Criminological Theory All Units

Criminological Theory
Unit 1: Case Summary
A theory is based on an explanation that has been processed to describe an observation, phenomenon or a scientific occurrence. “Theory” is a word we use on an everyday basis without giving a second thought about what it is or what it means. The word is used to toss aside information because it is only a “theory”. In relation to science, a theory can offer an idea, thought or concept that has testable qualities. Based on science, there is no guesswork in presenting a theory, it is a fact-based structure used to describe out-of-ordinary situations or phenomenon. Theories are also used in psychology to put into place a system for understanding a person’s thought patterns, emotional make-up and behavior. (Bohm and Vogel, 2010)
There are main components that construct a theory, these are called, “theory blocks construction”. The first component is the concepts; the concepts are meanings that are usually accepted as common sense; they are specific meanings that are associated with facts, situations or particular behaviors. Hypotheses are usually created by the use of concepts. People have a clearer understanding of research when explained through the use of concepts. (Pickett, Kolasa and Jones, 2007)
Constructs is another component of a theory; it is an idea or image that is specifically constructed for a particular research and/or the development of a theory. The constructs are not as easily observed and its ability to be measured is more difficult. The constructs form an idea or theory by pulling together different elements of a concept over a span of time; the constructs are often considered to be subjective and not based on evidence that is related to experiment or observation. The constructs of a theory are often modified by people by their interpretations and/or predictions; it is a scientific process used by all modern studies to reveal and discover the facts about our universe. (Lester, 1995)
Theoretical definitions are found in philosophy and science theories. Theoretical definitions can be hard to decipher due to their uses being strict in nature and conceptual. The definition’s meanings are precise when a word application is necessary and when it is not; due to this they are not persuasive in nature. There are also persuasive definitions and their function is to prescribe things related to the “norm” or standard and not just be a descriptive definition.
Philosophical assumptions are also known as domain or background assumptions; it refers to ideas that cannot be tested by experiment or observations alone. Philosophical assumptions do not allow a theory to be tested using the science of human senses. A philosophical assumption is the process of coming to a conclusion of a specific subject or matter. The conclusion is usually reached after acquiring a background or information of the subject. Upon gaining the knowledge of the subject to come to the assumption; the information and knowledge gained is used to answer a question or base a decision on the principles and values of that particular subject or matter. Bohm and Vogel describe philosophical assumptions as being similar to religion; people believe the stated assumptions or they do not; however, they cannot be supported by experiments or observations; neither can they be supported by the five human senses. (Bohm and Vogel, 2010) ( word count = 541)

Bohm, Robert; Vogel, Brenda; (2010). A Primer on Crime and Delinquency Theory (3rd Ed)
Pickett, Steward T.; Kolasa, Jurek; Jones, Clive G.; July 10, 2007; Ecological Understanding: The Nature of Theory and the Theory of Nature
Lester, David: July 1, 1995; Theories Of Personality
Case Analysis: 1
Bohm and Vogel describe a theory as an explanation. (Bohm and Vogel, 2010) A theory is an explanation that describes the relation of things to one another; a supposed system of ideas that is used to explain things based on basic principles. A theory is also generalized thinking or the outcome of generalized thinking; this also depends on the context of the subject. The results of a theory’s generalized thinking may include a generalized idea or thought of how something works or how supernatural or metaphysical matters are thought to work based on suppositions. Most theorists claim that theories cannot be proven to be true due to falsification. A theory can be proven to be untrue based on the interference of a factor that was overlooked or not figured on. (pg. 7) In Gauch’s “Scientific Method in Practice” he states that the scientific status of a theory is basically its ability to be falsified, therefore; it is set apart by its falsification and not by verification.(Gauch, 2002) The end result would that a theory cannot be proven or verified, but can be falsified. In our world of modern science, a theory or the term “theory” is used in context with scientific theories and is used to properly explain nature and how the elements of nature act and their processes. Scientific theories are described and explained in such a way that scientists are able to have a clear understanding of the matter the theory is attempting to explain. The scientific theory also gives the scientist the provision to give experimental or observational support of the theory. (Savage, 1990) (word count = 266)

