Empress Dowager Cixi Research Paper
Empress Dowager Cixi
Empress Dowager Cixi was the last Dowager Empress of China to hold power. Contrary to tradition and policy she exercised enormous power, opposed foreign influence and supported the 1898-1900 Boxer Rebellion. Unfortunately, Cixi is often characterized as vicious, treacherous, cunning, and crazed by many historians. Cixi was born on born November 29, 1835, to a noble Manchu family in China. Her father's name was Kuei Hsiang of the Yehenara clan, but her mother was unknown. Little is known about her early life. Prior to the age of fourteen, the information surrounding her is full of speculation, embellishment, and absurd stories. Some say that she was a beggar on the streets due to her father's opium and drinking problems, others say that she …show more content…
was sold as a sex slave to the emperor by her father. By the age of fourteen however, historians know that Cixi was a nominee for the position of imperial concubine. She was probably happy and eager to fill the position since she once said, "I have had a very hard life ever since I was a young girl. I was not a bit happy when with my parents... My sisters had everything they wanted, while I was, to a great extent, ignored altogether". In 1851 she was officially chosen by the then-empress dowager as an imperial concubine. She would then serve Emperor Xianfeng as a fourth-rank concubine under the name "Lady Yehenara" ,after her father's clan. Xianfeng had one empress, two consorts, and eleven concubines. This was a small assortment, relative to earlier emperors; mainly because budget was tight at the time. His favorite was a consort who bore him a daughter, but while she was pregnant he spent most of his time with Cixi. In 1854, Cixi was elevated to Concubine Yi, and in 1855, she was pregnant. On April 27, 1856, she gave birth to Zaichun, the Emperor Xianfeng's only surviving son. Soon afterward she was elevated to Consort Yi, and then Noble Consort Yi in 1857 following her son's first birthday. This rank placed her second only to the Empress within Xianfeng's harem. Cixi was then called the Empress of the Western Palace. It is said that the emperor trusted her judgment and consulted her constantly on affairs of state because she was his favorite. Emperor Xianfeng died in 1861 at the age of 30. His primary wife, Cixi's cousin Ci An, had a daughter, but no sons. On his death-bed, Xianfeng made contradictory statements about the succession. He never officially named an heir before his death on August 22, 1861.However , Cixi made sure that her 5-year-old son was in line for the position. Cixi's five year old son ,Zaichun, became the emperor immediately following Xianfeng's death. A regency council of four ministers and four nobles aided the child emperor, while the Empress Niuhuru and Cixi were named co-Empresses Dowagers. This gave each a bit of power, however it was split. The Empresses each controlled a royal seal, which could be used as a form of veto. When the ladies opposed a ruling they refused to stamp it, converting the protocol into real power. Following the emperor's death in 1861, Cixi became a perceptive strategist. She coordinated with powerful court officials and imperial relatives to seize power and gain alliances. However in 1861 one of the ministers on the regency council, Su Shun, was intent on becoming the power behind the throne. Frustrated with Cixi's interference with the council and overpowering of Empress Niuhuru, Su Shun tried to cut out Cixi and take her imperial seal. Cixi publicly denounced Su Shun, and allied herself with Empress Niuhuru and three imperial princes against him. Su Shun, who controlled the treasury, cut off food and household items for the Empresses, however they would not give in. When the royal household returned to Beijing for the funeral, Su Shun was detained and charged with treason. Despite his high post, he was beheaded in the public market. Two princely co-conspirators were then allowed to commit suicide rather than receive beheadings. Following the coup in 1861, Empress Cixi then issued two edicts. The first stated that the two Empresses Dowagers were to be the sole decision makers , and the second changed the boy Emperor's name from Qixiang to Tongzhi. The new regents then faced an increasingly difficult period in China's history. The effects of the Second Opium War were