Classical Period In The Development Of World Sociology

Sociology
Theme: Classical period in the development of world sociology
19th - early 20th century

Content
Introduction 3
1. Formation and development of classical sociology 4
2. The main directions and representatives of classical sociology 6
2.1 Naturalism: Herbert Spencer 6
2.2 Positivism: Auguste Comte 6
2.3 Sociology: Durkheim 8
4. Sociological Method 9
5. Ideal types of social action 11
5.1 Sociology domination 13
5.2 Sociology of Religion 14
Conclusion 16
List of sources 17

Introduction
Relevance of the work lies in the fact that the classical stage in the development of sociology it is the very appearance of sociology. And is the founder of modern sociology.
Objective: is to study the classical period in the development of sociology
In the evolution of ideas about society can be divided into three periods: the pre-scientific, classical and modern. Prescientific period of development sociology - the most significant time: III millennium BC. e. - XVIII century. n. e.
The first and fairly complete picture of the structure of society gave the ancient philosophers Plato and Aristotle. Then came a very long, stretching for two thousand years, the historical pause before there were outstanding scientists and thinkers (Machiavelli, Hobbes, Bacon, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, A. Helvetius, Kant and many others) who are seriously enriched our knowledge about society and human behavior. Finally, in H1Hv. actually born sociology, which incorporates the best achievements of human thought about society and, in particular through the use of scientific methods, advancing our knowledge further. Among the creators of scientific sociology stand Comte, Marx, Durkheim and Weber. With them open their own research period in the history of sociology.
Another chronology sociology offered the famous American sociologist Alvin Gouldner in his book "The Coming Crisis of Western Sociology." He immediately starts counting from the nineteenth century., And the resulting length of time breaks down into 4 periods. The first period is called the sociological positivism. It began in the first quarter of the nineteenth century. and shaped by the ideas of Saint-Simon and Comte. The second period is called Marxism. The flowering is in the middle of the nineteenth century. In Marxism, German idealist philosophy organically united with the French utopian socialism and English political economy. Third period - classical sociology - served as a bridge between the previous two and fourth periods. At this time, were created classical teachings of Max Weber, Emile Durkheim and Pareto. It lasted until the First World War. The fourth period was marked by the dominance of parsonovskogo structural functionalism. In the 30 years of the twentieth century, T. Parsons has created a fundamental sociological theory, certain provisions of which were developed in the future a group of young colleagues Parsons at Harvard: Robert Merton, K. Davis, W. Moore, R. Williams et al.
Thus, the classical period in the development of sociology can start with the activities of Comte and the French sociological school, and it is possible, as it makes Gouldner, attribute it to postkontovskomu period, ie by the end of XIX - early XX century.
1. Formation and development of classical sociology
Sociology as a science separated from the philosophy, and the term "sociology" (from the Latin. Societas - Society and Greek. Logos - teaching) was introduced in 1842 by the French philosopher Auguste Comte (1798-1857) in his work "The course of positive philosophy" that and is the official fact of the appearance of this science. Since the XV-XVI centuries. in society began to form intensively capitalist relations, and together with them and the accompanying social contradictions, almost all thinkers XVII-XVIII centuries. criticized the emerging system and attempted to comprehend the truth and finding the means of movement for justice. Some began to offer speculative projects transformation of society based on social ideal; others have relied on the research of the social realities that already existed, trying to identify the factors of their development, to find the causes of the existing contradictions and their solutions.
On the structure of the new nascent science strongly influenced by rapidly developing science: physics, biology, chemistry. In those days there were no other scientific methods, except for the natural sciences, such as observation, study of indirect evidence, experiment, comparison. Therefore, by analogy with the branches of physics, Comte divided sociology to "social statics" and "social dynamics". The first focused on the study of parts of society (family, state, religion it.d.); the second - to reflect on the problems of social development and social change.
Great influence in the XIX century. on sociological thought had the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin, creating evolutionism - direction of public opinion on the basis of representation of the unity of the laws of history, nature and man. This theory, along with naturalism (organicism), sometimes also called "theory of a single factor." This includes concept ("school of one factor"), which highlight the natural factors or certain patterns of natural science as the driving force of social development, by analogy with the natural and historical development. Representatives of these areas L. Gumplowicz, Spencer et al., Drove the laws of evolution of human society to the laws of biological evolution and advanced principles of natural selection, struggle for existence and survival of the fittest as determinants of social life
At the end of the XIX century. increasing influence of psychological tendencies in sociology, having the following distinct areas: "Psychology of Peoples", which is closely associated with ethnography; "Group psychology"; "Interactionism" (from the Latin. Interaction - interaction) are considered the primary unit of sociological study of interpersonal communication. Search results was the emergence of social psychology as an independent discipline. Of its most prominent representatives should be noted Gustave Le Bon (1841-1931) and Gabriel Tarde (1843-1904).
