Extraction Of Chlorophyll From Spinach Lab Report
E5 & E6 Extraction of Chlorophyll from Fresh Spinach and Investigation of the Photochemistry of Chlorophyll
Chlorophyll a
Chlorophyll b
E5 - Extraction of Chlorophyll from Fresh Spinach
E6 - Investigation of the Photochemistry of Chlorophyll
The aim of this experiment is to investigate the photochemistry of chlorophyll. This experiment will be performed in two lab periods. In the first lab period you will extract chlorophyll, the green pigment in leaves, from spinach. In the second lab period you will investigate the interaction of light with chlorophyll. Read in Appendix B the reference section titled "Electronic Structure of Matter" copied from reference 1 before performing experiment investigating the photochemistry …show more content…
of chlorophyll.
Background
Chlorophyll is the green pigment responsible for the color of leaves. Its presence in leaves is crucial for photosynthesis. Photosynthesis can be defined as the process by which plants, algae, and photosynthetic bacteria use light energy to drive the synthesis of organic compounds. The photosynthetic process involves the removal of CO2 from the atmosphere, which is used to synthesize carbohydrates, and results in the release of O2. The energy to drive the chemical reactions of photosynthesis comes from the sunlight absorbed by the chlorophyll molecules. Hence, the first step in photosynthesis is the absorption of visible light from the sun by chlorophyll molecules. The chlorophyll molecules then transfer the light energy to chloroplasts, the reaction center of photosynthesis. In this way light energy is converted to chemical energy for converting CO2 into carbohydrates.
The overall reaction for photosynthesis is:
This overall equation for photosynthesis is deceptively simple. In fact, a series of complex reactions must occur in a coordinated manner for the synthesis of carbohydrates. To produce a sucrose molecule, C6H12O6, plants require about 30 distinct proteins that work within a complicated membrane structure.
Without light photosynthesis cannot take place; and hence the absorption of light by chlorophyll is the first step in photosynthesis
What happens when light strikes an atom or molecule1?
Since atoms and molecules obey quantum mechanics, an atom or molecule can possess discrete values of energy i.e. the amount of energy that an atom or molecule can possess is quantized. The amount of energy an atom can absorb depends on the energy separation of the electronic levels of the atom. If light of frequency, , is incident on the atom, the atom will absorb this light only if the energy of a photon of this light () equals the energy difference between two electronic levels of the atom.
The energy absorbed excites an electron from the lower level to the upper level resulting in an electronic excitation. Since each atom has unique energy separations between electronic levels, if the frequency of the incident light is varied and the frequencies absorbed by the atom are monitored, an absorption spectrum is recorded which is characteristic of the atom. Electronic excitation also occurs in molecules, and like atoms since the electronic structure of each molecule is different, electronic absorption spectra of molecules are also characteristic of each molecule.
A molecule, in addition to its electronic levels, can also store energy in vibrations of the bonds in the molecules, and rotations of the molecule. As with the electronic energy, vibrational and rotational energies are also quantized; i.e. molecules vibrate and rotate with distinct energies and hence at distinct frequencies characteristic of a molecule. Monitoring the frequencies that excite a vibration or rotation in a molecule (resulting in a vibrational or rotational absorption spectrum of the molecule) identifies the molecule. The frequency of light that typically excites electrons in atoms or molecules is located in the visible or ultraviolet region. Vibrational excitation requires light in the infra red region and rotational excitation requires light in the microwave region. Hence,
In this experiment we will focus on excitation of electrons.
What happens to a molecule once it has absorbed energy1?
There are many pathways via which the excited molecule can loose the energy it has absorbed from the incident light. The molecule can re-emit the light – this is called fluorescence. Or the energy can be used to excite vibrations and rotations within the molecule. Or if the molecule collides with another molecule it can transfer the energy to the collision partner – this is called quenching. Or sometimes the molecule can dissociate (i.e. break a bond) if the energy absorbed is greater than a bond energy in the molecule. Following excitation, the molecule can follow any one of these pathways (or sometimes a combination of these pathways). The “fate” of the excited molecule depends on factors like the relative time scales of each event, the phase of the sample (solid, liquid and gas), the pressure or concentration of the sample. An excited molecule, which looses energy through mechanisms that do not involve emission of light, is said to undergo a non-radiative process.