still lingering over the country. Foreigners pressed more and more into Chinese traditional life, debts were to be paid, and Chinese religious views were put in question. The Taiping Rebellion began in 1850, and continued through the reign of Cixi and her son. Its effects were slowly destroying the Qing empire and adding to the already corrupt nature of the dynasty itself. By 1864 however, the Taiping rebellion had been put down my Cixi's Xiang army. Seeing this as a new opportunity to strengthen her control and power, Cixi focused on new internal threats to her power. Of special concern was the position of Yixin, the Prince Gong, and the Chief Policy Advisor. All three of which, were threats to her power. Cixi removed Yixin from office in an attempt to show her dominance in 1865. However she later allowed him to return after many officials protested. As for the other two, Cixi developed strong ties with them to increase her political power. By 1865 Cixi had an iron grip on Qing politics and China. But the effects of the Opium wars and the Taiping Rebellion were slowly taking their toll on China. Realizing that her armies, navies, economy, and political tactics were behind the times, Cixi decided to modernize China. She proclaimed that China was to learn from western powers to improve itself. Focusing on western technology, knowledge, history, mathematics, and astronomy, Cixi opened schools for boys across China. She also began sending young boys abroad to study. Cixi later ordered modern warships to be delivered to China , in order to improve her navy, however negotiations fell through and the warships were later returned. Another disappointment to the Dowager Empress, were the results of her abroad program for students. Many Chinese students returned from western schools with liberal ideas, which threatened her power and total control. Fearing that her abroad program would create Chinese revolutionaries, Cixi terminated it in 1881. This officially marked the end of her open attitude towards foreigners. Later in Tongzhi's life, Cixi began to control not only his political decisions, but also his personal life. By Tongzhi's seventeenth birthday, Cixi had demanded that he take concubines and an empress. Tongzhi grew to favor the empress Jiashun above all his concubines ,to the great dismay of Cixi. Feeling threatened again, Cixi ordered them apart in an effort to secure her own power. This in turn created a rebellious Tongzhi who began to sneak out of the palace and into brothels. As a result, Tongzhi developed a bad reputation as a highly promiscuous prince who laid with commoners. This is turn reflected poorly upon Cixi's control, and she attempted to tighten her grip further. By 1875 however, Tongzhi had become increasingly ill. Reports from doctors suggest that he had contracted syphilis , no doubt from his exploits outside the palace. Others suggest he died from smallpox, but neither have been proven. Following Tongzhi's death in 1875, a new emperor, Zaitian, came to power. The son of Cixi's sister, Zaitian, was soon called Emperor Guangxu. Guangxu began his "reign" in 1875, under the watchful eye of Empress Cixi. In 1881 Empress Dowager Ci'an died suddenly. Rumors quickly began to spread that Cixi had her poisoned. According to officials in the palace, Ci'an appeared ill on the morning of April 11, 1881, and was then dead by the evening. The Circumstances surrounding Ci'ans death appear suspicious. Because of a lack of evidence, however, historians are reluctant to believe that Ci'an was poisoned by Cixi. Instead the common idea is that the cause of death was a sudden stroke. Ci'an's sudden death tipped all the power over to Cixi and now she had almost complete control. By 1887 Guangxu had officially gained the right to rule on his own. However , corrupt officials in favor of Cixi voiced their opposition, citing the Emperor's youth as the main reason for his inability to rule on his own. Cixi , accepted the idea and legitimized her continued rule through a new legal document that allowed her to "aid" the Guangxu Emperor in his rule indefinitely. By 1898, Cixi had supposedly retired, allowing Guangxu to finally rule on his own. The same year, Guangxu began the Hundred Days Reform movement in order to strengthen China politically, legally, and socially. The reforms, however, were too sudden for a China still under significant