Compiling a Data Base

Compiling a Data base for use in the Teaching of Statistics

2009-2010

Introduction
With regards to the teaching of statistics, generally speaking the majority of undergraduate students tend to struggle when it comes to learning and applying course material. As illustrated by the Wason Selection Task we are better able to understand problems that we commonly encountered in the Pleistocene period of our biological evolution. This study set out to investigate if students were better able to learn and apply course material if a questionnaire was devised for them to answer and analyse which was based on questions that are relevant to their way of thinking in terms of biological evolution. For instance, ‘Theory of Mind’ questions for the girls and ‘intuitive physics’ questions for the boys. The basic premise of the study is that if the questions suite the students style of thinking they might remember how the statistical tests are applied more accurately. The questionnaire will also help to establish if there are actual differences in the abilities of males and females in the first place, among other correlations. If there are no significant differences between males and females, a new set of questions based on problems encountered in our biological evolution may need to be devised, in order to accurately assess whether this method of teaching will be effective.

Method

Participants

The participants consisted of 102 undergraduate students that took part in the experiment as part of a research methods course. The students were predominantly Caucasian. There were a disproportionate number of females relative to males. The ages of the participants ranged from 18 to 45.

Materials

The materials included a questionnaire (see appendix A)

Procedure

Before starting the experiment verbal consent was received from the participants. They were then requested to spread out evenly in the classroom and asked not to confer with each other with regards to the questions. They were asked if they had any questions. Approximately 20 minutes were allotted for the completion of the questionnaire.

Analysis and Design

For the Gender Differences, Smoking Habits, Eating Habits, Handedness, Interlocked Fingers and Folded Arms data analysis, a between subjects Chi Square Independence test was carried out. The alpha level was set at p < 0.05. For the Gender versus Testosterone levels data analysis an Independent Samples T-Test was carried out. The alpha level was set at p < 0.05. For the Height versus Shoe Size data analysis a Pearson’s Correlation test was carried out. The expected correlation was r = 1. All data were analysed using SPSS 17.0 for Windows.

Results

Gender versus Smoking Habits

H0 Smoking will not be significantly more common in males compared to females

H1 Smoking will be significantly more common in males compared to females

The independent variables were the participant’s gender. The dependant variables were smoker or non smoker. The results were χ² = .294, df =1, P = .588. This is a non significant result.

Gender versus Eating Habits

H0 Vegetarianism/Veganism will not be significantly more common in females compared to males

H1 Vegetarianism/Veganism will be significantly more common in females compared to males

The independent variables were the participant’s gender. The dependant variables were Vegetarian, Vegan or Non-Vegetarian. The results were χ² =.472, df =2, P = .790. This is a non significant result.

Gender versus Handedness

H0 Left Handedness/Ambidextrousness will not be significantly more common in males compared to females

H1 Left Handedness/Ambidextrousness will be significantly more common in males compared to females

The independent variables were the participant’s gender. The dependant variables were Left handedness, Right Handedness and Ambidextrousness. The results were χ² = .343, df =2, P = .842. This is a non significant result.

Gender versus Testosterone Levels

H0 Testosterone levels as measured by finger length will not be significantly higher in males compared to females

H1 Testosterone levels as measured by finger length will be significantly higher in males compared to females

The independent variables were the participant’s gender. The dependant variable was the difference in finger length between the ring finger and the index finger. The results were t(89) = 1.151, P = 253. This is a non significant result.

Gender versus Fake Smile

H0 A fake smile will not be significantly correctly identified more by females compared to males

H1 A fake smile will be significantly correctly identified more by females compared to males

The independent variables were the participant’s gender. The dependant variables were the fake and genuine smile. The results were χ² = .3.832, df =1, P = .05.This is a significant result.

Gender versus Reading Eyes

H0 The emotion expressed in eyes will not be significantly correctly identified more by females compared to males

H1 The emotion expressed in eyes will be significantly correctly identified more by females compared to males

The independent variables were the participant’s gender. The dependant variables were the list of emotions. The results were χ² = 10.645, df =3, P = .014.This is a significant result.

Gender versus Reading Body Language

H0 The body language cues will not be significantly correctly identified more by females compared to males

H1 The body language cues will be significantly correctly identified more by females compared to males

The independent variables were the participant’s gender. The dependant variables were the list of possible feelings expressed by the body language. The results were χ² = .658, df =2, P = .720. This is a non significant result.

Gender versus Figure Rotation

H0 The correct figure rotation will not be significantly correctly identified more by males compared to females

H1 The correct figure rotation will be significantly correctly identified more by males compared to females

The independent variables were the participant’s gender. The dependant variables were the list of possible correct figure rotations. The results were χ² = 5.616, df =3, P = .132. This is a non significant result.

Gender versus Turning Wheel

H0 The correct rotation of the wheel will not be significantly correctly identified more by males compared to females

H1 The correct rotation of the wheel will be significantly correctly identified more by males compared to females

The independent variables were the participant’s gender. The dependant variables were the list of possible correct wheel rotations. The results were χ² = .310, df =1, P = .578. This is a non significant result.

Gender versus Theory of Mind Story Question 1

H0 The correct answer to the Theory of Mind Question will not be significantly correctly identified more by females compared to males

H1 The correct answer to the Theory of Mind Question will be significantly correctly identified more by females compared to males

The independent variables were the participant’s gender. The dependant variables were the list of possible correct answers to the Theory of Mind question. The results were χ² = 2.128, df =3, P = .546. This is a non significant result.