Bohm, Robert; Vogel, Brenda; (2010). A Primer on Crime and Delinquency Theory (3rd Ed)
Gauch Jr, Hugh G.; Dec 12, 2002; Scientific Method in Practice; Cambridge University Press
Savage, C. Wade; Aug 15, 1990; Scientific Theories, Volume 14; University of Minnesota Press
2:
How do we know the difference between a good theory and a bad theory? The theory has to be judged or tested; this is also a requirement if one is to judge or test a scientific theory. A theory is primarily judges by using criteria in different ways to establish the validity of the theory. First, the theory should be able to explain established observation; basically, it should explain the already known and be sound logically. (Miller, 2009) Second, the theory bring to light the upcoming new observations; if something new is discovered by someone and the findings are able to be fit into the theory, then it validates the theory. In relation to that, if the theory does not support the new findings, then the theory is lacking something. Third, new observations and findings must be able to be predicted by the theory; for example; “if the theory shows this to be true, then there is a possibility that this would also be true and could work into the theory.” (Polansky, 1991) Fourth, the theory should be kept as simple as possible; a simple theory is more readily accepted as opposed to a more complex theory. The way the judging of the theory and the evaluation of the theory are related is the fact that the evaluation of the theory is not possible without the criteria that allows it to be evaluated. After the evaluation of the theory we are left with the assumption that one theory is more believable or accurate than another one. (Bohm and Vogel, 2010)

Miller, Patricia H.; Dec 22, 2009; Theories of Developmental Psychology
Polansky, Norman A.; 1991; Integrated Ego Psychology; Transaction Publishers
Bohm, Robert; Vogel, Brenda; (2010). A Primer on Crime and Delinquency Theory (3rd Ed)

Executive decision:
It seems that theory has its place in most of everything in life and the criminal justice system and crime in general are no exceptions. Bohm and Vogel approach the subject of theory in their book as related to crime and delinquency. The studies are done to find out what makes people “tick’ and what drives them to commit crimes and disregard any quality of life. (Bohm and Vogel, 2010) The use of these studies and development of these theories and their relation to the criminal system give researchers the ability or somewhat of an explanation of why people do what they do. When researchers do their studies and evaluate their findings, their ultimate goal is not just to sit on the information received and put it on a shelf for a later day; they have a goal and a purpose which is to reduce crime, improve better lives and better understand motivations. All of this can be achieved by getting a clearer understanding of the issues brought to light by the theory. There are “people” theories such as “why do people take up a life of crime?’ or “what motivates people or what factors of situation force people to commit crimes?” Another type of theory that is determined in the theories of crime and delinquency is the environmental theories; “why a certain section of the city has the most crime?” or “why does a certain state have a higher murder rate than another state?” Researchers have developed these theories give an explanation to these questions but not to excuse them. (Thornberry, 2004)

Bohm, Robert; Vogel, Brenda; (2010). A Primer on Crime and Delinquency Theory (3rd Ed)
Thornberry, Terence P.; Aug 31, 2004; Developmental Theories Of Crime And Delinquency