neo-Confucian influence, and displeased Cixi as it seemed as a serious check on her power. Thinking that the reform was a conspiracy, Cixi developed a coup to regain power yet again. On September 21 1898, the Guangxu Emperor was taken, a small palace on an island in the middle of Zhongnanhai . Empress Dowager Cixi followed the Emperor's sudden disappearance with an edict dictating the Guangxu Emperor's total disgrace and "not being fit to be Emperor". Thus ending Guangxu's short reign. In 1900, the Boxer rebellion broke out in northern China in an attempt to drive all foreigners out of the country. Cixi, already known for her hatred of foreigners, supported the rebellion whole heartedly and announced a war on the European powers. By August 1900 , the battle of Peking began to rage. Fearing for their lives, Guangxu and Cixi fled into the mountains for safety. While in hiding, the Europeans were able to send a message to Cixi urging her to come to an agreement. Cixi then decided it was wise to work with the westerners, and returned to the capital in 1902. Upon their return, Cixi made a remarkable reversal in her political attitude, wooing the powers she had attempted to destroy and supporting the policies she had suppressed. She then made a series of reforms for the examination system, social policies, economy, and government structure. In November 1908, Cixi installed Puyi as the new emperor of the Qing dyansty. Several days later on November 14, Guangxu died suddenly. The next day on November 15, Cixi died in the Hall of Graceful Bird at the Middle Sea of Zhongnanhai. Incredibly, Tests done in 2008 confirmed that Guangxu had been poisoned, no doubt by Cixi herself. Historian, Dai Yi, speculated that Cixi may have known of her imminent death and may have worried that Guangxu would continue his reforms after her death, thus poisoning him. Even up to her death in 1908, Empress Dowager Cixi maintained control over China with an iron fist. Exercising enormous power, Cixi was cunning, treacherous, power hungry, and in complete control. To date, she is one of the most powerful female rulers in history, among Cleopatra, Queen Elizabeth I, and Nefertiti.
"Arsenic killed Chinese emperor, reports say - CNN.com". CNN. 4 November 2008. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
Spence, Jonathan. The Search for Modern China. Norton 7 Company. New York. 1999.
boxer rebellion" Encyclopedia Britannica Academic Edition. Encyclopedia Britannica Inc.2012. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/76364/Boxer-Rebellion
Shirokauer, Conrad. Modern China and Japan. Thomson learning. 1982
Benson. Amanda. Cixi: the Woman Behind the throne. Smithsonian. 2008.
Sterling Seagrave, Peggy Seagrave (1993). Dragon lady: the life and legend of the last empress of China. Vintage Books. L. Woo (2002). Empress dowager Cixi: China's last dynasty and the long reign of a formidable concubine : legends and lives during the declining days of the Qing Dynasty. Algora Publishing.
"Cixi" Encyclopedia Britannica Academic Edition. Encyclopedia Britannica Inc.2012. webhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/612105/Cixi
Sue Fawn Chung, "The Much Maligned Empress Dowager: A Revisionist Study of the Empress Dowager Tz'u-Hsi (1835–1908)," Modern Asian Studies 13.2 (1979): 177–196.
Laidler, Keith (2003), "The Last Empress" (p. 50), John Wiley & Sons Inc.,
--------------------------------------------
[ 1 ]. "Cixi" Encyclopedia Britannica Academic Edition. Encyclopedia Britannica Inc.2012. webhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/612105/Cixi
[ 2 ]. Sue Fawn Chung, "The Much Maligned Empress Dowager: A Revisionist Study of the Empress Dowager Tz'u-Hsi (1835–1908)," Modern Asian Studies 13.2 (1979): 177–196.
[ 3 ]. "Cixi" Encyclopedia Britannica Academic Edition. Encyclopedia Britannica Inc.2012. webhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/612105/Cixi
[ 4 ]. Laidler, Keith (2003), "The Last Empress" (p. 50), John Wiley & Sons Inc.,
[ 5 ]. Laidler, Keith (2003), "The Last Empress" (p. 58), John Wiley & Sons Inc.,
[ 6 ]. Sterling Seagrave, Peggy Seagrave (1993). Dragon lady: the life and legend of the last empress of China. Vintage Books.
[ 7 ]. L. Woo (2002). Empress dowager Cixi: China's last dynasty and the long reign of a formidable concubine : legends and lives during the declining days of the Qing Dynasty. Algora Publishing.
