Chapter 8

In search of political and social order
Confucius (551-479 B.C.E.) and his school
Confucius
Educator and political advisor
Sayings were compiled in the Analects by his disciples
Confucian ideas
Fundamentally moral and ethical in character
Thoroughly practical: how to restore political and social order
Concentrated on formation of junzi--"superior individuals"
Edited and compiled the Zhou classics for his disciples to study
Key Confucian values
Ren--a sense of humanity, kindness, benevolence
Li--a sense of propriety, courtesy, respect, deference to elders
Xiao--filial piety, familial obligation
Cultivate personal morality and junzi for bringing order to China
Mencius (372-289 B.C.E.), spokesman for the Confucian school
Believed in the goodness of human nature (ren)
Advocated government by benevolence and humanity
Xunzi (298-238 B.C.E.) had a less positive view of human nature
Believed that humans selfishly pursue own interests
Preferred harsh social discipline to bring order to society
Advocated moral education and good public behavior
Daoism featured prominent critics of Confucian activism
Preferred philosophical reflection and introspection, a life in harmony with nature
Laozi, founder of Daoism, allegedly wrote the Daodejing (Classic of the Way and of Virtue)
Zhuangzi (compendium of Daoist philosophy)
The Dao--the way of nature, the way of the cosmos
Elusive concept: an eternal principle governing all the workings of the world
Dao is passive and yielding, does nothing yet accomplishes everything
Humans should tailor their behavior to the passive and yielding nature of the Dao
Ambition and activism had only brought the world to chaos
Doctrine of wuwei: disengagement from worldly affairs, simple life
Advocated small, self-sufficient communities
Political implications: served as counterbalance to Confucian activism
Legalism
The doctrine of practical and efficient statecraft
No concern with ethics and morality
No concern with the principles governing nature
Shang Yang (ca. 390-338 B.C.E.), chief minister of Qin and Legalist writer
Han Feizi (ca. 280-233 B.C.E.) synthesized Legalist ideas in essays
Legalist doctrine
The state's strength was in agriculture and military force
Discouraged commerce, education, and the arts
Harnessing self-interest of the people for the needs of the state
Called for harsh penalties even for minor infractions
Advocated collective responsibility before the law
Not popular among Chinese, but practical; put end to Period of Warring States

The Unification of China
The Qin dynasty
Qin, Located in west China, adopted Legalist policies
Encouraged agriculture, resulted in strong economy
Organized a powerful army equipped with iron weapons
Conquered other states and unified China in 221 B.C.E.
The first emperor was Qin Shihuangdi (221 B.C.E.)
Established centralized imperial rule
Project of connecting and extending the Great Wall
Buried 460 scholars alive because of their criticism against the Qin
Burned all books except some with utilitarian value
Policies of centralization
Standardization of laws, currencies, weights, measures
Standardization of scripts
Tomb of the First Emperor, who died 210 B.C.E.
Tomb was underground palace with army of life-size terra-cotta figures
Excavation of the tomb since 1974
The collapse of the Qin dynasty
Massive public works generated tremendous ill will among the people
Waves of rebels overwhelmed the Qin court in 207 B.C.E.
Short-lived dynasty, but left deep marks in Chinese history
The early Han dynasty
Liu Bang; persistent and methodical; by 206 B.C.E. restored order
Early Han policies
Sought a middle way between Zhou decentralization and Qin overcentralization
Han Wudi, the Martial Emperor (reigned 141-87 B.C.E.), emphasized centralization and expansion
Han centralization; adopted Legalist policies
Built an enormous bureaucracy to rule the empire
Continued to build roads and canals
Levied taxes on agriculture, trade, and craft industries
Imperial monopolies on production of iron and salt
Established Confucian educational system for training bureaucrats
Han imperial expansion
Invaded and colonized northern Vietnam and Korea
Han organized vast armies to invade Xiongnu territory (nomads from steppes)
Han enjoyed uncontested hegemony in east and central Asia

From economic prosperity to social disorder
Productivity and prosperity during the Former Han
Patriarchal social structure
Women's subordination; Ban Zhao's Admonitions for Women
Children obey and honor parents
Vast majority of population were cultivators
Iron metallurgy: farming tools, utensils, and weapons
Silk textiles; sericulture spread all over China during the Han
Paper production; replaced silk and bamboo as writing material
Population growth: twenty million to sixty million from 220 B.C.E. to 9 C.E.
Economic and social difficulties
Expeditions consumed the empire's surplus
Raised taxes and confiscated land of some wealthy individuals
Taxes and land confiscations discouraged investment in manufacture and trade
Social tensions, caused by stratification between the poor and rich
Problems of land distribution
The reign of Wang Mang (9-23 C.E.)
Land reforms by the "socialist emperor"
Overthrown by revolts, 23 C.E.
The later Han dynasty (25-220 C.E.)
Yellow Turban Uprising: revolt due to problems of land distribution
Collapse of the Han
Factions at court paralyzed the central government
Han empire dissolved; China was divided into regional kingdoms