If the proponents of rationalism recognize natural human rights and people's right to establish its own rational social order, the adherents of historicism, in contrast, emphasized the importance of the traditional foundations of human society. Attempt to combine these methods produced a German sociologist Ferdinand Tönnies (1885-1936).
By the classical period of sociology also include areas such as social mechanism whose adherents (A. Quetelet, G. Carey, V. Pareto, and others.) Tried to explain social life and human behavior, spreading them laws established in the physical sciences; geographical trend in sociology (G. Buckle, LI Mechnikov, f. Ratzel et al.), defends the crucial role of the geographical environment in the history of the company; psychological trend (L. Ward, F. Giddings, G. Lebon, G. Tarde, Charles Cooley et al.), whose members sought to reduce social phenomena to mental, looking for the key to the explanation of social phenomena and processes in the mental aspects of the behavior of the individual or obschnosti2.
For classical sociology is characterized by rivalry scientific schools, the struggle and the pluralism of opinions. In particular, Weber negative attitude to functionalism Durkheim. At the same time, he denied and Marxism. Another feature of this time - the secularization of religion. If Comte and Saint-Simon sociology itself considered a new religion of humanity, that Durkheim and Weber analyzed religion as an independent social phenomenon, giving rise to the sociology of religion as a scientific discipline.
2. The main directions and representatives of classical sociology
2.1 Naturalism: Herbert Spencer
Prominent representatives of naturalism in sociology was an English scientist Herbert Spencer (1820-1903), which he created the system of synthetic philosophy tried to unite all the theoretical science of the time. His views were based on the analogy between biological and social organisms. Evolution, Spencer - an integration of matter, when incoherent homogeneity arises from the social whole (society), but the whole can not and should not absorb the individual. Spencer acted not only against the ideas of social revolution, but also against any social reform was, and even against any state intervention in social life. He believed that taking care of orphans, the sick, the poor and disadvantaged contradicts the theory of natural selection, according to which should survive stronger and the weak inferior to him living space. His analysis of the concept of society, social growth, social structure, social functions of the various organs and systems of social life, Spencer laid the foundation of the conceptual system of sociology, as well as the basic methods of structural and functional analysis.
2.2 Positivism: Auguste Comte
Considered the founder of sociology, the French philosopher Auguste Comte (1798 - 1857 gg.). It was he who began to use the name "sociology" (lat. Societas - Society and Greek. Logos - teaching). However, his contribution to science was not limited to the introduction of the term "sociology". Major works: "Course of Positive Philosophy," "system of positive politics, or sociological treatise on the foundations of the religion of humanity." The basic idea of Comte - Department of "science" from "metaphysics" and teologii3.
In the social system Comte defines two main parts: social statics and social dynamics. The first is the structure and the structure of society and the laws of human existence, and the second is the change itself and its laws. In order to clarify and understand the details of social statics and dynamics of the method of observation, experience and comparison.
Place of positive thinking in the Comte can be understood in connection with his "law of three stages." According to this law in the development of mankind Comte distinguished three stages: theological, metaphysical, positive.
In the first stage the person understands natural phenomena as the result of supernatural forces. In the second stage, all phenomena are explained as the result of abstract causes, ideas, and forces. At the third stage, the person is engaged in observation of natural phenomena and search for patterns among them. At this stage, there is a connection of theory and practice: knowledge of the laws that determine events, makes it possible to control events.
The above three steps of mankind's intellectual development correspond to the three stages of historical progress. The first - a theological (antiquity to the XIII century.). The second - the metaphysical - covers XIV - XVIII centuries. In the third, the highest - positive stage, which began in the XIX century. comes flourishing industry and science. In place of the old traditional religion comes positivism as a "religion of humanity."
Thus, Comte first: to substantiate the need for a scientific approach to the study of society and the possibility of knowing the laws of its development; defined sociology as a special science, based on observation; raised the question of empirical studies; substantiated the natural character of the story.