[ 8 ]. L. Woo (2002). Empress dowager Cixi: China's last dynasty and the long reign of a formidable concubine : legends and lives during the declining days of the Qing Dynasty. Algora Publishing.
[ 9 ].
Shirokauer, Conrad. Modern China and Japan. Thomson learning. 1982
[ 10 ]. "Cixi" Encyclopedia Britannica Academic Edition. Encyclopedia Britannica Inc.2012. webhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/612105/Cixi
[ 11 ]. Shirokauer, Conrad. Modern China and Japan. Thomson learning. 1982. Pg 98
[ 12 ]. Shirokauer, Conrad. Modern China and Japan. Thomson learning. 1982
[ 13 ]. Shirokauer, Conrad. Modern China and Japan. Thomson learning. 1982
[ 14 ]. Benson. Amanda. Cixi: the Woman Behind the throne. Smithsonian. 2008. http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/da-cixi.html
[ 15 ]. Benson. Amanda. Cixi: the Woman Behind the throne. Smithsonian. 2008.
[ 16 ]. terling Seagrave, Peggy Seagrave (1993). Dragon lady: the life and legend of the last empress of China. Vintage Books.
[ 17 ]. Shirokauer, Conrad. Modern China and Japan. Thomson learning. 1982
[ 18 ]. Shirokauer, Conrad. Modern China and Japan. Thomson learning. 1982
[ 19 ]. Spence, Jonathan. The Search for Modern China. Norton 7 Company. New York. 1999. Pg 224
[ 20 ]. "boxer rebellion" Encyclopedia Britannica Academic Edition. Encyclopedia Britannica Inc.2012.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/76364/Boxer-Rebellion
[ 21 ]. Spence, Jonathan. The Search for Modern China. Norton 7 Company. New York. 1999.
[ 22 ]. Spence, Jonathan. The Search for Modern China. Norton 7 Company. New York. 1999.
[ 23 ]. "Arsenic killed Chinese emperor, reports say - CNN.com". CNN. 4 November 2008. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
Empress Dowager Cixi was the last Dowager Empress of China to hold power. Contrary to tradition and policy she exercised enormous power, opposed foreign influence and supported the 1898-1900 Boxer Rebellion. Unfortunately, Cixi is often characterized as vicious, treacherous, cunning, and crazed by many historians. Cixi was born on born November 29, 1835, to a noble Manchu family in China. Her father's name was Kuei Hsiang of the Yehenara clan, but her mother was unknown. Little is known about her early life. Prior to the age of fourteen, the information surrounding her is full of speculation, embellishment, and absurd stories. Some say that she was a beggar on the streets due to her father's opium and drinking problems, others say that she …show more content…
was sold as a sex slave to the emperor by her father. By the age of fourteen however, historians know that Cixi was a nominee for the position of imperial concubine. She was probably happy and eager to fill the position since she once said, "I have had a very hard life ever since I was a young girl. I was not a bit happy when with my parents... My sisters had everything they wanted, while I was, to a great extent, ignored altogether". In 1851 she was officially chosen by the then-empress dowager as an imperial concubine. She would then serve Emperor Xianfeng as a fourth-rank concubine under the name "Lady Yehenara" ,after her father's clan. Xianfeng had one empress, two consorts, and eleven concubines. This was a small assortment, relative to earlier emperors; mainly because budget was tight at the time. His favorite was a consort who bore him a daughter, but while she was pregnant he spent most of his time with Cixi. In 1854, Cixi was elevated to Concubine Yi, and in 1855, she was pregnant. On April 27, 1856, she gave birth to Zaichun, the Emperor Xianfeng's only surviving son. Soon afterward she was elevated to Consort Yi, and then Noble Consort Yi in 1857 following her son's first birthday. This rank placed her second only to the Empress within Xianfeng's harem. Cixi was then called the Empress of the Western Palace. It is said that the emperor trusted her judgment and consulted her constantly on affairs of state because she was his favorite. Emperor Xianfeng died in 1861 at the age of 30. His primary wife, Cixi's cousin Ci An, had a daughter, but no sons. On his death-bed, Xianfeng made contradictory statements about the succession. He never officially named an heir before his death on August 22, 1861.However , Cixi made sure that her 5-year-old son was in line for the position. Cixi's five year old son ,Zaichun, became the emperor