Photochemistry of chlorophyll
When sunlight strikes a chlorophyll molecule, the chlorophyll molecule absorbs light. What happens to the excited chlorophyll molecules? The chlorophyll molecules could fluoresce, re-emitting the light. However, if all the chlorophyll molecules fluoresce, then the energy absorbed by the chlorophyll is lost and cannot be used to drive photosynthesis. Instead, the excited chlorophyll molecules transfer energy to chloroplasts to initiate the chemical reactions involved in photosynthesis. Hence the chloroplasts quench the fluorescent emission of chlorophyll, trapping the light energy so that it can be used to drive the chemical reactions of photosynthesis.
In this experiment you will first extract chlorophyll from spinach via column chromatography in the first lab period. In the second lab period you will investigate the photochemistry of chlorophyll. You will (i) record an absorption spectrum of chlorophyll to determine the range of wavelengths of light absorbed by the molecule; (ii) record a fluorescence spectrum to determine the range of wavelengths emitted by chlorophyll (iii) determine the relationship between fluorescence intensity and concentration and (iv) quench the chlorophyll fluorescence which simulates the transfer of energy from chlorophyll molecules to the chloroplasts.
Experimental Procedure (adapted from Reference 1)
1st Lab Period: Extraction of Chlorophyll from Spinach
Equipment and Reagents
2 large Buchner funnels Commercial blender Spinach leaves
4 - 250 mL Erlenmeyers Pasteur glass pipettes Cotton
1 - 500 mL Erlenmeyer Filter paper Sterilized sand
1000 mL Separatory funnel Glass funnel Acetone
2 - 500 mL filter flasks Thermometer Petroleum Ether
4 - 150 mL beakers Rotary evaporator Methylene Chloride
2 - 250 mL Volumetric flasks Anhydrous Sodium Sulfate Alumina
30 - 5 or 10 mL vials Sodium Iodide Heptane
Methanol 3 - 250 mL round bottom flasks
Preparation of a spinach extract
1.
One-half bag of supermarket spinach leaves should be placed in a commercial blender with about 200 mL of water and ground thoroughly for 5-10 minutes, or until all of the leaves are blended.
2. Split the extract into two and filter each using a large Buchner funnel into a 500-mL filter flask. Use additional filter flasks and Buchner funnels as necessary and change the filter paper in the funnel when filtration slows due to clogging. You may need to add excess water to remove all of the spinach remnants from the blender.
3. Meanwhile, prepare 375 mL of petroleum ether/acetone solution in a ratio of 8:2. Pour about 300 mL of this solution into a 1000 mL separatory funnel along with an equal amount of the filtered aqueous extract. Cap and shake the funnel vigorously, remembering to occasionally vent the system by opening the stopcock. Add another 50 mL of the solution and shake again. An emulsion may form. Drain off the aqueous layer (bottom green layer) and then decant the organic layer (light green layer) into a 250-mL Erlenmeyer. Use about 75 g anhydrous sodium sulfate to dry the organic layer and to break up any emulsions. Allow to dry for at least forty-five minutes with regular swirling. You may need to add more sodium sulfate if the sodium sulfate layer looks caramelized due to …show more content…
wetness.
4. Filter a small amount of the combined organic extracts into a 250-mL round bottom flask using a funnel. Use a rotary evaporator to remove the solvent, then filter more organic extract into the round bottom flask and continue the evaporation process. Do not let the temperature of the bath exceed 45 C, although a temperature of 25-35 C should be sufficient to evaporate the petroleum ether/acetone (hot plate set between 2 and 3). The result is a dark green liquid (1-3 mL), which may be diluted with a small amount of 8:2 Petroleum ether/acetone solution and placed immediately on columns using a Pasteur pipette (One partner should finish the evaporation process while the other is setting up the column).