Criminological Theory
Unit 2: Case Summary
A classical theory is described by as being produced during a time when the world was forming their theologies and ideas from revelations and power of the Roman Catholic Church. (Bohm and Vogel, 2010) Philosophers, during this period of time called the “Enlightenment”, challenged themselves despite the pressure of the Church and the worldview of theology. The philosophers or “thinkers” as they were known as, formed views and ideas based on scientific reasoning; developing knowledge derived from their own observations.
Classical theory as it relates to criminal justice is the concept that people are rational beings and their own will has the ability to control their behavior. For example: the classical theory in relation to crime suggests that a criminal breaks the laws of the land, acts rationally by free will. Classical theory’s involvement in criminal justice demands the enforcing of punishment befitting of a crime. (Barlow and Kauzlarich, 2010) It is the writing of classical theories that has assisted in shaping and molding the criminal justice system of America as we know it today.
In the 18th century, an Italian aristocrat named Cesare Beccaria, wrote a publication called “On Crimes and Punishments; he believed that people were a rational sort and their behavior could be controlled by human will. Beccaria also believed that crimes would be punished by these people in a rational manner. The severity level of the criminal act should be met with a punishment that was appropriate with the crime. (Hagan, 2010)
Neoclassical Theory is basically the modification of classical theory and continues the trend of classical theory through what is known as the “Right Realism”. Right Realism also known as Neo-Classicism, takes a closer look at the issues involved as to what causes or influences criminal acts. Right Realism also attempts to identify the best ways to control and/or contain crime; for instance, when crime or a repeat of crimes is perceived to be an issue, there is a call for more policing, harsher penalties and stricter monitoring of criminals on probation and parole. Neoclassical criminology produces the idea that people should be protected from harmful actions, deprivation of their liberties and violations of their privacies. (Burkhead, 2006) The neoclassical theory holds that people seemed to be swayed away from criminal acts when they determine the consequences of getting caught; this along with the weighing the severity of the punishment will often deter a person from committing the crime.
Classical and neoclassical theories are similar in the fact they both hold the ideas that the punishment bestowed on a person should fit the criminal act committed. There are probably more differences than similarities between both theories. The classical theory was the development of the idea that people should be able to choose how to act and that people would possibly avoid crimes that would possibly bring consequences. The neoclassical theory view was that since people committed crimes and had a tendency to repeat those crimes, a strong police presence should be enforced, penalties should be stiffer and parolees and probationers should be watched and monitored more closely. (Cole, Smith, & DeJong, 2012)
Bohm, R. & Vogel, B. (2010). A primer on crime and delinquency theory (3rd edition). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth-Cengage Learning. ISBN 9780495807506
Barlow, Hugh D. & Kauzlarich, David; Jan 30, 2010; Explaining Crime:A Primer in Criminological Theory; Rowman & Littlefield.
Hagan, Frank E.; Jan 12, 2010; Introduction to Criminology: Theories, Methods, and Criminal Behavior; SAGE; (page 97).
Burkhead, Michael Dow; (2006) The Search For the Causes of Crime: A History of Theory in Criminology; McFarland & Co.
Cole, George F., Smith, Christopher E. & DeJong, Christina; Jan 20, 2012; The American System of Criminal Justice; Cengage Learning
Case Analysis: 1
Classical theories cannot totally prevent crimes from happening, although, they can act as a deterrent. Cesare Beccaria was of the opinion that it was better to prevent the crimes from happening as opposed to punishing people for them. A French philosopher, Voltaire, took the stance that getting married was an effective way to deter crime. He was of the opinion that men that were married would be less were less apt to participate in criminal acts. (Bohm and Vogel, 2010) The concept of the classical theory is that a person breaks the law based on their own free will and they should receive a punishment befitting of the crime committed. Theorists believe that the punishments received for the criminal act should be able to fit the crime while at the same time, be severe enough to deter the person from committing the crime again. Some theorists called this a deterrence theory. The concept of the deterrence theory is that the consequence of the criminal act would weigh greater than the benefits reaped from the crime itself. The theory suggests that people have an awareness of right and wrong and the differences of them both. Classical theorists believe that people act in their own best interest and have a rational side that would give an edge to the idea of committing the crime or not. As was mentioned earlier, we may not be able to totally be able to prevent all criminal acts but we, as a rational people, acting in free will, should be able to deter the continuation of some criminal acts.(Levinson, 2002) (word count = 264)

Bohm, R. & Vogel, B. (2010). A Primer On Crime and Delinquency Theory (3rd edition). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth-Cengage Learning. ISBN 9780495807506
Levinson, David; Mar 18, 2002; Encyclopedia of Crime and Punishment; Vol.1; SAGE
2:
The classical theory was developed by philosophers like Beccaria, Locke and Bentham who expanded the classical theory into the social contract theory; this explained the reasons why crimes are committed by people of their own free will and how crime is deterred by s society effectively. One of the issues or problems with the classical theory as related to criminology is the fact that it does not allow the extenuating circumstances from one criminal act to another.(Hagan, 2010) An example of this would be; a person breaks into a business after hours, breaks into the business safe and steals all the money or whatever valuables they can find. A similar crime with extenuating circumstances would be; a person breaks into a business to escape the cold weather and find something to eat, leaves the safe and other valuables untouched. The classical school does not separate the acts and basically views both as acts of burglary and the punishment would be the same. The classical school determines that people act on their own free will and if they commit a crime, the punishment should fit the crime. This concept is a true and fair concept to look at it in “black and white”, however, many crimes in a court of law are viewed with the element of “intent” and that plays a large part in placement of charges and punishment. Some theorists believe that the concept of free will or the assumption of free will is left with some questions. The reasons for this are that some theorists feel that some people’s decisions are forced on them due to their social status or life’s circumstances.

Hagan, Frank E.; Jan 12, 2010; Introduction to Criminology: Theories, Methods, and Criminal Behavior; SAGE; (page 111).
Executive decision:
After looking at and reading the research on both the classical and neo-classical school as related to criminal justice, I tend to lean toward the neo-classical theory concepts. As I have stated in my second case analysis, the classical theory refers to a person acting on their own free will, knowing right from wrong and the punishment fitting the crime. However; this particular concept does not allow for extenuating circumstances nor takes in account the intent of the person committing the crime. The classical school pretty much has the concept that people commit the crime and does not take in account of “why” . These can be factors in a case when the person is being prosecuted. The neo-classical theory develops the concept the people should be protected from dangerous or harmful acts; should not be deprived of their liberties and freedoms; nor should their privacy be violated. Neo-classical school concepts include the study on how to contain and/or control acts of crime.(Cragin, 2006) As opposed to the concepts of the classical theory methods, the neo-classical theory attempts to delve into the causation of the human actions in a crime. The causes may be brought on by unseen circumstances that have befallen the person, unfortunate social status or perhaps mental issues. I would definitely support the neo-classical theory over the classical theory due to the issues addressed under the neo-classical concepts. A person being charged with a crime under the neo-classical school seems to stand a better chance of all circumstances being address as opposed to only the crime and the punishment being addressed. (word count =264)

