Environmental Crime Control

Outline and critically discuss what you see as the main examples of attempts to control crime using ‘environmental controls’

It is generally understood that crime prevention strategies developed with the neo-liberal governance that began in the 1970’s soon after the decline of welfarism. The rise of the neo-liberalism meant the weakening of rehabilitation efforts, the return of punitive punishment and an increase in the prison population, as well as an increase in society’s fear of crime leading to politicisation and populism linked to crime (Matthews, 2002). Attempts to eradicate or prevent crime have often focused on punishment and a ‘prison works’ system that deals with the offender once the criminal act has occurred, rather than specifically focusing on preventing the crime from happening in the first place. The past decade has shown that the British government’s dogmatic response to crime “gives priority to case-processing and the punishment of offenders” particularly due to the public’s fear of crime and want for a more punitive response to crime (Garland, 2000, pg2). Although environmental control theories are not particularly recognised by the public nor have they been chiefly researched by criminologists in the past, evidence suggests that some forms of environmental control have proven to be highly successful (Clarke, 1983). The idea that crime can be prevented by the analysis of places in which crime occurs most frequently, followed by the alteration of the design of a building or reducing the criminal’s opportunities and temptation to offend, will be examined throughout this paper. Situational Crime prevention emphasises the use of target hardening, surveillance and access control in order to reduce the temptations of crime in urban areas that would usually experience high crime rates (Vellani, 2007). The fundamental theories behind situational crime prevention are rational choice theory and routine activity theory which will be analysed in order to understand their contributions to environmental crime controls today. Lastly, and most importantly, is the influence of ‘Crime Prevention through Environmental design’ in the decline of criminal activity in certain geographical areas. The ‘Defensible space’ theory relies on residents to practice the use of territorial surveillance (Clarke, 1983). All of these theories will be analysed in order to highlight the main examples of attempts to prevent and manipulate crime using environmental controls.

Situational crime prevention, or control theory, is an important theory used by academics and criminologists in order to analyse environmental controls used to manage crime. Situational crime prevention emphasises the need to focus on the settings of a crime rather than specifically focusing on the offender (Clarke, 1997). By sourcing out the geographical areas that crime occurs most regularly, law enforcement can then anticipate and prevent that crime from happening. In the 1970’s, UK policy makers had a tendency to focus their attention on ‘dispositional’ rather than ‘situational’ variables when interpreting and approaching crime prevention, which meant focusing specifically on the individuals character and not on the situation or setting that the crime may take place (Hughes, 1998). Jock Young coined the term administrative criminology in the 1980’s in order to argue that “the search for causes is futile, but the opportunities to commit crime can be controlled” (Hughes, 1998, p59). Administrative criminologists’ focus their research on the setting in which the crime has taken place, ignoring the social causes of crime by assuming that the offender has made a rational decision by means of weighing up the costs and benefits of their behaviour (McLaughlin and Muncie, 2001). As said by Vellani, the four main goals that situational control theory aims to achieve are; “increasing perceived effort, increasing perceived risk, reducing anticipated awards, and removing excuses” (Vellani, 2007). In order to accomplish these goals successfully there must be some analysis of the criminal’s motivations because the termination of opportunity may infuriate the criminal and possibly lead to crime displacement (Gilling, 2007). Crime displacement theory presumes that once the opportunity of a crime is removed then the criminal act will only move to a different location, at a different time. However, much research indicates that crime displacement is very rare, and may not happen at all (Clarke, 1997; AGJ, 2011). Although administrative criminologists steer away from the social causes of crime the work of community safety partnerships that aim to prevent crime must not be ignored. Community safety partnerships that deal with the ‘social’ crime prevention aspect, aim to deter potential offenders from criminal activity through striving to enhance opportunities in education and employment, as well as improving leisure facilities, with the intention of deterring those most vulnerable away from crime (Ekblom and Tilley, 2000).