Part II – Column Preparation for Chromatographic Separation The steps that follow are for extracting chlorophyll from each extract. Hence, for each spinach extract follow the procedure below. Your group will be running two columns; the chlorophyll extracted from one column being used for the fluorescence vs. concentration experiments and the chlorophyll from the second column being used for the chlorophyll quenching experiments. 1. Clamp a 14.5 x 0.5 cm glass Pasteur pipette in a thermometer clamp. Do not screw the clamp too tightly or the pipette will break. Make sure the pipette is vertical and firmly clamped.
2. Pack the column. In a 150-mL beaker, put about 20 mL of petroleum ether and place it under the column. Dip a small swab of cotton into the petroleum ether and gently insert it into the column using another pipette or a wooden splint. Pack about 1.0 cm of cotton into the narrow section of the pipette to prevent solid substrate from flowing through the column. Do not pack the cotton too tightly.
3.
Add sterilized sand to the column to form a 0.5-1.0 cm layer above the cotton. Using a pipette and bulb, rinse the sides of the column with a little petroleum ether to wash down any sand sticking to the sides of the column.
4. Add about 30 mL of petroleum ether to a second 150-mL beaker. Then add approximately 5 g of alumina (aluminum oxide) and swirl to make a slurry. To transfer the slurry to the pipette column, use a pipette with its narrow end broken off. Break the pipette carefully in a towel. The column will run quickly at first, so in order to prevent the alumina from drying out, hold a finger over the bottom of the column during the addition of the slurry. Pack 6 cm of alumina evenly. You may wish to mark off the 6 cm beforehand. Avoid any air bubbles in the packing of the alumina, and maintain the petroleum ether level above the level of the alumina.
5. In order to protect the surface of the alumina, add another 1.5-2 cm of sand. At this point, the packing should be just below the neck of the pipette.
6. Pre-weigh two clean, dry, 250 mL round bottom flasks. To weigh them, place the flasks on top of a beaker, and then subtract the weight of the beaker. You will rotary evaporate your carotene and chlorophyll extracts in these flasks.
Part III – Chromatographic Separation of
Extract
1. Let the column begin to drip. When the petroleum ether level approaches the top layer of sand, pipette your spinach extract onto the column. Add two pipettes of spinach extract onto the column. When the column has reached the top sand layer, continue to add petroleum ether. Never allow the solvent level to be lower than the sand layer. Otherwise, the column will begin to dry out, air pockets or cracks will form in the alumina, and you will get poor separation. The -carotene will begin to move down the column as a yellow/orange band or streak with some green material (chlorophyll) remaining at the top of the column.
2. After the second addition of petroleum ether, or when the orange band stops moving down the column, begin eluting with methylene chloride. Collect several fractions in a 250-ml flask as the -carotene comes off. Continue eluting until all of the orange color has disappeared from the column and the liquid coming off. Combine the carotene extracts from both of your columns, and place the -carotene extract on a rotary evaporator and remove the solvent (One lab partner may want to rotary evaporate the carotene while the other finishes eluting the chlorophyll). Temperatures between 25-35 C should be sufficient to evaporate the methylene chloride. You will be left with a yellow-orange powder.
3. When no more orange is seen in the cotton at the bottom of the column and the eluted fluid is colorless, begin eluting with acetone. You should see the green band begin to move down the column. If the band stops moving, add one pipette of methanol. Continue adding solvent until all of the chlorophyll has come off the column (The column will have a light green coloring at the end). Combine the chlorophyll extracts from both columns and use the rotary evaporator to concentrate the green extract. Do not let the temperature of the bath exceed 45 C, although a temperature of about 25 C should be sufficient to evaporate the acetone. You will be left with a dark green slimy substance, chlorophyll.
Photochemistry of chlorophyll (2nd lab period)
In this experiment, you will excite a solution of the chlorophyll using the 635 nm radiation of a diode laser. The laser you will use is a low power, continuous source laser. This experiment does not require a laser to be used to excite the chlorophyll molecules in solution. However, the fact the laser light is intense, monochromatic (i.e. pure in color), and collimated allows the use of a low-cost, low power laser in a relatively simple experimental setup, with sufficient sensitivity to make the measurements described below.