Cragin, Thomas; 2006; Murder in Parisian Streets: Manufacturing Crime And Justice in the Popular Press, 1830-1900; Bucknell University Press

Criminological Theory Unit 3
Unit 3: Case Summary
The positivist theory of crime relates to the assumptions on how people act in regards to their behavior, acts of freewill and how the act or react rationally. The Positivist school sheds light on the nature of the crime, the reasons why the criminal act was committed and what are the main motivational factors that prompt the crime. (Goode, 2008) The Positivist school of criminology, similar to classicism school, came out during the end of the eighteenth century and beginning of the nineteenth century. The positivist theory is based on scientific reasoning and intelligence on how crime is understood and prevented. Positivism is valued as an approach to defining ways to ensure that society and its inhabitants flow through “everyday” life as they are supposed to. Positivism is defined by criminologists Eugene McLaughlin and John Muncie as “a theoretical approach” that supports the theory that people are driven to commit crimes by biological and psychological forces they are “possessed with. (McLaughlin and Muncie, 2005)
Biological theories are the common assumptions that the physical makeup of a person can lead a person into a life of crime. The assumptions are that these physical attributes were genetic in nature and passed from parents to their offspring, thus making their children more likely to commit a criminal act. Johan Caspar Lavater was of the assumption that physical shape of the human skull and other pronounced facial features would have an impact on human behavior and conduct. The ideas and beliefs of Lavater were somewhat shared by Cesare Lombroso; however, Lombroso took these assumptions to another level and not just develop a theory or assumption on the skull shape and facial features alone. (Lombroso, 2006) Lombroso developed his own assumptions and ideas that finer points of a person’s characteristics played a part, such as the size of someone’s ears, the length of their hair and how much hair. He believed that comparing these characteristics of criminals to those of animals would help to develop his theory.
Psychological theories of crime are assumptions that mental factors or conflicts would tend to cause people to commit criminal acts. The psychological theory is similar to the biological theory as it seems to study the causation on an individual level. Although the similarities are confined to being based on an individual basis, instead of physical features and brain malfunctions being the cause of the criminal acts; the psychological theory associates the criminal acts with other things such as; mental illness, limited intelligence and/or personality disorders. Psychology researchers from the nineteenth century; Philippe Pinel and Benjamin Rush, were of the assumption that humans committing criminal acts could be deemed mentally insane. (Siegel, 2012) Maudsley expounded on that assumption and went on to say that criminals would go insane if they did not commit crimes and they were not insane due to the fact they were criminals. (Rafter, 2008) The positivist, biological and psychological theories are similar as that they address the behavior of the criminal and what part of their physical make-up plays a part in the causation of the criminal act.
(word count = 513)

Goode, Erich, (2008) Out of Control: Assessing the General Theory of Crime; Stanford University Press.
McLaughlin, Eugene; Muncie, John; Nov 30, 2005; The SAGE Dictionary of Criminology; Pine Forge Press
Lombroso, Cesare; Jun 15, 2006; Criminal Man; Duke University Press
Siegel, Larry J.; Jan 20, 2012; Criminology: Theories, Patterns & Typologies; Cengage Learning
Rafter, Nicole; Oct 1, 2008; The Criminal Brain: Understanding Biological Theories of Crime; NYU Press
Case Analysis: 1
One of the leading figures in the positivist school of criminology was Cesare Lombroso of Italy; he brought a more scientific approach to classical theories of criminology. Lombroso was somewhat influenced by Charles Darwin’s theory of evolution. Lombroso conducted an extensive study on incarcerated criminals by measuring and studying their physical features; he concluded that the criminal behavior of the person committing the crime had a distinct connection with the specific characteristics. These characteristics Lombroso narrowed down to primarily malformations of the cranial, skeletal and neurological systems. Lombroso felt a need to tie Darwin’s theory to criminology in the sense that nature had caused the human class to evolve a species that was the criminal. (Hagen, 2010) Even though numerous criminologists have conducted to studies to prove Lombroso’s theory wrong, they would still have to admit that Lombroso’s assumptions and studies have been engrained in the study of criminology and has had many studies that target the causes of criminal acts. Charles Darwin believed that a certain amount of people not completely developed as a human being; he was of the assumption that in relation to his theory of evolution, there were some people closer to development of the primates than of the human beings. The lack of evolvement or physical developments could possibly play a huge part into why these people, particular criminals, could blame a large part of their life of crime to the lack of proper human development. Based on some of Darwin’s ideas, some criminologists developed theories and assumptions to explain why criminals commit crimes. (Bohm and Vogel, 2010)

