Episode 515: The Radioactive Decay
Episode 515: The radioactive decay formula
Here, the key idea is the random nature of the decay. Avoid simply pulling pull equations out of the air – at least make them plausible.
Summary
Discussion: The meaning of the decay constant λ. (15 minutes)
Discussion: The link with half-life. (15 minutes)
Student experiments: Analogue experiments linking probability with decay rates. (20 minutes)
Discussion:
The meaning of the decay constant λ.
Start from the definition of the decay constant λ: the probability or chance that an individual nucleus will decay per second. (You may like to comment on the problem with notation in physics. λ is used for wavelength as well as the decay constant. The context should make it unambiguous.)
Units: λ is measured in s-1 (or h-1, year-1, etc).
If you …show more content…
have a sample of N undecayed nuclei, what will its activity A be? In other words, how many of the N will decay in a second?
A = λN (because the probability for each of the N is λ).
As time passes, N will get smaller, so A represents a decrease in N. To make the formula reflect this, it needs a minus sign.
A = -λN
Plausibility: The more undecayed nuclei you have, and the greater the probability that an individual one will decay, the greater the activity of the sample.
In calculus notation, this is
dN/dT = -λN
Ask your students to put this equation into words. (The rate of decay of undecayed nuclei N is proportional to the number N of undecayed nuclei present.) This is the underlying relationship in any process that follows exponential decay.
More generally: if the rate of change is proportional to what is left to change, then exponential decay follows. Conversely if data gives an exponential decay graph, then you know something about the underlying process.
TAP 515-1: Smoothed out radioactive decay.
TAP 515-2: Half-life and time constant.
Discussion:
The link with half-life.
How are λ and T1/2 linked?
If a nuclide has a large value of λ, will it have a long or short T1/2? (High probability of decay => it will decay quite quickly => a short half life, and vice versa.)
What type of proportionality does this suggest? (Inverse proportion.)
Thus λ ~ 1/T1/2. In fact, T1/2 = ln 2/λ = 0.693/λ
This is a very important and useful formula. Depending which of λ or T1/2 is easiest to measure experimentally, the other can be determined. In particular it allows very long half lives (sometimes millions of years) to be determined. How could we measure the 4.5 billion year half-life of uranium-238? (Take a sample of a known number of U-238 atoms; count how many decay in one second. This gives λ, and we can calculate half-life.)
Student experiments (or demonstrations):
Analogue experiments linking probability with decay rates.
Explore some analogue systems to reinforce the way in which decay probability is related to half-life. Each gives a good exponential graph. For example:
Throw a large number of dice. A 6 represents ‘decayed’, and this dice is removed. Each throw represents the same time interval. Each face has a probability of 1/6 of being upwards on each throw. (A quick way to find out how many remain to decay is to weigh them.)
TAP 515-3: Modelling radioactive decay
Cubes with differently coloured faces instead of dice can incorporate 3 different ‘decay constants’ e.g.
colouring three faces red gives a chance of a red face being uppermost representing decay has a probability of decay of ½; colour two faces blue (chance of decay = 2 x 1/6 = 1/3), and one face yellow (chance of decay 1/6). Sugar cubes can be used, painted with food colouring.
Throw drawing pins: decay = point upwards. Safety: beware sharp points!
Is the chance of decay = ½?
The drop in height of the head on a glass of beer usually shows exponential behaviour – opportunity for a field trip?
Water flowing out through a restriction: at any instant the water remaining represents the undecayed nuclei; the water that has flowed out represents the decayed nuclei. Flow rate depends upon the pressure head ~ the height of water remaining ~ quantity of water remaining.
TAP 515-1: Smoothed out radioactive decay
Here is the first step in making a model – idealisation and simplification of a messy process
[pic]
Practical advice
The diagram could be used for an
OHT
External reference
This activity is taken from Advancing Physics chapter 10, display material 10O
TAP 515-2: Half-life and time constant
Here is the relationship between these two, explained
[pic]
Practical advice
The diagram could be used for an OHT
External reference
This activity is taken from Advancing Physics chapter 10, display material 40O
TAP 515-3: Modelling radioactive decay
Use dice, coins or a computer model to simulate the random decay of radioactive nuclei. Plot a graph showing how the number of remaining ‘nuclei’ changes with time.
The chance throw of dice illustrates radioactive decay very clearly. You need a large number (over 100) dice for this activity to work. If you don’t have enough dice, then you will be able to imagine the sort of results you might get, so keep reading.
Let’s suppose that an atom of an isotope has a 1 in 6 chance of decaying in any one minute. We can simulate this by throwing a die representing the atom; if a six comes up, we can say that the atom has decayed.
Now with 100 or more dice we have a model of a (very small) sample of radioactive isotope. Each time we shake the dice assume that another minute of the sample’s life has passed. In this time more ‘nuclei’ have decayed – the ones that came up six.