Routine activity and rational choice theory have developed from situational crime prevention, emphasising the effects of the social environment and situational circumstances on a criminal’s decision to commit crime. Rational choice theory, developed by Ronald V. Clarke, derived from classical theory which suggests that people freely make decisions to commit crime once they have recognised that the pleasure gained from the rewards of committing the crime outweighs the potential pain of being apprehended (Wortley, et al, 2006). This can also be recognised as the concept of psychological hedonism, where the individual evaluates the pleasures and pains prior to committing the crime and then adjusts their behaviour accordingly, balancing the search for pleasure with the evasion of pain (Hughes, 1998). Therefore assuming that if an offender recognises that the opportunity displays a high risk of apprehension, and the benefits are outweighed by the costs, the potential offender may refrain from committing the crime. A noteworthy example is when the law in the UK made it mandatory to wear a crash helmet when riding a motor cycle for safety reasons and possibly, albeit unintentionally, reduced motor cycle theft. A potential offender who is not carrying a crash helmet may be reluctant to steal a motor cycle as the likelihood of gaining the attention of authorities is higher (Clarke, 1980). Although the opportunity for the offender to steal the vehicle was there, the increased risk of encounter with authorities may lead the offender to rationally choose to refrain from committing the crime. The underlying perspective of rational choice theory is that an individual’s choice to commit crime can be deterred because of fear of punishment or strong security measures that heighten the risk of being apprehended (Vellani, 2007). Evidence indicates that Rational Choice theory has been relatively successful due to its cost effective and efficient methods of deterring crime in contemporary society (Hayward, 2007). However, there are several critiques of rational choice theory, for example even if in certain situations a reduction in temptation or opportunities for a criminal who intends to commit crime may result in crime prevention, would this theory have the same outcome for violent and emotionally motivated crimes? Evidence suggest otherwise. An experiment conducted by Exum, indicates that an individual who is intoxicated by alcohol can behave aggressively regardless of the damaging consequences that may occur due to this behaviour (Exum, 2002). Several studies reveal that rational choice theory can be undermined when the perceived cost and benefits are not rationally weighed out by the individual due to intoxication, mental disorders, gang related crime and much more.

Routine activity theory implies that there must be a willing offender, a target (or victim), and no capable guardian present, in order for the crime to take place (Wortley, et al, 2006). Consequently, if an opportunity arises for the criminal, during his daily routine activities such as school or university, and he has calculated that the risk of being caught is outweighed by the pleasure of the crime, then it is likely to occur. It is important to understand that a capable guardian does not have to be a human, as now days CCTV is provided as a tool of monitoring and prevention. Research suggests that CCTV is a form of situational crime prevention used in order to deter criminals by the threat of being seen and even recorded. However, Richard Jones states that evaluation schemes of CCTV suggest that this form of surveillance was not as effective as expected in the 1990’s and suggested that “something as simple as street lighting may be more effective” (Jones, 2009). Furthermore, the use of CCTV has become particularly popular with British citizens since the UK riots of August 2011. According to a survey published in the Independent newspaper, three quarters of people felt that they were safer in public areas due to CCTV being in operation (2011). What seems to be the most alarming, is the fact that so many of the youth involved in the riots knew of the CCTV surveillance cameras but still continued to carry on committing crime. This demonstrates the inefficiency of CCTV for preventing crime, albeit footage can be used to warrant an arrest and be used as evidence in court. In order for situational crime prevention to work, there must be a reduction in the opportunities to commit crime, perhaps through concepts such as target hardening (Vellani, 2007). Target hardening is a crime prevention tool used to substantially increase the physical security of targets, making the target less vulnerable, especially when preventing theft. The North Yorkshire police suggest, wheel locks for cars, fencing and alarms for properties, and tough locks on windows and doors, in order to make objects and property more resistant to damage or removal (NYP, 2012). Target hardening differs from situational crime control as the aim is to make security measures visible to the potential criminal rather than taking away the criminals opportunity. This method derived from the theory of ‘Crime Prevention through Environmental Design’.