Bohm, R. & Vogel, B. (2010). A Primer on Crime and Delinquency Theory (3rd edition). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth-Cengage Learning. ISBN 9780495807506.
Hagan, Frank E.; Jan 12, 2010; Introduction to Criminology: Theories, Methods, and Criminal Behavior; SAGE; (page 117).

2:
Biological positivists believe that people that commit a criminal act are the victim of a chemical imbalance or have some sort of abnormality. Criminal behavior was believed by biological theorists to be caused a defect in a person, whether brought about genetically or otherwise. These defects were used by criminologist to categorize people; they were placed, theoretically speaking, into a category of law abiding people or criminals/scofflaws. Biological positivists do not believe that people have the choice of free will on whether or whether not to commit a criminal act. (Cole and Smith, 2007) The biological theories lean towards the person committing the crime as have some sort of defect or malformation. Whether these defect are genetically or biologically obtained; they place the individual in a situation where they are not given the opportunity of free will, therefore; they are not fully responsible for the criminal behavior. Biological positivists believe that the threat of repercussions and punishment will not sway the criminal from carrying out a criminal act due to the fact they do not have the luxury of free will. The positivists claim that an amount of these criminal acts can be prevented by medical treatment and/or therapy sessions. Positivists actually for some time felt that deporting a person with these defects or abnormalities was a way to prevent further criminals acts of the individual. Criminals would stand the chance of sterilization as way to further pass on the genes to a family member that could potentially be plagued with the same issues; this was a way to prevent crimes a generation before it happened. (Bohm and Vogel, 2010)
(word count = 270)

Bohm, R. & Vogel, B. (2010). A Primer on Crime and Delinquency Theory (3rd edition). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth-Cengage Learning. ISBN 9780495807506.
Cole, George F.; Smith, Christopher E.; Jan 5, 2007; Criminal Justice In America; Cengage Learning

Executive decision:
When speaking of the relationship between personality and crime, I am under the assumption that we are addressing a personality disorder and how it relates to crime and criminal acts. There are different personality disorders that can relate to different crimes; the disorders may play a role in making one crime compare differently to another. An example of this would be, a man who preys on women compared to a man who preys on children; men who murder their fathers as opposed to their mothers; the comparison of a man that kills children as opposed to a woman who kills children. There are different types of personality disorders to compare to different types of crime. There are different ways that personality and crime can be related; first there is personality-trait psychology which observes certain traits that can be attributed to anti-social behavior. (Bohm and Vogel, 2010) Some criminologists believe that the anti-social behavior trait can be associated with high novelty seeking, low harm avoidance and low reward dependence. Another link between personality and crime is by the personality-type psychology; theorists have asserted that this trait labels certain individuals, who are defective and/or abnormal, tend to have criminal traits, and may be considered psychopathic in nature, as well as sociopathic and anti-social. According to Hare, a psychopathic individual was a person who is a persistent offender; possess various dysfunctional behavioral traits and consists of approximately one percent of our population. The psychopath can be void of any remorse, non-empathetic, self-centered and may also possess the trait of superficial charm and charisma. (Durand and Barlow, 2009)
(word count = 264)

Bohm, R. & Vogel, B. (2010). A Primer on Crime and Delinquency Theory (3rd edition). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth-Cengage Learning. ISBN 9780495807506.
Durand, V. Mark; Barlow, David H. Ph.D.; Feb 13, 2009; Essentials of Abnormal Psychology; Cengage Learning