The setup is shown above. The laser beam strikes a cuvette filled with the chlorophyll solution. The chlorophyll molecules absorbs the 635 nm light (check your absorption spectrum). The excited chlorophyll molecules then fluoresce. At 90o to the direction of the incident light is first filtered by a colored glass that absorbs light at 635 nm and only allows the fluorescent light. Fluorescence is typically at longer wavelengths than the wavelength of light used to excite molecules (compare the absorption and fluorescence spectra you will record in Parts II and III below). The filtered light then strikes a light detector called a photodiode (the photodiode is similar to the photodiodes used to measure the speed of light in the Introduction to Lasers experiment). The output of the photodiode is a voltage proportional to the light intensity striking it. In this case the photodiode output voltage is proportional to the fluorescence intensity. The photodiode voltage is recorded by a voltmeter. The black box enclosing the cuvette and photodiode is to prevent room light from being detected by the photodiode.
Part I – Making Stock Solutions
Determine the mass of each residue using the method you used previously to weigh the flasks. Having weighed the chlorophyll samples, determine the volume of heptane (solvent) required to prepare a stock solution of 1.3 x 10-3 M. Prepare the solution in a 100 or 250 mL volumetric flask. The two stock solutions should be capped and refrigerated until needed (Some of the chlorophyll may need to be eluted with a small amount of acetone if it sticks to the side of the round bottom flask).
Repeat the same procedure with the -carotene extract, preparing a 1.3 x 10-3 M solution of the -carotene.
Part II – UV Visible Absorption Spectrum
You will record an absorption spectrum of chlorophyll using the stock solution. An absorption spectrum reveals the range of wavelengths at which the molecule absorbs light.
1. Turn on UV Visible Spectrophotometer (Lambda 19) and computer.
2. On the main menu, click on ‘UV Win Lab’ icon.
3. When the methods page appears, select ‘chloro.msc’ method. The parameters for recording the absorption spectrum of chlorophyll have been entered into this method. Note the start and end wavelengths that will be scanned.
4. Go to the ‘Sample’ tab. Change the ‘sample info’ to your email address.
5. Return to the ‘Scan’ selection. Click on the ‘setup’ key on the toolbar. Wait for the start button to turn green and click on it. Click on ‘ok’ if the ‘methods info’ box appears.
6. The program will ask you to insert the sample ‘blank’. Insert reference and sample cuvettes filled with heptane, into their respective slots (The reference cuvette goes in the back slot and the sample cuvette goes in the front one). If your cuvette is clear on two sides and frosted on the other two sides, make sure the clear sides of the cuvette are facing the open sides of the holder in the spectrophotometer. This means that the frosted side of both cuvettes should be facing you. Press ‘ok’.
7. After the background correction with the blank is complete, the program will ask you to insert the sample. Remove the sample cuvette and discard the solvent (heptane). Fill the cuvette to about 3/4 level with the stock solution. Return the cuvette to the sample slot, and click on ‘ok.’ You should see the absorption spectrum of chlorophyll appear as the scan progresses.
8. After the sample has been read, click on ‘print’ under the ‘file’ selection. Make sure that the printer switch is set to ‘B’ first.
9. Do not discard the stock solution in the cuvette. You will use this cuvette filled with the stock solution to record a fluorescence spectrum.
10. Record an absorption spectrum of the -carotene stock solution, repeating the procedure described above
Part III – Fluorescence or Emission Spectrum
Now you will record a fluorescence or emission spectrum of chlorophyll. A fluorescence spectrum is a plot of the range of wavelengths emitted by a molecule when it is excited at a fixed wavelength. For you to be able to record a fluorescence spectrum, clearly the excitation wavelength must correspond to a wavelength at which the molecule absorbs. From your absorption spectrum of chlorophyll determine the peak absorption wavelength, i.e. the wavelength at which the molecule absorbs the strongest.
1. Place the cuvette filled with the stock solution in the sample holder in the fluorescence spectrometer.
2. Launch the program FL Win
3. Select the method file CHLOROP.MTH
4. Based on your absorption spectrum enter value for the excitation wavelength
5. Choose a start wavelength about 20 nm below the excitation wavelength.
6. End the scan at 800 nm
7. Click the green light to start the scan.
8. A fluorescence spectrum of chlorophyll excited at the wavelength that you entered should appear as the spectrometer scans over the wavelength range.