Crime Prevention through Environmental Design (CPTED) was developed by C. Ray Jeffery in order to reduce opportunities for criminals and preventing the crime before the police or criminal justice system have to become involved (Clarke and Felson, 1993). CPTED uses the built environment to reduce criminal activity and fear of crime among the public, focusing on aspects of architectural design. There are four main strategies used to implement CPTED, which consist of the natural control of access and surveillance, territorial reinforcement and quality environments (NCPC, 2009). The idea of access control is to provide a design that offers indications as to who is allowed to access the area and who is not. This way residence can be their own security systems, with little cost, using strategies such as natural surveillance. Thus, using gateways, sidewalks and pathways to help map out the restrictions of a site that may be private, semi-private or are no longer a public space (Zahm, 2007; NCPC, 2009). The natural surveillance strategy can be enhanced by small physical features such as garden fences or flower beds as they illustrate the maintenance and care that the residents hold over their property and suggests to the potential criminal that they will be aware of trespassers (Zahm, 2007). If the criminal can see that the resident’s view from the windows looks upon the front or back garden they are likely to feel more of a risk is involved in committing the crime, than if the windows are covered by plants or are not overlooking the outside area. The theory of CPTED derived from that of Oscar Newman’s ‘Defensible space’ theory.

Turning areas into ‘defensible space’ can be achieved through residential guardians monitoring their property, potentially deterring criminals from targeting their homes. Newman believed that urban residential areas could be redesigned to make them less vulnerable to crime and provide residents with additional “opportunities to control their space and defend it if necessary” (Reynald and Elffers, 2009). Newman believed that residents needed to take responsibility for the physical space around their property and in order to do so they needed to take care of the space and use it in order to encourage criminal users to stay away. A communal courtyard is an example of a space in which the residents should avoid isolating, and focus on keeping the area clean and respectable. Newman has been heavily criticised over the years for ignoring the social factors of potential criminals living inside the large council houses and in the surrounding areas. Many believe that focusing on the setting and design of a building to deter crime is less beneficial then crime prevention through analysis of social factors. Nevertheless, evidence indicates that there has been a positive outcome in many cases where a significant decline in crime related problems has happened due to the redesigning of buildings (Reynaldc and Elffers, 2009). The most significant aspect of Newman’s theory of defensible space is the idea of ‘territoriality’, meaning that residents will be able to control and defend their space. By dividing spaces into zones made up of real and symbolic barriers, the outcome will be a clear distinction between what spaces are public, semi- private and private (Newman, 1996). As stated before, physical barriers such as fences are defined as ‘real’ and symbolic barriers are those such as plants, that don’t physically limit criminals but psychologically portray to the criminal it is private and therefore restricted (Reynald and Elffers, 2009). Buildings that have large amounts of people living in them may be better protected by the natural surveillance of a receptionist, doormen, or elevator operators that can deter criminals by the increased perception that the criminal understands he may be seen (Newman, 1996). However, for low income, council housing, the natural surveillance of doormen etc., is not a possibility due to financial restrictions. The use of sensor lighting in spaces such as stairwells and entrances to avoid blind spots and to startle an intruder may prevent criminal activity and is more cost effective for low- income families. Other examples may be to design buildings that ensure windows are overlooking car parks and entrances, and the use of moderately transparent fences in joining houses may deter criminals, as the neighbours’ ability to see if anyone is intruding (Crime stoppers, 2005).

Traditional methods of preventing crime by addressing the social and psychological causes, with much focus on the individual, has not produced a significant decrease in criminal activity in many countries, specifically the UK over the past decade. Based on past, and current, research into the success of environmental controls used to prevent crime, it is clear that substantial efforts have been made to focus on changing the setting, reducing temptation and eradicating opportunities for crime to occur. The public’s increased fear of crime over the past two decades has had a considerable impact on the ground upon which crime control policies have been created, consequently leading to a populist and punitive response to tackling crime. Situational crime control methods such as target hardening, surveillance and access control have proved to successfully deter criminals by heightening the risk of apprehension and removing opportunities. CPTED has encouraged the public to take a territorial stand against crime by essentially defending their own homes and becoming their own security. Societies are recognising that simple alterations in the layout of their residential areas could potentially prevent crime. The ‘defensible space’ theory has helped law enforcement to urge the individuals to make small changes to their homes, such as lighting, direct pathways or trimming hedges that cover windows in order to reduce crime. Even if environmental crime controls are not the most effective form of preventing crime, it can be seen from the above analysis that they are still cost effective and beneficial to the public. Further research that combines the work of situation and dispositional crime prevention theories could result in a further reduction in crime.