Gender versus Theory of Mind Story Question 2

H0 The correct answer to the Theory of Mind Question will not be significantly correctly identified more by females compared to males

H1 The correct answer to the Theory of Mind Question will be significantly correctly identified more by females compared to males

The independent variables were the participant’s gender. The dependant variables were the list of possible correct answers to the Theory of Mind question. The results were χ² = 13.345, df =3, P = .004. This is a significant result.

Gender versus Box Lever Task Question 1

H0 The correct answer to the Box Lever Task Question will not be significantly correctly identified more by males compared to females

H1 The correct answer to the Box Lever Task Question will be significantly correctly identified more by males compared to females

The independent variables were the participant’s gender. The dependant variables were the list of possible correct answers to the Box Lever Task question. The results were χ² = .248, df =3, P = .970. This is a non significant result.

Gender versus Box Lever Task Question 2

H0 The correct answer to the Box Lever Task Question will not be significantly correctly identified more by males compared to females

H1 The correct answer to the Box Lever Task Question will be significantly more correctly identified more by males compared to females

The independent variables were the participant’s gender. The dependant variables were the list of possible correct answers to the Box Lever Task question. The results were χ² = 1.731, df =4, P = .785. This is a non significant result.

Gender versus Box Lever Task Question 3

H0 The correct answer to the Box Lever Task Question will not be significantly correctly identified more by males compared to females

H1 The correct answer to the Box Lever Task Question will be significantly correctly identified more by males compared to females

The independent variables were the participant’s gender. The dependant variables were the list of possible correct answers to the Box Lever Task question. The results were χ² = 5.442, df =4, P = .345. This is a non significant result.

Degree Programme versus Eating Habits

H0 Those studying for a degree in Animal Behaviour will not be more likely to be a vegetarian/vegan compared to those studying on other degree programmes

H1 Those studying for a degree in Animal Behaviour will be more likely to be a vegetarian/vegan compared to those studying on other degree programmes

The independent variables were the participant’s degree programme. The dependant variables were vegetarianism, veganism and non-vegetarianism. The results were χ² = 8.417, df =10, P = .588. This is a non significant result.

Height versus Shoe Size

H0 There will not be a positive linear correlation between height and shoe size

H1 There will be a positive linear correlation between height and shoe size

The independent variable was the participant’s height. The dependant variable was the participants shoe size. The results were r = .278 This is a significant result.

Smoking versus Eating Habits

H0 There will not be a significant difference between smoking and eating habits

H1 There will be a significant difference between smoking and eating habits

The independent variables were whether the participants were smokers or non-smokers. The dependant variables were vegetarianism, veganism and non-vegetarianism. The results were χ² = 4.277, df = 2, P = .118. This is a non significant result.

Handedness versus Interlocked Fingers

H0 There will not be a significant difference between handedness and what position the fingers are most comfortably locked in

H1 There will be a significant difference between handedness and what position the fingers are most comfortably locked in

The independent variables were handedness. The dependant variables were whether the participants felt most comfortable with their right hand thumb on top, their left hand thumb on top or either. The results were χ² = 1.197, df = 4, P = .879. This is a non significant result.

Handedness versus Folded Arms

H0 There will not be a significant difference between handedness and what position the arms are most comfortably folded

H1 There will be a significant difference between handedness and what position the arms are most comfortably folded

The independent variables were handedness. The dependant variables were whether the participants felt most comfortable with their right hand on top of the left arm, the left hand on top of the right arm, or either. The results were χ² = 7.691, df = 4, P = .104. This is a non significant result.

Folded Arms versus Interlocked Fingers

H0 There will not be a significant difference between what position the arms are most comfortably folded in and what position the fingers are most comfortably locked in

H1 There will be a significant difference between what position the arms are most comfortably folded in and what position the fingers are most comfortably locked in

The independent variables were whether the participants felt most comfortable with their right hand on top of the left arm, the left hand on top of the right arm, or either. The dependant variables were whether the participants felt most comfortable with their right hand thumb on top, their left hand thumb on top or either. The results were χ² =1.772, df = 4, P = .778. This is a non significant result.

Discussion

A significant difference was found between gender and identifying the genuine smile; 35 % of females identified the genuine smile correctly as image A, compared to only 12 % of males. A significant difference was found between gender and correctly reading the emotion expressed in the picture of a pair of eyes; 79 % of females correctly identified the emotions as ‘playful’ compared to 44% of males. A significant difference was found between gender and correctly identifying the beliefs of characters in a theory of mind test; 94% of females identified the correct beliefs compared to 70% of males. These three studies provide support for the theory that females are superior in theory of mind skills compared to males.

A significant positive linear correlation was found between participants height and shoe size; the taller the participant the larger the shoe size. However, for the rest of the studies a non significant correlation was reported. This could be due to a number of issues such as the questions being too easy; for question 13 (identifying the emotion experienced by the woman in the picture) all the participants both male and female identified the correct emotion. Also there may not have been enough males in the sample to return accurate results.

Conclusion

The study identified some differences in theory of mind abilities between the genders, with females being more adept. The questions where significant differences were identified could be used in a further study; to assess whether students are better able to learn and apply course material if a questionnaire was devised for them to answer and analyse which was based on questions that are relevant to their way of thinking in terms of biological evolution. This could be assed by asking the students to rank the questions from those found easiest to those found harder to answer. Also the students could be asked what questions they found most enjoyable/least enjoyable. Grade results could then be compared from the results obtained the year before when this method was not in use in order to asses whether there has in fact been an impact on the students ability to learn and apply course material.