Conscription
conscription, also called draft, compulsory enrollment for service in a country’s armed forces. It has existed at least from the time of the Egyptian Old Kingdom (27th century bce), but there have been few instances—ancient or modern—of universal conscription (calling all those physically capable between certain ages). The usual form—even during total war—has been selective service.
Modified forms of conscription were used by Prussia, Switzerland, Russia, and other European countries during the 17th and 18th centuries. The first comprehensive nationwide system was instituted by the French Republic in the wars following the French Revolution and was institutionalized by Napoleon after he became emperor in 1803. After his defeat in 1815 it was discontinued, then reinstituted a few years later, but with restrictions.
Between 1807 and 1813, Prussia developed a conscript system based on the principle of universal service, which eventually became the model for the rest of Europe. Its major weakness was the state’s inability to afford, and the army’s inability to absorb, all the eligible men. Nevertheless, Prussia continued to employ this system after the Napoleonic era, so by the time of the Franco-German War (1870–71) it had a mass army of conscripts reinforced with large reserve units, in contrast to France’s smaller standing professional army.
After its defeat in 1871, France returned to conscription. In 1872 universal military service was reintroduced, but the law covering it did not apply equally to all. In general, people of comfortable means could discharge their military obligation in one year of volunteer service, while many professionals—doctors, clergymen, and some government workers—were granted total exemption. As in Germany, the overall effect was to cause the standing forces to be manned by members of the lower classes, while the better placed in society dominated the reserves.
Modified forms of conscription were used by Prussia, Switzerland, Russia, and other European countries during the 17th and 18th centuries. The first comprehensive nationwide system was instituted by the French Republic in the wars following the French Revolution and was institutionalized by Napoleon after he became emperor in 1803. After his defeat in 1815 it was discontinued, then reinstituted a few years later, but with restrictions.
Between 1807 and 1813, Prussia developed a conscript system based on the principle of universal service, which eventually became the model for the rest of Europe. Its major weakness was the state’s inability to afford, and the army’s inability to absorb, all the eligible men. Nevertheless, Prussia continued to employ this system after the Napoleonic era, so by the time of the Franco-German War (1870–71) it had a mass army of conscripts reinforced with large reserve units, in contrast to France’s smaller standing professional army.
After its defeat in 1871, France returned to conscription. In 1872 universal military service was reintroduced, but the law covering it did not apply equally to all. In general, people of comfortable means could discharge their military obligation in one year of volunteer service, while many professionals—doctors, clergymen, and some government workers—were granted total exemption. As in Germany, the overall effect was to cause the standing forces to be manned by members of the lower classes, while the better placed in society dominated the reserves.