Criminological Theory Unit 4
Unit 4: Case Summary
Macrosociological Theory addresses the analysis of social economics and different populations on a wide scale; it is considered the main basis of sociology. Macrosociology addresses the approach to social pattern arrangements at a high level and also concerns people as individuals, family structures and different outlooks on society. Macrosociology examines the world wide and historical interworking of social life. Macrosociology examines people on a wide spectrum and studies individuals as masses. (Bohm and Vogel, 2010) Macrosociology is a theory based on different theoretical strategies; there are a number of these strategies, however; macrosociology is based on primarily of four main theoretical strategies.
The four main theoretical strategies that consist to give macrosociology structure are the following: First; the Idealist Strategy references the creativity that the mind of the human contains. It gives a clearer understanding of what social life consists of by these references. It is the belief of ideal theorists that a person’s individualism is attached to their actions having a specific meaning or reason. Second; the Materialist Strategy describes the social life of humans as being practical and their ability to live life and coexist socially is based on material needs and wants. The material needs and wants consist of the natural environment around them, technology and what it produces, and a structured economy. (Sanderson, 1991)
Third; Structural Functionalism also assists in defining the foundation of macrosociology as it defines the parts of a society that are more complex and explains the relationships between differences in society. The functionalism states how each specific functioning part of a society has great bearing and influence on others parts of that society. Fourth; the Conflict Theory or Conflict Theoretical Strategy, is based on the theory that basic causes of criminal acts are related to social and economic influences in society. The conflict theory claims the criminal law and the overall justice system are assumed to be more lenient to those with more social status. In other words, those with more wealth and power in society, use their status in society to exploit those of lower social or economic status. (Sanderson, 1991)
Microsociology is the other main focus of sociology; it addresses the everyday life and interaction of people based on an individual basis; in contrast to Macrosociology which addresses the social interaction of people as a mass or a population. Microsociology is gives interpretation to an analysis as opposed to a statistical breakdown. The primary function of microsociology is to study individual behavior and analyze the motives behind the decisions and choices that individual makes. There are some similarities between the macrosociology and microsociology theories; both theories a given to study societies and their processes. (Bakonyi and De Guevara, 2012) The differences are that macrosociology studies the interworking of a society as it relates to the entire society. In contrast, microsociology relates to the processes of society as they are acted out by a single individual. Microsociology is more direct with the way the actions of a single person are related to biological and psychological factors. Macrosociology simply depends on data and statistics as related to society as a whole, to determine how the theory is based. (word count = 526)
Bohm, R. & Vogel, B. (2010). A Primer on Crime and Delinquency Theory (3rd Edition). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth-Cengage Learning. ISBN 9780495807506.
Sanderson, Stephen K.; (1991) Macrosociology: An Introduction to Human Societies; HarperCollins
Bakonyi, Jutta; De Guevara, Berit Bliesemann; Jan 25, 2012; A Micro-Sociology of Violence: Deciphering Patterns and Dynamics of Collective Violence; Taylor & Francis Group
Case Analysis: 1
Emile Durkheim was born in Lorraine, France on April 15, 1858 to a family with a long line of rabbis. Durkheim had early on decided to follow the path of the family and become a rabbi. He studied the Hebrew, Old Testament and the Talmud along with enrolling into non-religious schools. As he furthered his education, Durkheim soon left the path of his religious studies and continued on as a “free-thinker”. Durkheim graduated with the decision to pursue scientific study of society. Emile Durkhem set off on his career as a teacher of philosophy; at the time his teaching began, there were no sociology studies at the schools where he attended.
Emile Durkheim is known for playing a large part as a founder of structural functionalism. He played a major role in developing structural functionalism and macrosociology as a whole. (Bohm and Vogel, 2010) Durkheim’s studies were centered on social facts, cultural normalcy and societies’ values. These values were believed by Durkheim to be an external value to a person. His macro-level views explained how he saw the reality in society and how it affected people. (Thompson, 2012) Emile Durkheim was of the opinion that sociology should keep its focus and study on society as a mass or in whole; studying the social functions of each society and culture. One of the biggest accomplishments of Emile Durkheim as in relation to macro-sociology was the fact that his studies brought it to a professional and scientific among theorists. Durkheim’s studies and views were able to give functionalism as it relates to macro-sociology, an extra added support in the scientific study of society.
Emile Durkheim is also known for view on anomie, which describes an individual lacking the normalcy of society. Emile Durkheim assumed the anomie arose from a one-sided conflict between an individual or a collective group’s social standards versus higher society standards. Durkheim viewed this as playing a part in a person, who lacked social status or standing, lacking in aspirations to achieve or moral declination. (Durkheim, Spaulding and Simpson, 1997) (word count = 342)
Bohm, R. & Vogel, B. (2010). A Primer on Crime and Delinquency Theory; (3rd Ed). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth-Cengage Learning. ISBN 9780495807506
Durkheim, Emile; Spaulding, John A.; Simpson, George; Feb 1, 1997; Suicide; Simon and Schuster