immediately following Xianfeng's death. A regency council of four ministers and four nobles aided the child emperor, while the Empress Niuhuru and Cixi were named co-Empresses Dowagers. This gave each a bit of power, however it was split. The Empresses each controlled a royal seal, which could be used as a form of veto. When the ladies opposed a ruling they refused to stamp it, converting the protocol into real power. Following the emperor's death in 1861, Cixi became a perceptive strategist. She coordinated with powerful court officials and imperial relatives to seize power and gain alliances. However in 1861 one of the ministers on the regency council, Su Shun, was intent on becoming the power behind the throne. Frustrated with Cixi's interference with the council and overpowering of Empress Niuhuru, Su Shun tried to cut out Cixi and take her imperial seal. Cixi publicly denounced Su Shun, and allied herself with Empress Niuhuru and three imperial princes against him. Su Shun, who controlled the treasury, cut off food and household items for the Empresses, however they would not give in. When the royal household returned to Beijing for the funeral, Su Shun was detained and charged with treason. Despite his high post, he was beheaded in the public market. Two princely co-conspirators were then allowed to commit suicide rather than receive beheadings. Following the coup in 1861, Empress Cixi then issued two edicts. The first stated that the two Empresses Dowagers were to be the sole decision makers , and the second changed the boy Emperor's name from Qixiang to Tongzhi. The new regents then faced an increasingly difficult period in China's history. The effects of the Second Opium War were still lingering over the country. Foreigners pressed more and more into Chinese traditional life, debts were to be paid, and Chinese religious views were put in question. The Taiping Rebellion began in 1850, and continued through the reign of Cixi and her son. Its effects were slowly destroying the Qing empire and adding to the already corrupt nature of the dynasty itself. By 1864 however, the Taiping rebellion had been put down my Cixi's Xiang army. Seeing this as a new opportunity to strengthen her control and power, Cixi focused on new internal threats to her power. Of special concern was the position of Yixin, the Prince Gong, and the Chief Policy Advisor. All three of which, were threats to her power. Cixi removed Yixin from office in an attempt to show her dominance in 1865. However she later allowed him to return after many officials protested. As for the other two, Cixi developed strong ties with them to increase her political power. By 1865 Cixi had an iron grip on Qing politics and China. But the effects of the Opium wars and the Taiping Rebellion were slowly taking their toll on China. Realizing that her armies, navies, economy, and political tactics were behind the times, Cixi decided to modernize China. She proclaimed that China was to learn from western powers to improve itself. Focusing on western technology, knowledge, history, mathematics, and astronomy, Cixi opened schools for boys across China. She also began sending young boys abroad to study. Cixi later ordered modern warships to be delivered to China , in order to improve her navy, however negotiations fell through and the warships were later returned. Another disappointment to the Dowager Empress, were the results of her abroad program for students. Many Chinese students returned from western schools with liberal ideas, which threatened her power and total control. Fearing that her abroad program would create Chinese revolutionaries, Cixi terminated it in 1881. This officially marked the end of her open attitude towards foreigners. Later in Tongzhi's life, Cixi began to control not only his political decisions, but also his personal life. By Tongzhi's seventeenth birthday, Cixi had demanded that he take concubines and an empress. Tongzhi grew to favor the empress Jiashun above all his concubines ,to the great dismay of Cixi. Feeling threatened again, Cixi ordered them apart in an effort to secure her own power. This in turn created a rebellious Tongzhi who began to sneak out of the palace and into brothels. As a result, Tongzhi developed a bad reputation as a highly promiscuous prince who laid with commoners. This is turn reflected poorly upon Cixi's control, and she