Bibliography

Attorney General and Justice NSW (2011) Displacement Theory and Crime Prevention . [online] Available at: http://www.crimeprevention.nsw.gov.au/agdbasev7wr/_assets/cpd/m660001l2/displacementtheoryfactsheet_nov2011.pdf [Accessed: 8th May 2013].
Clarke, R. (1997) Situational Crime Prevention Successful Case Studies. [report] New York: Harrow and Heston , p.2-42.
Clarke, R. (1980) Situational Crime Prevention: Theory and Practice . British Journal of Criminology, 20 (2), p.141. Available at: http://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?collection=journals&handle=hein.journals/bjcrim20&div=19&id=&page=#148 [Accessed: 10th May 2013].
Clarke, R. (1983) Situational Crime Prevention: Its Theoretical Basis and Practical Scope. Chicago Journals, 4 Available at: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1147510?seq=1 [Accessed: 1st May 2013].
Clarke, R. and Felson, M. (1993) Routine activity and rational choice. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Publishers.
Crime Stoppers (2005) Crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED) - Preventing crime through good layout and design | Crimestoppers UK. [online] Available at: http://www.crimestoppers-uk.org/crime-prevention/helping-prevent-crime/community/crime-prevention-through-environmental-design-cpted [Accessed: 10 May 2013].
Ekblom, P. and Tilley, N. (2000) Going Equipped . British Journal of Criminology, 40 (3), p.376-398. Available at: http://bjc.oxfordjournals.org/content/40/3/376.full.pdf+html?sid=e6467d4e-8345-4088-bd72-28e9bc9f934c [Accessed: 2nd May 2013].
Exum, M. (2002) The Application and Robustness of the Rational Choice Perspective In The Study of Iintoxicated and Angry Intentions to Aggress. criminology, 40 (4), p.933-961. Available at: http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1745-9125.2002.tb00978.x/pdf [Accessed: 4th April 2013].
Garland, D. (2000) The Culture of High Crime Societies. British Journal of Criminology, 40 (3), p.347-375. Available at: http://bjc.oxfordjournals.org/content/40/3/347.full.pdf+html [Accessed: 4th May 2013].
Gilling, D. (2007) Making a reality of rural community safety. Safer Communities , 6 (3), p.7-13.
Hayward, K. (2007) kwell Publishing Ltd. 2007 XXX Original Articles Social Policy & Administration, Vol. 41, No. 3, June 2007 Situational Crime Prevention and its Discontents: Rational Choice Theory versus the ‘Culture of Now’. Social Policy and Administration, 41 (3), p.232-250. Available at: http://kar.kent.ac.uk/261/1/hayward2007spol_550.pdf [Accessed: 1st May 2013].
Hughes, G. (1998) Understanding crime prevention. Buckingham [England]: Open University Press.
Jones, R. (n.d.) Surveillance . In: Hale, C. and Hayward, K., et al. eds. (2009) Criminology. 2nd ed. New York: Oxford University Press, p.532-535.
Justice.govt.nz (2001) Part C: Overview of the Target Hardening Programme Evaluation — Ministry of Justice, New Zealand. [online] Available at: http://www.justice.govt.nz/publications/global-publications/e/evaluation-of-the-target-hardening-pilot-programme/part-c-overview-of-the-target-hardening-programme-evaluation [Accessed: 9 May 2013].
Matthews, R. (2002) Crime and control in late modernity. Theoretical Criminology, 6 (2), p.217-226. Available at: http://tcr.sagepub.com/content/6/2/217.short [Accessed: 4th May 2013].
Mclaughlin, E. and Muncie, J (2001) The Sage dictionary of criminology. London [u.a.]: Sage.
National Crime Prevention Council (2009) Best Practices for Using Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design in Weed and Seed Sites. [report] Arlington : National Crime Prevention Council , p.1-8.
Newman, O. (1996) Creating defensible space. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Dept. of Housing and Urban Development, Office of Policy Development and Research.
North Yorkshire Police (2012) Ten principles of crime prevention. [online] Available at: http://www.northyorkshire.police.uk/9701 [Accessed: 12 May 2013].
Reynald , D. and Elffers, H. (2009) The Future of Newman's Defensible Space Theory : Linking Defensible Space and the Routine Activities of Place. European Journal of Criminology, 6 (1), p.25-46. Available at: http://euc.sagepub.com/content/6/1/25.full.pdf+html [Accessed: 6th May 2013].
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Vellani, K. (2007) Strategic security management. Amsterdam: Butterworth-Heinemann.
Von Hirsch, A. and Garland, D., et al. (2000) Ethical and social perspectives on situational crime prevention. Oxford: Hart.
Wortley, S. and Seepersad, R., et al. (2006) Chapter 3: Rational Choice And Routine Activities Theory. [online] Available at: http://www.children.gov.on.ca/htdocs/English/topics/youthandthelaw/roots/volume5/chapter03_rational_choice.aspx [Accessed: 9 May 2013].