2:
Gabriel Tarde was of the belief that normal people committed crimes based on their adaptation to their environments and the people in the society they were a part of. (Bohm and Vogel, 2010) Tarde did not share the same views as some theorists that criminals were “born that way”; he believed that although someone can be born to be a mean person, anyone could “become’ a criminal. Tarde was of the opinion that to become a criminal one had to be taught; he believed that people learn from each other and the learning came through the process of imitation. Gabriel Tarde did not believe in discipline that was socially imposed since he felt it stifled individual freedoms. He wrote articles that were critical of the discipline imposed by the theorists of that day.
Gabriel Tarde directed his study to social processes that high-lighted the forms of behavior and thought processes that are transmitted from individual to individual or group to group. Tarde’s theory was one of imitation and suggestion. The theory was structured by what Tarde considered the “three laws of imitation”; (Walsh and Ellis, 2006) first, the law of contact which defines the imitation of the behavior from person of another due to close intimate contact. Second, the law of imitation of superiors by inferiors; the idea that children imitate adults, the poor imitate the rich; people of no social status imitate famous people. People of low social status commit crimes in an effort to imitate well-known, wealthy people. Third, the law of insertion defines how newer criminal acts or behaviors are forced onto older forms or ways; Tarde was of the opinion that these newer ways or acts would either add to or do away with the previous forms of action or behavior. (word count = 295)

Bohm, R. & Vogel, B. (2010). A Primer on Crime and Delinquency Theory (3rd Edition). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth-Cengage Learning. ISBN 9780495807506.
Walsh, Anthony; Ellis, Lee; Dec 14, 2006; Criminology: An Interdisciplinary Approach; SAGE
Executive decision:
The Chicago School identifies the derivatives that explain how criminal acts are given opportunity; these are the situational crime prevention theory (opportunity theory) and routine activity theory. (Bohm and Vogel, 2010) The situational crime prevention theory explains ways to reduce the different opportunities for an individual to commit a criminal act. The theory offers the assumption that a criminal will possibly change their mind about whether they will be able to get away with the crime or not. The reasons the offender may change their mind is the fact the crime may seem harder; more of a risk and the reward appear not as great. The theory can be implemented into making different changes to structures and streets, making a safer environment.
Routine activity theory assumes that criminal acts are not the result of social status or causes. That is to say that just because someone lives in poverty; is un-employed or is of lesser social status; does not mean they will be placed in a situation to have to commit a crime. The routine activity theory states that crime is normal and will happen in an environment as long as the circumstances are present. Theorists assume that if an opportunity presents itself for a crime to be committed the crime will be committed and possibly by a person who has never or would not normally commit a crime. Both derivatives define crime as related to opportunity. Many of the reasons for a crime is opportunity and one of the ways to reduce crime is to reduce the opportunities and lessen the chances for crimes to be committed. (Helfgott, 2006)
Bohm, R. & Vogel, B. (2010). A Primer on Crime and Delinquency Theory (3rd Edition). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth-Cengage Learning. ISBN 9780495807506.
Helfgott, Jacqueline B.; Mar 13, 2008; Criminal Behavior: Theories, Typologies and Criminal Justice; SAGE

Criminological Theory Unit 5
Unit 5: Case Summary
The idea of conflict criminology is the compilation of the views of sociologists Max Weber and Georg Simmel. Both Weber and Simmel shared liberal views on social conflict as it related to criminology. (Bohm and Vogel, 2010) The views that Weber and Simmel shared where based largely on conflict criminology writings of Karl Marx. Marx claimed that in a capitalist society, the chance of a crime occurring is inevitable. These views were based on the idea that various groups in society would participate in criminal acts for personal gain and material wealth. These groups have a conception that the material gains would bring them to a more equal status of society and economic states. Theorists view conflict criminology as an idea that the state and individuals in society have no social contract agreement.
Radical criminology views are based on capitalist societies and the political and economic framework of that society. Radical criminology assumes the idea that the pressures of society and economy result in the individuals of that society committing criminal acts. (Inciardi, 1980) It assumes the view that a society operates in the benefit of the upper echelon of that society instead of the entire society as a group; all the while the possibility for conflict can arise at any time.
Peacemaking criminology assumes that if people will change and/or lean on each other for support, the amount of criminal activity in society can be reduced. The peacemaking theory suggests that if the communities would develop into an environment of caring people and a criminal justice system that was fair and consistent, this would be a great start to solving the problems that plaque society.(Pepinsky and Quinney, 1991) Peacemaking criminology stands against injustice in today’s society and promotes a non-violent environment and communities. The theory views crime as the result of society setting certain groups in a place where they feel that have to commit crimes to “keep up” with other groups in society that have better hierarchal structure.
Postmodern criminology supports one of the most basic beliefs that crime is the result of the way society plays out in an area. (Milovanovic, 1997)This theory also assumes that a major issue that plays a part in society is how the outcome of a situation is affected by the social context. The postmodern criminology theory is an extension of sorts to the conflict theories that assume that individuals who commit a criminal act are responsible and held accountable for their own actions. It assumes the offender committed the criminal act due to the behavior that pushed them to a point to go against society’s normalcy.
These theories hold the views that a person’s actions, as far as how they relate to crime, are affected by society and the way society operates. These views state that society is made up of certain groups that hold different statuses and some individuals that feel they are in a lower level of social status. The desires of people in lower levels of society many times resort to crime as a way to gain wealth or payback society for their position or lack of. (word count = 519)

