Ethical Theories Of Criminal Behavior

Professor Kevin M. Beaver and Joseph A. Schwartz believe, “that a warrior gene has been demonstrated to be related to aggressive and violent behavior. In fact, humans with a low-activity form of the MAOA gene are much more prevalent in populations with a history of warfare. These individuals are also more likely to join gangs and to use weapons in committing crimes than other persons” (Hickey 48). Beaver and Schwartz believe that the theories proposed over the past half-century have focused entirely on environmental explanations of criminal and antisocial behavior. The explanation of criminal and antisocial behavior is their biggest concern of all the literature available. According to a study done by Weisburd and Piquero, “criminologists did
not do a very good job explaining criminal behavior, with most studies leaving between 80-90% of differences in criminal behavior between individuals unexplained. Second, criminologists do not seem to have gotten any better at explaining crime over time” (Hickey 50). Beaver and Schwartz are in agreement that between 1968 and 2005, the explanations for criminal behavior have not increased.
The duo mentions an alternative perspective called, “biosocial criminology.” Biosocial criminology acknowledges that environmental aspects have a powerful influence on behavior, but it also takes into account the impact biological influences have on the same behaviors. Beaver and Schwartz claim that criminologists gain a larger more diverse set of tools due to biosocial criminology. Areas of psychology, psychiatry, molecular genetics, and neuroscience provide an outside look at the problem at hand. Second, biological influences such as genetic influences are receiving a large amount of attention. There is potential for the application of the genetic influences to criminological theories and research. Beaver and Schwartz claim, “The results over 100 empirical studies indicate that approximately 50% of the between-individual differences in criminal and antisocial behavior behaviors are explained by genetic influences” (Hickey 50). Both favor the idea that the use of biosocial criminology will help criminologists succeed in explaining criminal behavior.
There have been recent studies that show the importance of genetic influences when examining the development of criminal behavior.
Methodologies estimate the proportion of variance in a given behavior. Explanation is done by genetic (symbolized as h²) and environmental influences. Behavior genetics also study the influence of two types of environmental influences, shared environmental influences (symbolized as c²) and nonshared environmental influences (symbolized as e²). Shared environmental influences equally impact all people raised in the same household and make them more alike. Nonshared environmental influences refer to environments that are different for siblings from the same household and ultimately result differences between them. Although, these can be powerful tools, they have limitations. These methodologies can determine to an extent to which genes impact a specific behavior, but these types of studies do not help to identify the specific individual genes that are involved. Though, this is a limitation, there is a remedy. Advances in molecular genetics and the mapping of the human genome allow researchers to identify association between specific genes and specific antisocial behaviors. Neurotransmission is the main process. Beaver and Schwartz claim, “During neurotransmission, signals are passed between brain cells in the form of both electrical impulses and chemical messages. Both electrical and chemical messages are required due to a small gap – referred to
as a synapse – that separates the two neurons. Neurotransmitters bridge this gap and pass the signal on to the neuron receiving the signal. This process is repeated until the signal ultimately reaches its final destination and the desired behavior or function is performed” (Hickey 51).
The MAOA gene is related to antisocial behavior. It is involved with neurotransmission and located on the X chromosome and is responsible for the production of the MAOA enzyme. The MAOA gene assists in the degrading of neurotransmitters such as serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine after neurotransmission. Normal humans have at least one copy of the MAOA gene. But, there are at least five different variants of the MAOA gene. The MAOA gene is actually a polymorphism because it has more than two alleles in the general population. Some alleles produce enzymes with different activity levels. A hypothesis states that alleles that produce the less efficient enzyme, should be associated with increased levels of antisocial behavior. Studies suggest that individuals who possess low-activity MAOA alleles are more likely to suffer from a range of psychopathologies, including antisocial outcomes and criminal behaviors.
Beaver conducted an experiment examining the MAOA gene in relation to gang membership and the use of weapons during a fight.
Using data, such as police records and DNA samples from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (Add Health), Beaver was able to examine factors between male and female participants. Within the female model, females MAOA gene had no relation to joining a gang or using a weapon. However, the male model was extraordinarily different. Males who had low-activity MAOA alleles were nearly 100% to be a gang member and approximately 82% more likely to use a weapon in a fight than males with high-activity MAOA
alleles.
Beaver and Schwartz conclude that the criminology field needs to address more attention and research to the MAOA gene. Even though there are hundreds of genes that influence antisocial behavior, they believe the overwhelming evidence focused towards the MAOA gene should make it a priority.