Zahm, D. (2007) Using Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design in Problem-Solving. Problem-Oriented Guides for Police Problem-Solving Tools Series Guide Number 8. [report] U.S Department of Justice, p.1-57.

Critical Literature Review

Outline and critically discuss what you see as the main examples of attempts to control crime using ‘environmental controls’

A wide range of academic literature was required in order to accurately examine the main examples of attempts to control crime using ‘environmental controls’. It has become clear that the rise of neo-liberalism, along with the public’s increased fear of crime has called upon more punitive crime control methods, especially in the UK. The rise in prison population in England and Wales went up 41,800 prisoners between the years of 1993-2012 indicating that the current social control methods, and catering to the publics want for harsher punishment does not seem to be deterring crime (MoJ, 2013). Therefore, criminologists and policy makers have progressively continued to research different methods of crime prevention. This essay will use secondary sources such as books, journal articles, reports and newspapers in order to examine the different forms of environmental crime controls used in contemporary society. The essay will investigate situational crime prevention, rational choice and routine activity theory, crime prevention through environmental design and defensible space theory as the main examples of attempts to environmentally control crime. Each of these theoretical positions make an important contribution to the environmental aspect of crime prevention that is sometimes disregarded by criminologists because of its neglect to focus on the individual offenders dispositional attributes. However this essay will attempt to uncover the strongest and most influential aspects of environmental controls, nonetheless, also taking into account and examining the reasons for such criticisms.
The book by Gordon Hughes, ‘Understanding Crime Prevention’ will be used to understand the foundations of situational crime prevention and the development of administrative criminology (1998). Hughes highlights the significance of target hardening and surveillance, but more importantly refers to other academics that delve further into the analysis of situational crime prevention predominantly. Hughes work assisted in identifying the need to analyse the works of Ronald V. Clarke, and David Garland and expressed the opinions of academics like Jock Young, on the topic of crime prevention. Essentially, the book was a perfect starting point for the analysis of crime prevention and later found to be very helpful in the examination of routine activity theory. The work of David Garland in the book The Culture of Control illustrated the changes in social and political responses to crime over the past thirty years, highlighting the “link between the coming of late modernity and society’s increased susceptibility to crime” (Garland, 2001, p90). Garlands book aided to comprehend the political factors and the role of the criminal justice system in situational crime prevention.
Several academic literatures by Ronald V Clarke were examined in order to understand the development of rational choice theory from the classical school of criminology. Clarke reports that situational crime prevention has been extremely successful in the sense that it “introduces managerial and environmental change to reduce the opportunities” for certain crimes to occur (Clarke, 1997, p1). His emphasis on the understanding that a crime cannot be simply explained through dispositional attributes is backed up by his ability to defend many of the criticisms directed at situational theories. Karim Vellani’s book ‘Strategic Security Management’ also proved to be useful when exploring the theory of rational choice, as he introduces the perspective that encourages real or perceived security measures to persuade the rational actor (criminal) that the risks of apprehension are too high to carry out the crime (Vellani, 2007). Vellani’s stress on the significance of security measures as a major crime deterrence has continued to be recognised as successful for not only rational choice theory, but also routine activity theory and crime prevention through environmental control. Routine activity theory suggests that crime occurs when the target, being an object or victim, is unprotected and the reward of the crime is worth the slight risk of being caught, then it is likely that the crime will occur (Wortley and Seepersad, 2006).