9. On the printer next to the absorption spectrometer, set the printer selection knob to A.
10. Print the fluorescence spectrum.
11. In the experiments in Part IV and V the photodiode will be detecting a fluorescence signal over the range of wavelengths indicated by the fluorescence spectrum.
Part IV – Fluorescence vs. Concentration
This experiment investigates the relationship between fluorescence intensity and concentration.
1. Using one of the stock solutions prepare six dilutions of chlorophyll (MW 900) of concentrations ranging from 1.3 x 10-3 M to 4.0 x 10-5 M. Prepare at least 3mL of each solution. For each concentration prepare THREE solutions (for replicate measurements).
2. Fill the cuvette with the most dilute sample place it in the sample holder. Block the laser light right before the entrance to the cuvette and record the reading on the voltmeter. This is the background reading (with no fluorescence signal). Unblock the laser beam so that the cuvet is now illuminated by the laser. Record the voltmeter reading.
3. Repeat this procedure for all solutions. Be sure not to move the sample holder when changing solutions.
Part V – Fluorescence Quenching
This experiment investigates the effect of a quencher on the fluorescence intensity. In this experiment the quencher is sodium iodide (NaI). The NaI is a source for iodide ions (I-) which perform the same task as the cholorplasts in the photosynthetic cycle. Namely collisions between excited chlorophyll molecules and I- molecules results in energy being transferred from the excited chlorophyll to the I-. The result is that the chlorophyll is –de-excited and the I- excited. In leaves, the chlorophyll transfers its energy to the cholorplasts. The cholorplasts use this energy to initiate the chemical reactions of the photosynthesis.
1. Make a 10 mL sample of 0.5 M NaI in acetone. Be sure to keep the solution capped since acetone is volatile at room temperature.
2. Prepare 6 dilutions of NaI (MW = 149.89 g/mol) from the stock 0.5 M NaI solution. Keep these samples capped at all times.
3. Using the second stock chlorophyll solution prepare solutions of chlorophyll “spiked” with NaI (the NaI will act as a quencher for the chlorophyll fluorescence, the same way that the choloroplats quench chlorophyll fluorescence). For each concentration of the NaI solution, take 1 mL of the NaI solution and add 2 mL of the chlorophyll stock solution. Also for each NaI concentration prepare three spiked solutions.
4. Measure the fluorescent intensity for each solution, following step 2 of Part IV.
Data Analysis for Parts IV and V
1. For each of the fluorescence signal readings subtract the corresponding background reading.
3. For a given concentration average the three readings.
4. For the fluorescence vs. concentration experiment, plot the signal vs. concentration.
5. For the quenching experiment, plot the signal vs. concentration.
Issues to think about for the “Discussion” section of the lab report
1) Look at the absorption spectrum of chlorophyll and compare this with an emission spectrum of the sun (you can find an emission spectrum of the sun in astronomy books, or on the internet). Why is chlorophyll ideal for absorbing light energy from the sun? Which regions of the electromagnetic spectrum does chlorophyll absorb the strongest?
2) Why is 635 nm appropriate for exciting chlorophyll?
3) From the absorption spectra of chlorophyll and -carotene can you explain why chlorophyll is green and -carotene orange?
4) Why do you measure fluorescence intensity at 90o to the incident (excitation) radiation?
5) What does the trend in the plot of fluorescence vs. concentration indicate?
6) What is the effect of NaI on the fluorescence intensity of chlorophyll? Relate this to the relationship between chlorophyll and chloroplasts.
7) For photosynthesis, would you expect the rate of fluorescence to be faster or slower than the rate of quenching by chloroplasts? Explain your choice of answer.
There maybe other issues you would like to discuss in your lab report. The above questions are just to help you focus your discussion of the results of the experiment.
References:
1) Principles of Modern Chemistry; Oxtoby, D.W. et al, Saunders College Publishing, 4th Edition (1999), p. 600 - 614
2) Laser Experiments for Beginners; Zare, Richard N. et al., 1995, University Science Books, Sausalito, California.