attempted to tighten her grip further. By 1875 however, Tongzhi had become increasingly ill. Reports from doctors suggest that he had contracted syphilis , no doubt from his exploits outside the palace. Others suggest he died from smallpox, but neither have been proven. Following Tongzhi's death in 1875, a new emperor, Zaitian, came to power. The son of Cixi's sister, Zaitian, was soon called Emperor Guangxu. Guangxu began his "reign" in 1875, under the watchful eye of Empress Cixi. In 1881 Empress Dowager Ci'an died suddenly. Rumors quickly began to spread that Cixi had her poisoned. According to officials in the palace, Ci'an appeared ill on the morning of April 11, 1881, and was then dead by the evening. The Circumstances surrounding Ci'ans death appear suspicious. Because of a lack of evidence, however, historians are reluctant to believe that Ci'an was poisoned by Cixi. Instead the common idea is that the cause of death was a sudden stroke. Ci'an's sudden death tipped all the power over to Cixi and now she had almost complete control. By 1887 Guangxu had officially gained the right to rule on his own. However , corrupt officials in favor of Cixi voiced their opposition, citing the Emperor's youth as the main reason for his inability to rule on his own. Cixi , accepted the idea and legitimized her continued rule through a new legal document that allowed her to "aid" the Guangxu Emperor in his rule indefinitely. By 1898, Cixi had supposedly retired, allowing Guangxu to finally rule on his own. The same year, Guangxu began the Hundred Days Reform movement in order to strengthen China politically, legally, and socially. The reforms, however, were too sudden for a China still under significant neo-Confucian influence, and displeased Cixi as it seemed as a serious check on her power. Thinking that the reform was a conspiracy, Cixi developed a coup to regain power yet again. On September 21 1898, the Guangxu Emperor was taken, a small palace on an island in the middle of Zhongnanhai . Empress Dowager Cixi followed the Emperor's sudden disappearance with an edict dictating the Guangxu Emperor's total disgrace and "not being fit to be Emperor". Thus ending Guangxu's short reign. In 1900, the Boxer rebellion broke out in northern China in an attempt to drive all foreigners out of the country. Cixi, already known for her hatred of foreigners, supported the rebellion whole heartedly and announced a war on the European powers. By August 1900 , the battle of Peking began to rage. Fearing for their lives, Guangxu and Cixi fled into the mountains for safety. While in hiding, the Europeans were able to send a message to Cixi urging her to come to an agreement. Cixi then decided it was wise to work with the westerners, and returned to the capital in 1902. Upon their return, Cixi made a remarkable reversal in her political attitude, wooing the powers she had attempted to destroy and supporting the policies she had suppressed. She then made a series of reforms for the examination system, social policies, economy, and government structure. In November 1908, Cixi installed Puyi as the new emperor of the Qing dyansty. Several days later on November 14, Guangxu died suddenly. The next day on November 15, Cixi died in the Hall of Graceful Bird at the Middle Sea of Zhongnanhai. Incredibly, Tests done in 2008 confirmed that Guangxu had been poisoned, no doubt by Cixi herself. Historian, Dai Yi, speculated that Cixi may have known of her imminent death and may have worried that Guangxu would continue his reforms after her death, thus poisoning him. Even up to her death in 1908, Empress Dowager Cixi maintained control over China with an iron fist. Exercising enormous power, Cixi was cunning, treacherous, power hungry, and in complete control. To date, she is one of the most powerful female rulers in history, among Cleopatra, Queen Elizabeth I, and Nefertiti.
"Arsenic killed Chinese emperor, reports say - CNN.com". CNN. 4 November 2008. Retrieved 2 May 2010.
Spence, Jonathan. The Search for Modern China. Norton 7 Company. New York. 1999.
boxer rebellion" Encyclopedia Britannica Academic Edition. Encyclopedia Britannica Inc.2012. http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/76364/Boxer-Rebellion
Shirokauer, Conrad. Modern China and Japan. Thomson learning. 1982
Benson. Amanda. Cixi: the Woman Behind the throne. Smithsonian. 2008.
