elites.because knowledge and understanding are unequally distributed in society ,so not all citizens know what is best for them.
Eleştiriler :
1.Antidemocratic
2. Temsil vs egitim:ahlaki yargi kisminda yetersiz. Alturizm e sebep olmaz egitim kanit yok.
3.kendi cikarlari dogrultusunda bu haklari kullanir korkusu

2. Delegate model:
Baskalarinin dusuncelerini aktaran, kendi istek ve cikarlarini katamaz.kendi basina karar verme yetksi yoktur(satis temsilcileri ve buyukelciler)
Bu modeli benimseyenler, halk temsilcisinin olabildiince halki temsil etmesi gerektigine inanir ve bunu saglayacak mekanizmalara guvenirler unlar duzeli ve kisa sure aralikli secimler(sik sik degisim)
Denetim icin inisiyatif (halkin yasama uzerinde soz sahibi olmasini saglayan bir cesit referandum ve geri cagirma hakkinin halka ait oldugunu savunurlar.
Temsili sisteme ek olarak referanduma da sicak bakarlar.

Zararları :
1.Secmenlerin temsilcileri kendi secmenlerini yansitacagindan bolgesell ve catisma cikar cunku halk temsilcisi sadece kendi secmenlerini. Degil halkin menfaatini de dusunmelidir.
2.devlet adamlarina kendi basina hareket ahkki verilmemsi onlara karsi guvensizligi gosterir ve faaliyet alanini kisitlar. Halkin olumsuz isteklerine uymak zorunda birakilip iyi bir vizyonla halki harekete geciremez.

3. Mandate model:
Bir onceki iki model temsilleri bagizsizaktorler olarak gorur cunku siyasi partiler olmadan once kurulmustu
Artik tek basina degil bir partiye baglilar
Parti secilir ve halkin vekaletini alir
Politikacilar kendilerini dusunerek yada secmenleriin fikirlerini nakletmeyi amaclamaz, partiye bagli siyaslara bagli kalarak hizmet ederler. Guclu yonu:politikacilarin verdikeleri soze bagli kalmasini saglar, undoubted practical importance of political parties.
Elestririler:
1.Secmenler meseleler ve siyasalar uerinden oy verir, secmenler her zmn rasyonel degildir ve liderlerin partini imaji ve benzeri seylerden direk etkilenebilirler.
2.manifestolarin hepsine oy vermez secmen birisi kendi cikarina geldigi icin onu kabul eder ama diger siyasalarini kaul etmeyebiir
3.deli gomlegi gibidir :degisen sartlar dogrultusundasiyasalarin degistirlmesine olanak tanimaz
4.sadece cogulcusecim sistemlerinde oylarin %50sini almasiyla saglanir

4.Resemblance model:

Secildikleri gruba benzeler herkes kendini temsil eder ve birlik dusunesi olmaz ve halk catismalari baslar. Mesela cok sonuk partlar kendini temsil etme hakki bulmazsa ne olacak
Eger hukumet halkin temsiliyse toplumun guclu ve zayif taraflarini da yansitacak mesla hic bir seyden haberi olmayan bir topluma benzzeyen hukumet nasil avantaj saglayabilir.zorunluluklar konularak belki onlenebilir, kadin kotasininin acilmasi
Elections :
The representative process is intrinsically linked to elections and voting.
Joseph Schumpeter:
Democracy= institutional arrangement : only political method identified with competitive elections: accepting /refusing the men who are to rule them.
Different Forms that Election can take :
1. Which offices or posts are subject to the elective principle? ( milletvekillerini biz seceriz ama başbakanı direct olarak biz seçmeyiz/ ya da in UK/Canada besides the democratically elected parliaments, there is a constitutional monarchic system that descended from father to son.,)
2. Who is entitled to vote? How widely is the franchise drawn? : informal restriction in USA results that non registration and non voting are widespread.
3. How are votes cast?(Oylar nasıl verilir) /secret ballot(Fair election) /public votting /the way that people vote is affected by reliable and balanced information/ the range of choice /campaigns / how the vote is counted
4. Are elections competitive or non competitive? Single candidate elections ( Orthodox communist states) /Electoral Competition concerns the right people for election, ability of parties to nominate candidates, campaigni sources of funding and access to media.
5. How is the election conducted?
Functions of Elections:
Liberal Democratic Electoral System can be characterized by universal suffrage(evrensel oy hakkı), secret ballot, electoral competition.
There are two contrasting view of the function of competitive elections:
1. Conventional View: (bottom up funtion): politicians can be called to account and forced to introduce policies that somehow reflect public opinion.
2. Radical View: (Top down) : Governments and political elites can exercises control over the populations , meking them passive and governable.
Central Functions of Elections:
1. Recruiting Politicians: Since electons are the principal sourse of political recruitment, politicians tend to posses talents and skills that are related to electioneering(charisma,oratorical skills, good looks) rather than carryin gout constituency duties.
2. Making Government: by directly electing the political executive, Un partlimentary system, elections affects influence the formation of governments, proportional representations (governments are formed through post-election deals( made or unmade without the need for elections)
3. Providing Representation : elections are chanells from public to government,because of short of the use of initiatives and the recall electionas are not effective, no microcosm of the larger society
4. Influencing Policy: Elections deter government from radical and unpopular policies, in some cases( single issue dominance) influence directly policy, has only marginal policy significancebecause of narrow range of policy, gov. Policy can be shaped by economy rather than elections.
5. Educating Voters:Campaigns that can be educations only if info is provided , engages in public interestand situmulates debate as opposed to alineation and apathy. Don T seek to persuade rather than to educate.
6. Building Legitimacy : Even in authoriarian regimes, elections help to foster legitimacy ,encourage citizzans to participate in politics
7. Strengthening Elites
***Proportional Representation : represented according to electoral strengthi party list system , suitable for divided and plural societies.
Electoral Systems:
The systems can be divided into two broad categories on the basis of how they convert votes into seats:
1. Majoritarian systems: Larger parties win a higher proportionof seats thean the proportion of votes they gain in election : increases the chance of a signle party gaining a parlimentary majority and being able to govern on its own.
2. Proportional Systems(in Turkey): equal relationship between the seats won by a party and the votes gained in elections.:associated with multiparty and coalition gov.
*** List system, a method of voting for several electoral candidates, usually members of the same political party, with one mark of the ballot. It is used to elect the parliaments of many western European countries Electors vote for one of several lists of candidates, usually prepared by the political parties. Each party is granted seats in proportion to the number of popular votes it receives. Parliamentary seats are eliminated, and the voter has to vote for a party only. The parties then draw up a list of candidates, ranked in order of preference. Each party is then allocated as many seats as is in direct proportion to their votes, and their members at the top of the list are elected. https://www.mtholyoke.edu/acad/polit/damy/BeginnningReading/PRsystems.htm
Electoral systems can be assesed according to two criteria : quality of representation and effectiveness of government.
Majoritarian :
Weakest system in terms of representative functions : distorts popular preferences because party representation is not equal to electoral strength. Koltuk dağoılımıyla ilgili baş parti election da aldığı vote oranından daha buykuk koltuk alıyor, diğerlerine unfair.
Criticism about proportional electoral system : Unlike single party government , coalitions enjoy support of at least 50 percent of electors , their policies are thrashedout in post election deals that are not supported the opinion of any electors. The parties in coalition government may not be effective and powerful in line with the strength that gained in election.
• Majoritarian government are usually able to survive for a full term in office.In contrast coalition governments are weak and ustable, endlessly engaged in a aprocess of reconciling opposing views .Ex : ıtaly
• On the other hand, strong gov. can be understood in terms of popular support and willingness to citizens to obey and respect the government. And also stable gov. could mean a consistent development of government policies
• Generalization is not true because the impact of particular electoral systems is conditioned largely by other circumcitances: polictical culture, nature of party system ,economic and social.
Ex : coalition in Germany& Italy , Ukkeynesian social democracy despite conservative & labor party
In Turkey : General Aspects of the Electoral System
The Parliament of the Republic of Turkey, the Turkish Grand National Assembly (TGNA), is composed of 550 members directly elected by universal adult suffrage for a five-year term of office. Members of Parliament represent the entire nation, rather than the constituencies in which they were elected.
Each one of Turkey's eighty-one provinces is entitled to an initial National Assembly seat, and the remaining seats are allocated among the provinces in proportion to their populations. Provinces with nineteen to thirty-five seats are divided into two constituencies, while provinces with thirty-six or more seats are split into three constituencies.
Political parties present lists of candidates; these must be submitted in at least half the provinces. Joint lists are not allowed, but independent candidates may run for office. Electors cast a ballot for a single list or an independent candidate. Constituency seats are apportioned according to the largest average method of proportional representation (PR), conceived by the Belgian mathematician Victor D'Hondt in 1899. However, in order to participate in the distribution of TGNA seats, a political party must obtain at least ten percent of the nationwide vote.