2.3 Sociology: Durkheim
Emile Durkheim (1858-1917) - the founder of the French sociological school, almost the first to try to justify theoretically and select a specific object of scientific study of sociology as "social sphere". The most significant works of Emile Durkheim: "On the division of social labor", "Rules of Sociological Method," "Suicide", etc. He has developed a methodology and methods of sociological research that will be brought under the sociological science base of empirical studies and focus on its applied nature. Being the successor of Comte, Durkheim, however, not everyone shares his views. He rejected the law of the three stages of intellectual and social development. In contrast to Comte, to proclaim the rejection of causality in the science and replace the question "why" to the question "how" Durkheim persistently searched for the causes of social phenomena. The key concepts of Durkheim's concept is a social fact. In 1894, he formulated his basic postulate: "First and foremost rule is that social facts should be treated as things." Social facts (things), there is a man and have him forced impact. Only in their light might explain why people act so and not otherwise, why men enter into certain relationships, communication. According to Durkheim, these social facts constitute the main subject of study sociology. Later he called their institutions.
Durkheim interesting comments about some special events and phenomena, for example, such as suicide. He argued that suicide becomes a social, rather than purely individual phenomenon. Durkheim identified four main types of suicide: altruistic, egoistic, anomic and fatalistic. His work "Suicide" primarily interested in the fact that Durkheim distinguishes between two dimensions of individual action by the example of suicide: one dimension is the opposite of selfish and altruistic suicide, the other - the opposite of anomic and fatalistic. Comparative analysis of the four types of suicide in different cultures (in particular, the Catholic and Protestant) allows Durkheim with sufficient empirical certainty characterize the type of society. So, anomie appears as a characteristic of most industrially developed than traditional society.
Durkheim also paid much attention to the study of forms and behaviors of people in times of social disorganization. The state of society, which is characterized by a lack of social cohesion or her sharp weakening, he identified the term "anomie" Anomie suggests that society has ceased to be a regulatory force in relation to its members, and people no longer believe in the values of society and thus became disoriented, unable to understand what is "good" and what is "bad." Conducted research allows them to explain the reasons of deviant (aberrant) behavior, social norms and defects in detail classify the types of such behavior.
Durkheim's theory of society became the basis of many modern sociological theories and structural-functional analysis. All this resulted in Durkheim's concept of "sociology". Central same sociological idea of creativity is a scientist theory of social solidarity, which acts as a source of social solidarity, the division of labor, causing the behavior of the individual membership in one of the two types of society - traditional or modern.
4. Sociological Method
Sociology in the second half of the last century was, in fact, quite a young science. And from the very beginning a dominant position in the new science has gained the sociological method proposed by Comte - positivism. However, with the development of sociology, a growing number of researchers wondered about the legality of the use of this particular method of research. Thus, the German cultural historian and social philosopher Wilhelm Dilthey argued that the social sciences have ways of knowing differ from those that have developed in the natural sciences. The fact that society is composed of individuals endowed with consciousness, and it itself - the human generation. If the natural sciences deal with the external experience and resorted mainly to explain the observed phenomena, the sciences that study society of people who have to take into account the understanding of feelings, motives, interests of these people.
These ideas had a profound influence on Max Weber in his reflections on the scientific method to be applied in the science of human society. And he eventually came to the conclusion that the social sciences in this sense should be deeply different from the natural sciences (although they have with them a common rational principle). One of the most important distinguishing features of the science of human society should be understanding. Weber comes from the fact that sociology should know the values that people attach to their actions. For this and introduced the term Verstehen, which literally translates from German as "understanding" and gets in the sociological method Weber quite autonomous meaning.
The essence of the use of Verstehen is to put yourself in the position of other people to see what value they attach to their actions or what purposes, in its opinion, serve. If you intend to sociologists, for example, to analyze the social reasons why people waving their arms, they should have any reason to decide exactly what is motivating factors strokes someone's hand up and down (left and right), and why others do not behave in a similar situation. If you find yourself unable to investigate this kind of values, it can be a source of serious errors when some action groups will be assigned to the same category, while in reality they belong to different categories. The study of values of human actions - is to some extent a development of our daily attempts to understand the actions of many different people around us.
As one of the most important research tools in their social analysis, Weber uses the concept of the ideal type. The ideal type - a kind of thought-construction, which is derived not from empirical reality, and is created in the head researcher - as a theoretical scheme studied phenomenon - and acts as a kind of "standard", in comparison with which the object of interest, we can judge the process of removal or Conversely, the approximation to reality it empirical study. Weber stresses that in itself is not an ideal type can give knowledge about the relevant processes and relationships of the studied social phenomenon, and represents a purely methodological tool.