Shake the dice.
Count and remove the sixes.
Repeat the procedure, completing a table like table below, until all the dice have ‘decayed’.
[pic]
If you have time, repeat the whole process.
Plot a graph showing how the number of surviving dice changes with time.
Plot a graph of log (N ) against t and hence decide whether the decay really is exponential.
You could also plot graphs to show how ‘activity’, i.e. the number of decays per minute, varies with time. Use suitable tests to decide whether activity changes exponentially.
Practical advice
In previous episodes, students may have met examples of exponential change that are all determined by equations that describe the particular situation exactly. Radioactive decay, on the other hand, involves a degree of randomness – this is clear from simple observations such as the production of tracks in a cloud chamber, or listening to ‘clicks’ from a GM counter. The aim of this activity is to demonstrate that a decay process that is governed by independent probabilities can (indeed must) be exponential – an important point, which should not be glossed over.
There are a number of simulations of radioactive decay in physics software packages and any of them could be used at this stage. However, students readily understand the laws of probability that govern the throw of dice, so the one outlined on in TAP 515-3 remains an excellent demonstration. The ‘experiment’ should take only a few minutes, plus graph-plotting time.
Another good analogy for radioactive decay is liquid draining from a cylindrical container through a capillary tube. The flow-rate is proportional to the pressure due to the liquid, which is proportional to its depth. The rate at which the depth of liquid decreases is thus proportional to the depth itself. A graph of depth against time will be an exponential decay curve, and a log-linear graph will be a straight line. Obtain data by marking the position of the water surface at regular intervals as the water slowly drains from the cylinder.
Technicians’ notes
Apparatus dice model
✓ Dice (identical if possible) or small wooden cubes (approx 1 cm3) with one face coloured
✓ At least 100 dice or cubes are needed.
Water- flow model
✓ wide glass tube (4–5 cm diameter), pierced bung to fit tube capillary tube to fit bung, rubber tube to fit capillary
✓ Hoffmann clip
✓ clamp, boss and stand
✓ marker pen
✓ stopwatch
✓ container to catch water draining from tube
✓ Assemble the apparatus as shown in below, and arrange for the outlet to be over a large container, or sink if conveniently located. Ensure the Hoffmann clip is closed, and fill the wide tube with water.
[pic]
Above: Modelling radioactive decay using water flow
Alternatively, a computer running a simulation of radioactive decay may be requested.
External reference
This activity is taken from Salters Horners Advanced physics, A2, STA activity 10.
Here, the key idea is the random nature of the decay. Avoid simply pulling pull equations out of the air – at least make them plausible.
Summary
Discussion: The meaning of the decay constant λ. (15 minutes)
Discussion: The link with half-life. (15 minutes)
Student experiments: Analogue experiments linking probability with decay rates. (20 minutes)
Discussion:
The meaning of the decay constant λ.
Start from the definition of the decay constant λ: the probability or chance that an individual nucleus will decay per second. (You may like to comment on the problem with notation in physics. λ is used for wavelength as well as the decay constant. The context should make it unambiguous.)
Units: λ is measured in s-1 (or h-1, year-1, etc).
If you …show more content…
have a sample of N undecayed nuclei, what will its activity A be? In other words, how many of the N will decay in a second?
A = λN (because the probability for each of the N is λ).
As time passes, N will get smaller, so A represents a decrease in N. To make the formula reflect this, it needs a minus sign.
A = -λN
Plausibility: The more undecayed nuclei you have, and the greater the probability that an individual one will decay, the greater the activity of the sample.
In calculus notation, this is
dN/dT = -λN
Ask your students to put this equation into words. (The rate of decay of undecayed nuclei N is proportional to the number N of undecayed nuclei present.) This is the underlying relationship in any process that follows exponential decay.
More generally: if the rate of change is proportional to what is left to change, then exponential decay follows. Conversely if data gives an exponential decay graph, then you know something about the underlying process.
TAP 515-1: Smoothed out radioactive decay.
TAP 515-2: Half-life and time constant.
Discussion:
The link with half-life.
How are λ and T1/2 linked?
If a nuclide has a large value of λ, will it have a long or short T1/2? (High probability of decay => it will decay quite quickly => a short half life, and vice versa.)
What type of proportionality does this suggest? (Inverse proportion.)
Thus λ ~ 1/T1/2. In fact, T1/2 = ln 2/λ = 0.693/λ
This is a very important and useful formula. Depending which of λ or T1/2 is easiest to measure experimentally, the other can be determined. In particular it allows very long half lives (sometimes millions of years) to be determined. How could we measure the 4.5 billion year half-life of uranium-238? (Take a sample of a known number of U-238 atoms; count how many decay in one second. This gives λ, and we can calculate half-life.)
Student experiments (or demonstrations):
Analogue experiments linking probability with decay rates.