Systems :
1.Majoritarian : Single member pluratiy system (UK-USA-Canada-India )
-Select single candidate who needs to achieve a pluratiy of votes
-adv: clear link between represent. and constituents, forming clear mandate from the electorate, keep extremism at bay by making it difficult for small radical parties, strong ,effective, stable government
-disadv: waste many votes, two limited choice, undermines the legitimacy of government, change in gov. Causes radical shifts of policies, unaccountable government
2. Majoritarian: Second Ballot System : (France)
Adv: broaden electoral choice, win more majority, strong and stable gov.
Disadv: Little propotional, distorts preferences, strain electorate’s patience and interest in politics.run off candidates are encouraged to abandon their principles
3. Majoritatiran: Alternative Vote System : (Australia)
-voters rank the candidates , gain %50 of votes,
-adv: fewer waste vote, there is no deal between run off candidates and strong ones
-disadv: still favor of large parties, may be determined by the preferences of those who support small,extremist parties.
4. Proportional: Additional Member System ( Germany, Italy,Russia)
- A proportion of seats (fptp) and remaining seat(proportional) , one vote for candiate in constituency, one for party
-adv: Hybrid nature of system, choose constituency representation and government differently ,ministerial office and constituents are very different jobs.
- disadv:creates two classes of representative, constituencyrepresentation size is very high,they can decide where on the list candidates are placed.
5. Single Transfarable Vote System(262)
6. Party List System:
Mean of Elections:
-Public Interest :Individuals do not in practice act selflessly in accordance with a general or collective will and there is no such thing as an indivisable public interest.
-Imposibility of knowing why voters vote as they do : Anthony Downs(economic theory of democracy:select parties = select good and services for purchase
- Influenced by Irrational Factors
- no elective mechanishm may be able to give expression to the multitrionspreferencesof voters
-As a result : The most significant function of elections isyo set limitsto arbitrary gov. by ensuring that politicians who claim to speak for the public must ultimately be judged by the public.
VOTING BEHAVIOR:
1. Short-term and long-term influences:
- The state of the economy which reflects that there is usually a link between a government’s popularity and economic variables such as unemployment, inflation and disposable income.
-The personality and public standing of party leaders because media exposure portrays leaders as the brand image of their party.(Part başlarında gidilen değişiklik deniz baykaldan Kılıçdaroglu
- The mass media may also be of long-term significance if biased or partisan coverage reflects structural, and therefore continuing, factors such as press ownership.

Theories of Voting :

1. Party-identification Model
- The earliest theory of voting behaviour is based on the sense of psychological attachment that people have to parties.
- Manifestation of partisanship(not calculation of elections,media..)
- This model places heavy stress on early political socialisation, seeing the family as the principal means through which political loyalties are forged.
- Attitudes towards policies and leaders, and perceptions about group and personal interests, tend to be developed on the basis of party identification.
- Easy to predict normal vote for a party and only affected by short term factors.
- Weakness : Partisan Dealignment :fall in party identification and a decline in habitual voting pattern(In USA –decline in democrats and republicans and rise in independent.
Potential Reasons of Partisan Dealignment: Expansion of education, geographical and social mobility, reliance on tv as a source of political info.

2. Sociological Model
- This model links voting behaviour to group membership, suggesting that electors tend to adopt a voting pattern that reflects the economic and social position of the group towhich they belong.(middle classright wings party, working class left wings party)
- This model highlights the importance of a social alignment, reflecting the various divisions and tensions within society. The most significant of these divisions are class, gender, ethnicity, religion and region.
- This model has been attacked on the grounds that, in focusing on social groups, it ignores the individual and the role of personal self-interest.
- Class De-alignment: Evidence of class de-alignment can be found in most western societies. E.g.,absolute class voting fell from 66% (1966) to 47% (1983) in the UK; UK Labour party received more votes from non-manual workers than from manual workers.
- Reasons of class de-alignment: Changes in social structure that have weakened the solidaristic character of class identity. These include the embourgeosiment of the working class brought about by growing affluence, the shift from manufacturing to service industries, growing importance of sectoral cleavages based on the publi/private sector.

3. Rational-choice Model
-This model shift attention onto the individual and away from socialisation and the behaviour of social groups.
- Voting is seen as a rational act, in the sense that individual electors are believed to decide their party preference on the basis of personal self-interest.
-Issue Voting:electoral performance is influenced by reshaping their policies.
- The weakness of rational-choice theories is that they abstract the individual voter from his or her social and cultural context.
4. Dominant-ideology model
-Radical theories of voting to highlight the degree to which individual choices are shaped by a process of ideological manipulation and control.
-Resamble to Sociological Model in terms of social positon in hierarchy
-Differs from soc. Model in How groups and individuals interpret their position depends on how it has been presented to them through education, by the government, and above all, by the mass media.
-Media distorts flow of political information
- The weakness of the dominant-ideology model is that, by overstating the process of social conditioning, it takes individual calculation and personal autonomy out of the picture altogether.