Sterling Seagrave, Peggy Seagrave (1993). Dragon lady: the life and legend of the last empress of China. Vintage Books. L. Woo (2002). Empress dowager Cixi: China's last dynasty and the long reign of a formidable concubine : legends and lives during the declining days of the Qing Dynasty. Algora Publishing.
"Cixi" Encyclopedia Britannica Academic Edition. Encyclopedia Britannica Inc.2012. webhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/612105/Cixi
Sue Fawn Chung, "The Much Maligned Empress Dowager: A Revisionist Study of the Empress Dowager Tz'u-Hsi (1835–1908)," Modern Asian Studies 13.2 (1979): 177–196.
Laidler, Keith (2003), "The Last Empress" (p. 50), John Wiley & Sons Inc.,
--------------------------------------------
[ 1 ]. "Cixi" Encyclopedia Britannica Academic Edition. Encyclopedia Britannica Inc.2012. webhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/612105/Cixi
[ 2 ]. Sue Fawn Chung, "The Much Maligned Empress Dowager: A Revisionist Study of the Empress Dowager Tz'u-Hsi (1835–1908)," Modern Asian Studies 13.2 (1979): 177–196.
[ 3 ]. "Cixi" Encyclopedia Britannica Academic Edition. Encyclopedia Britannica Inc.2012. webhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/612105/Cixi
[ 4 ]. Laidler, Keith (2003), "The Last Empress" (p. 50), John Wiley & Sons Inc.,
[ 5 ]. Laidler, Keith (2003), "The Last Empress" (p. 58), John Wiley & Sons Inc.,
[ 6 ]. Sterling Seagrave, Peggy Seagrave (1993). Dragon lady: the life and legend of the last empress of China. Vintage Books.
[ 7 ]. L. Woo (2002). Empress dowager Cixi: China's last dynasty and the long reign of a formidable concubine : legends and lives during the declining days of the Qing Dynasty. Algora Publishing.
[ 8 ]. L. Woo (2002). Empress dowager Cixi: China's last dynasty and the long reign of a formidable concubine : legends and lives during the declining days of the Qing Dynasty. Algora Publishing.
[ 9 ].
Shirokauer, Conrad. Modern China and Japan. Thomson learning. 1982
[ 10 ]. "Cixi" Encyclopedia Britannica Academic Edition. Encyclopedia Britannica Inc.2012. webhttp://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/612105/Cixi
[ 11 ]. Shirokauer, Conrad. Modern China and Japan. Thomson learning. 1982. Pg 98
[ 12 ]. Shirokauer, Conrad. Modern China and Japan. Thomson learning. 1982
[ 13 ]. Shirokauer, Conrad. Modern China and Japan. Thomson learning. 1982
[ 14 ]. Benson. Amanda. Cixi: the Woman Behind the throne. Smithsonian. 2008. http://www.smithsonianmag.com/history-archaeology/da-cixi.html
[ 15 ]. Benson. Amanda. Cixi: the Woman Behind the throne. Smithsonian. 2008.
[ 16 ]. terling Seagrave, Peggy Seagrave (1993). Dragon lady: the life and legend of the last empress of China. Vintage Books.
[ 17 ]. Shirokauer, Conrad. Modern China and Japan. Thomson learning. 1982
[ 18 ]. Shirokauer, Conrad. Modern China and Japan. Thomson learning. 1982
[ 19 ]. Spence, Jonathan. The Search for Modern China. Norton 7 Company. New York. 1999. Pg 224
[ 20 ]. "boxer rebellion" Encyclopedia Britannica Academic Edition. Encyclopedia Britannica Inc.2012.
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/76364/Boxer-Rebellion
[ 21 ]. Spence, Jonathan. The Search for Modern China. Norton 7 Company. New York. 1999.
[ 22 ]. Spence, Jonathan. The Search for Modern China. Norton 7 Company. New York. 1999.
[ 23 ]. "Arsenic killed Chinese emperor, reports say - CNN.com". CNN. 4 November 2008. Retrieved 2 May 2010.