Explore some analogue systems to reinforce the way in which decay probability is related to half-life. Each gives a good exponential graph. For example:
Throw a large number of dice. A 6 represents ‘decayed’, and this dice is removed. Each throw represents the same time interval. Each face has a probability of 1/6 of being upwards on each throw. (A quick way to find out how many remain to decay is to weigh them.)
TAP 515-3: Modelling radioactive decay
Cubes with differently coloured faces instead of dice can incorporate 3 different ‘decay constants’ e.g.
colouring three faces red gives a chance of a red face being uppermost representing decay has a probability of decay of ½; colour two faces blue (chance of decay = 2 x 1/6 = 1/3), and one face yellow (chance of decay 1/6). Sugar cubes can be used, painted with food colouring.
Throw drawing pins: decay = point upwards. Safety: beware sharp points!
Is the chance of decay = ½?
The drop in height of the head on a glass of beer usually shows exponential behaviour – opportunity for a field trip?
Water flowing out through a restriction: at any instant the water remaining represents the undecayed nuclei; the water that has flowed out represents the decayed nuclei. Flow rate depends upon the pressure head ~ the height of water remaining ~ quantity of water remaining.
TAP 515-1: Smoothed out radioactive decay
Here is the first step in making a model – idealisation and simplification of a messy process
[pic]
Practical advice
The diagram could be used for an
OHT
External reference
This activity is taken from Advancing Physics chapter 10, display material 10O
TAP 515-2: Half-life and time constant
Here is the relationship between these two, explained
[pic]
Practical advice
The diagram could be used for an OHT
External reference
This activity is taken from Advancing Physics chapter 10, display material 40O
TAP 515-3: Modelling radioactive decay
Use dice, coins or a computer model to simulate the random decay of radioactive nuclei. Plot a graph showing how the number of remaining ‘nuclei’ changes with time.
The chance throw of dice illustrates radioactive decay very clearly. You need a large number (over 100) dice for this activity to work. If you don’t have enough dice, then you will be able to imagine the sort of results you might get, so keep reading.
Let’s suppose that an atom of an isotope has a 1 in 6 chance of decaying in any one minute. We can simulate this by throwing a die representing the atom; if a six comes up, we can say that the atom has decayed.
Now with 100 or more dice we have a model of a (very small) sample of radioactive isotope. Each time we shake the dice assume that another minute of the sample’s life has passed. In this time more ‘nuclei’ have decayed – the ones that came up six.
Shake the dice.
Count and remove the sixes.
Repeat the procedure, completing a table like table below, until all the dice have ‘decayed’.
[pic]
If you have time, repeat the whole process.
Plot a graph showing how the number of surviving dice changes with time.
Plot a graph of log (N ) against t and hence decide whether the decay really is exponential.
You could also plot graphs to show how ‘activity’, i.e. the number of decays per minute, varies with time. Use suitable tests to decide whether activity changes exponentially.
Practical advice
In previous episodes, students may have met examples of exponential change that are all determined by equations that describe the particular situation exactly. Radioactive decay, on the other hand, involves a degree of randomness – this is clear from simple observations such as the production of tracks in a cloud chamber, or listening to ‘clicks’ from a GM counter. The aim of this activity is to demonstrate that a decay process that is governed by independent probabilities can (indeed must) be exponential – an important point, which should not be glossed over.
There are a number of simulations of radioactive decay in physics software packages and any of them could be used at this stage. However, students readily understand the laws of probability that govern the throw of dice, so the one outlined on in TAP 515-3 remains an excellent demonstration. The ‘experiment’ should take only a few minutes, plus graph-plotting time.
Another good analogy for radioactive decay is liquid draining from a cylindrical container through a capillary tube. The flow-rate is proportional to the pressure due to the liquid, which is proportional to its depth. The rate at which the depth of liquid decreases is thus proportional to the depth itself. A graph of depth against time will be an exponential decay curve, and a log-linear graph will be a straight line. Obtain data by marking the position of the water surface at regular intervals as the water slowly drains from the cylinder.
Technicians’ notes
Apparatus dice model
✓ Dice (identical if possible) or small wooden cubes (approx 1 cm3) with one face coloured
✓ At least 100 dice or cubes are needed.
Water- flow model
✓ wide glass tube (4–5 cm diameter), pierced bung to fit tube capillary tube to fit bung, rubber tube to fit capillary
✓ Hoffmann clip
✓ clamp, boss and stand
✓ marker pen
✓ stopwatch
✓ container to catch water draining from tube
✓ Assemble the apparatus as shown in below, and arrange for the outlet to be over a large container, or sink if conveniently located. Ensure the Hoffmann clip is closed, and fill the wide tube with water.
[pic]
Above: Modelling radioactive decay using water flow
Alternatively, a computer running a simulation of radioactive decay may be requested.
External reference
This activity is taken from Salters Horners Advanced physics, A2, STA activity 10.