The journal article The Future of Newman's Defensible Space Theory, gave exceptional insight into the development of Oscar Newman’s ‘defensible space’ theory over the past thirty five years (Reynald and Elffers, 2009). The article also highlights the decline in crime related problems attributable to the redesigning of buildings, the importance of tenants to defend their neighbouring areas and examines the use of real and symbolic forms of crime prevention. In order to fully grasp the concept of defensible space theory, Oscar Newman’s literature Creating Defensible Space was used in order to analyse the research that Newman himself carried out over the past years (1996). The research project found that, between three different residential building types, the capability of the tenants to employ control over their nearby areas showed very different outcomes (Newman, 1996).
An equally significant aspect of environmental crime control is the theory of crime prevention through environmental design (CPTED), which understandably derived from the defensible space theory. CPTED is used in Diane Zahm’s report as a problem- oriented guide for police in the US and highlights the need to understand the key components of CPTED commonly recognised as control access, natural surveillance, and territoriality (2007).
It has become clear that all of these theories have certain aspects that correspond and all recognise the need to reduce temptations and opportunities to prevent crime. Whether it is through the use of target hardening, surveillance, or designing a building that aims to reduce the attraction of offenders, all of these theories attempt to provide safer environments for the public. Despite criticism, environmental controls are becoming increasingly popular and research is extending. At the same time, it is important not to dismiss the social factors that contribute to crime but rather take into account both situational and dispositional factors when attempting to prevent crime.

Bibliography

Clarke, R. (1997) Situational Crime Prevention Successful Case Studies. [report] New York: Harrow and Heston , p.2-42.

Garland, D. (2001) The Culture of Control : Crime and Social Order in Contemporary Society . Oxford University Press, p.1-193.

Hughes, G. (1998) Understanding crime prevention. Buckingham [England]: Open University Press.

Ministry of Justice (2013) Story of the Prison Population: 1993 – 2012 England and Wales. [report] Ministry of Justice, p.1-10.

Newman, O. (1996) Creating defensible space. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Dept. of Housing and Urban Development, Office of Policy Development and Research.

Reynald , D. and Elffers, H. (2009) e The Future of Newman's Defensible Space Theory : Linking Defensible Space and the Routine Activities of Place. European Journal of Criminology, 6 (1), p.25-46. Available at: http://euc.sagepub.com/content/6/1/25.full.pdf+html [Accessed: 6th May 2013].

Vellani, K. (2007) Strategic security management. Amsterdam: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Wortley, S. and Seepersad, R., et al. (2006) Chapter 3: Rational Choice And Routine Activities Theory. [online] Available at: http://www.children.gov.on.ca/htdocs/English/topics/youthandthelaw/roots/volume5/chapter03_rational_choice.aspx [Accessed: 9 May 2013].

Zahm, D. (2007) Using Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design in Problem-Solving. Problem-Oriented Guides for Police Problem-Solving Tools Series Guide Number 8. [report] U.S Department of Justice, p.1-57.