Bohm, R. & Vogel, B. (2010). A Primer on Crime and Delinquency Theory (3rd Edition). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth-Cengage Learning. ISBN 9780495807506.
Inciardi, James A. (1980) Radical Criminology: The Coming Crisis; Sage Publications
Pepinsky, Harold E.; Quinney, Richard; May 1, 1991; Criminology As Peacemaking; Indiana University Press
Milovanvic, Dragan; (1997) Postmodern Criminology; Taylor and Francis
Case Analysis: 1
For many years theorists have studied crime and punishment and the causation of criminal acts. Tittle explains the theories of these theorists as “simple theories” which are capable of explaining only one or two principles that have been given application to all instances of the certain criminal behavior being explained. (Bohm and Vogel, 2010) Integrated theories where developed to be viewed as an attempt to go between the different ideas explained by some of the older theories of criminology and integrate variables from other theoretical angles. The integration was developed to recognize the multiple causations of crime; it recognizes the complexities and the many dimensions associated with crime in society. The integration of various social, psychological, biological and economic factors into a conscious structure, gives the theory the ability to overcome the misgivings of the older, simpler theories. It gives more structure to the theories that are ridiculed for arguing that the cause of crime is based on one causal issue. The argument with that is the issue that not all people that are exposed to that one issue commit a criminal act. The integration of theories opens up prospects of multiple factors and causal variables that would result in criminal behavior of individuals in society. The integrated approach to a theory allows a view at factors that may have an influence on crime and the causations of crime. The multiple factors, based on the issuance of integration into a theory, show the many ways they can influence criminal activity in a specific group in a society. (word count = 257)
Bohm, R. & Vogel, B. (2010). A Primer on Crime and Delinquency Theory (3rd Edition). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth-Cengage Learning. ISBN 9780495807506.

2:
Developmental theories are also known as life-course theories; they describe the theoretical concepts that influence a person’s development. The developmental theory focuses on how a person is influenced by others such as family, peer pressure at school or the pressures that are dealt with in relation to occupation. (Bohm and Vogel, 2010) Developmental theorists assume that antisocial behavior has to develop and is not the result of an underlying or biological issue that decides to manifest itself. The developmental theory was produced to point out the areas in a person’s life that influence them in different manners to behave in a certain way. Theorists believe that the interjection of the developmental theory has given insight to how some behavior of an individual is influenced by life paths they take as a result of child-raising, people they associate with or occupations (careers) they choose. Developmental theory has allowed theorists to view the different developmental changes of a person; these changes are based on the changes to the society or environment around them. The life-course theory has been able to assist in developing ideas and opinions that discriminate between the causations of a crime and dependencies of the individual. Developmental theories are definitely age-based in that the criminal acts committed by an individual who has led a life of crime, can be attributed to various factors that caused different effects at different times in life, such as; juvenile, adolescence, teenager and adult. Developmental theory as it relates to criminology is important as it studies and gives views on factors that could be of risk during the developmental years of an individual. (word count = 269) Bohm, R. & Vogel, B. (2010). A Primer on Crime and Delinquency Theory (3rd Edition). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth-Cengage Learning. ISBN 9780495807506.
Executive decision:
As the head of a department or division I would think that the study of criminology theory would be a help to the department and the officers as a whole. The study of the theories gives an officer a better grasp on who, what and why they are dealing with the particular situation at that time. Many times as officers we go on a call or make an arrest and it becomes routine; we don’t stop and take the time to think about why someone commit the crime they committed or acted the way that they did. We become so focused on a “stat” that we never totally see the whole picture of “who, what and why”. I believe that maybe not everyone would stop and try to look at a person they arrest through the “eyes” of a criminology theory, but I imagine if we could do that we would be able to deal differently with certain people and the possibilities of the concepts of peacemaking criminology can come into play. It is easy to look back now and see some of the calls you have gone on and something about that person you dealt with struck you kind of odd or peculiar; looking at it now it is easier to see that they might have been influenced by someone to do what they did. The concept of somewhat understanding criminology theories at a department is a great asset as it gives the community the view of a more caring, compassionate department. (word count = 253)