Weber suggested that sociologists have taken as the ideal type characteristics of certain aspects of behavior or institutions that are available for observation in the real world, and exaggerate them to form a logically comprehensible intelligent design. Therefore, the ideal types are rather hypothetical structure formed from real phenomena, and have explanatory value. "Perfect" here means rather "clean" or "abstract" than the standard desired.
5. Ideal types of social action
One of the central concepts of Weber's sociology of social action appears. However, the actions and behavior of people study and many other sciences, in particular, history and psychology. What is the qualitative features of a purely sociological approaches? First of all, the fact that social scientists study the general behavior of people, as if it took place in a certain ideal conditions. In this case it is interested not only focus on the actions of others, but also the degree of fullness of their specific meaning. The concept of the same meaning is derived from the ratio of goals and means. The study of different options of such relations leads Weber to build an ideal typology of social action.
The idea is that any deeds and acts committed by human beings can be "measured" by using these kind of models, that is, may be more or less approaching assigned to one of four ideal types.
Intact rational action. This maximize the rational type of action is characterized by clarity and awareness of the goal, and it is related to the rational interpretation means that achieve exactly this, and not some other purpose. In a rational purpose can make in two ways: first, in terms of its own content, and secondly, from the point of view of expediency elected funds. As it is social action (and thus based on certain expectations on the part of other people) it involves the calculation of the actor on the appropriate response from the people around them, on the one hand, and on the use of their behavior in order to achieve this goal - on the other.
Value rational action. This ideal type of social action involves the commission of such acts, which are based on the belief in the value of self-sufficient act as such, in other words, here acts as a target action itself. Value rational action, according to Weber, is always subject to certain requirements, in the pursuit of which the individual sees his duty. A classic example of the value of rational action: captain of a sinking ship is leaving his last, although it threatens his life. Awareness of this kind of action, their correlation with certain ideas about values - duty, dignity, beauty, morality, etc. - Is already talking about a certain rationality, conciseness. At the same time, compared with intact rational type of "value-rational" action brings something irrational, since the absolute of the value, which is oriented individual.
Traditional action. This type of action is based on following the tradition, that is emulated in some patterns of behavior prevailing in the culture and endorses it, and therefore not subject to almost rational understanding and criticism. This action is carried out largely automatically purely by existing stereotypes, it is characterized by a desire to focus on the familiar patterns of behavior established on the basis of their own experience and the experience of previous generations. Despite the fact that the traditional action does not involve the production of orientation to new opportunities, perhaps, that it is the lion's share of all acts committed by individuals. To some extent the commitment of people to commit traditional action is the basis of society's existence stability and predictability behavior of its members.
Affective action. The least sensible of ideal types. Its main characteristic is a certain emotional state - flash of passion, hatred, anger, fear, etc. Affective action has its "meaning", mainly in the speedy removal of emotional stress arising in the discharge. This is exactly the opposite purpose of rational action; However, here lies a certain similarity with the value rational action, which also seeks to achieve some "external" goals and sees certainty in the commission of the action.
The above typology can serve as a good illustration for understanding the essence of what has been defined as the "ideal type". It is unlikely that any of the actual deeds committed in this world, real people, could be fully characterized as belonging to a particular ideal type of social action. They can only be more or less closer to some of them carry the features and of the two, and three. And each of the ideal types will serve as the "standard meter".
5.1 Sociology domination
One of the questions that constantly takes Weber, and to which he returns again and again in his works - the reasons why some people are subject to the other, as well as the mechanisms through which the social relations of domination and subordination. It should be noted immediately that Weber distinguishes between power and domination. First, he said, is preceded by a second and does not always have its characteristics. Strictly speaking, the rule - it is rather a process of realization of power. In addition, the rule is a certain probability that the orders given by some people (who have power), to meet other people willingness to obey, comply with these orders.
One important question, under what conditions arise between people relations of domination and subordination? These relationships, according to Weber, is based on mutual ekspektatsii: from the manager, the one who gives orders - the expectation that will certainly give orders executed; of the governed - the expectation that the manager has the right to saluting such orders; Only when confidence in a right to govern are motivated to fulfill the order. In other words, legitimate, ie legitimate, the rule can not be limited by the fact of the use of power, it needs to be a belief in its legitimacy. Power becomes domination, when it is regarded by people as legitimate.
There are three ideological bases of legitimacy that can clothe rulers authority: traditional, charismatic and legal-rational. Accordingly, Weber justifies three ideal types of domination, each of which receives the name of their ideological base.
Legal-rational domination. (It is sometimes referred to simply as rational). Here, the main motive of submission acts, to a certain extent, the satisfaction of their own interests. But people do not obey many others as customary law rules that these other people are expressed and on whose behalf they act.
Traditional dominance. It rests on the usual, more often than not quite realize the belief in holiness and the inviolability of the common traditions and the legitimacy of the prerogatives of power provided by them. Adherent of traditional authority shall adopt rules that embody the ancient custom and practice. Under this type of rule of law authorities often is hereditary (something like this: "I serve this man, because his father served as my father, and his grandfather - my grandfather"). In its pure form, this patriarchal power.
Charismatic domination. It is based on the exceptional qualities attributed to the leader. With this type of dominance orders executed because the followers or disciples believe in a very special character of their leader, whose power exceeds the normal current practice. Charismatic domination is based on the extraordinary, perhaps even magical abilities, which has master. It does not play a role in origin or the related heredity, nor any rational considerations - only the personal qualities of a leader. Availability Charisma means direct directly involved in domination. Charismatic leaders have been most famous in the history of the prophets (including all the founders of world religions), military leaders and prominent political leaders.
5.2 Sociology of Religion
Weber tried to prove that the economic behavior of people greatly depends not only on the nature of the relations of production (as claimed by Marxism), but also on the general views of people in the world around us. Meanwhile, religious dogmas and their interpretation - this is the most important part of their overall vision of the world. Therefore, the market will behave in a Christian is not the case, as a Muslim or Buddhist. Thus, studying the sociology of religion, Weber has as its main task figuring out how economic behavior depends on the nature of their worldview.
Perhaps the most distinct illustration of this approach should be considered one of his most famous work "The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism." It states, in particular, that the secular culture of capitalist society paradoxically emerged from asceticism, perpetuated Protestant reformism.
One section of the work of the Protestant ethic is called "austerity and capitalist spirit." This title directly linked self-restraint in the consumption of material goods with the goals of capitalist accumulation. Considering this problem, Weber points out that in other civilizations (eg, Chinese) could find a lot of rational prerequisites for the development of the capitalist economic system, but they lacked the religious (and hence moral and ethical) factor. For the emergence of capitalism, it was necessary to develop a fairly large part of members of the public perception of the world in a very special form of worldly Protestant asceticism: "Make as much as possible and to consume as little as possible, that in a sense is extremely unwise, even though this feature is the essence of capitalism as Marx sees it, and the basis of Sovietism, as conceived by those who does not belong to the Communists. "
Following the "Protestant ethic and the spirit of capitalism," Weber began extensive work on comparative sociology of religion. It covered the study of religion in India, China and the ancient Middle East. At the time of death Weber worked on the sociology of Islam. Assessing retrospect, it can be argued that the amount of information included in the preparatory materials is staggering. Having established to his satisfaction, the connection between religion and capitalism in the West, he used a common history of human religion as a giant laboratory to verify their original thesis. Again and again, the main point of his studies of ancient and non-Western religions became the absence of asceticism inner peace.

Conclusion
By the middle of the XIX century sociology is registered as an independent science. Sociological knowledge is defined as a knowledge based on facts, empirical and analytical study of social phenomena. This made it possible to get away from the sociology of abstract constructions, become a science, natural science close using the methods of the natural sciences and that is why ability to solve problems of social life.
Describing the sociology of knowledge as a system, it is important to consider that between classical sociology and contemporary sociology there are some differences. Classical sociology seeks to comprehend the world around as if from outside. Its task was to describe the object, to discover the essence, without considering the activities of the entity. Contemporary Sociology tries to overcome the opposition of subject and object, theory and practice, cognitive and valuable relation to the world.
In the classical period of development sociology can be identified such main features:
1) occurred structuring levels of sociological analysis of society;
2) formed various schools, directions, theoretical and methodological approaches in sociology;
3) significantly upgrade itself sociological knowledge.
The second half of XIX - early XX century. the heyday of theoretical sociology, the development of sociological theories have become classics. There are sociological theories that have had no exaggeration huge impact on the development of sociology. One of the most prominent representatives of this period is Max Weber. Weber's ideas permeate the whole building of modern sociology, accounting for its foundation. Weber's creative legacy is enormous. He contributed to the theory and methodology, laid the foundations of the sectoral areas of sociology: the bureaucracy, religion, city and labor.

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