Chlorophyll a
Chlorophyll b
E5 - Extraction of Chlorophyll from Fresh Spinach
E6 - Investigation of the Photochemistry of Chlorophyll
The aim of this experiment is to investigate the photochemistry of chlorophyll. This experiment will be performed in two lab periods. In the first lab period you will extract chlorophyll, the green pigment in leaves, from spinach. In the second lab period you will investigate the interaction of light with chlorophyll. Read in Appendix B the reference section titled "Electronic Structure of Matter" copied from reference 1 before performing experiment investigating the photochemistry …show more content…
of chlorophyll.
Background
Chlorophyll is the green pigment responsible for the color of leaves. Its presence in leaves is crucial for photosynthesis. Photosynthesis can be defined as the process by which plants, algae, and photosynthetic bacteria use light energy to drive the synthesis of organic compounds. The photosynthetic process involves the removal of CO2 from the atmosphere, which is used to synthesize carbohydrates, and results in the release of O2. The energy to drive the chemical reactions of photosynthesis comes from the sunlight absorbed by the chlorophyll molecules. Hence, the first step in photosynthesis is the absorption of visible light from the sun by chlorophyll molecules. The chlorophyll molecules then transfer the light energy to chloroplasts, the reaction center of photosynthesis. In this way light energy is converted to chemical energy for converting CO2 into carbohydrates.
The overall reaction for photosynthesis is:
This overall equation for photosynthesis is deceptively simple. In fact, a series of complex reactions must occur in a coordinated manner for the synthesis of carbohydrates. To produce a sucrose molecule, C6H12O6, plants require about 30 distinct proteins that work within a complicated membrane structure.
Without light photosynthesis cannot take place; and hence the absorption of light by chlorophyll is the first step in photosynthesis
What happens when light strikes an atom or molecule1?
Since atoms and molecules obey quantum mechanics, an atom or molecule can possess discrete values of energy i.e. the amount of energy that an atom or molecule can possess is quantized. The amount of energy an atom can absorb depends on the energy separation of the electronic levels of the atom. If light of frequency, , is incident on the atom, the atom will absorb this light only if the energy of a photon of this light () equals the energy difference between two electronic levels of the atom.
The energy absorbed excites an electron from the lower level to the upper level resulting in an electronic excitation. Since each atom has unique energy separations between electronic levels, if the frequency of the incident light is varied and the frequencies absorbed by the atom are monitored, an absorption spectrum is recorded which is characteristic of the atom. Electronic excitation also occurs in molecules, and like atoms since the electronic structure of each molecule is different, electronic absorption spectra of molecules are also characteristic of each molecule.
A molecule, in addition to its electronic levels, can also store energy in vibrations of the bonds in the molecules, and rotations of the molecule. As with the electronic energy, vibrational and rotational energies are also quantized; i.e. molecules vibrate and rotate with distinct energies and hence at distinct frequencies characteristic of a molecule. Monitoring the frequencies that excite a vibration or rotation in a molecule (resulting in a vibrational or rotational absorption spectrum of the molecule) identifies the molecule. The frequency of light that typically excites electrons in atoms or molecules is located in the visible or ultraviolet region. Vibrational excitation requires light in the infra red region and rotational excitation requires light in the microwave region. Hence,
In this experiment we will focus on excitation of electrons.
What happens to a molecule once it has absorbed energy1?
There are many pathways via which the excited molecule can loose the energy it has absorbed from the incident light. The molecule can re-emit the light – this is called fluorescence. Or the energy can be used to excite vibrations and rotations within the molecule. Or if the molecule collides with another molecule it can transfer the energy to the collision partner – this is called quenching. Or sometimes the molecule can dissociate (i.e. break a bond) if the energy absorbed is greater than a bond energy in the molecule. Following excitation, the molecule can follow any one of these pathways (or sometimes a combination of these pathways). The “fate” of the excited molecule depends on factors like the relative time scales of each event, the phase of the sample (solid, liquid and gas), the pressure or concentration of the sample. An excited molecule, which looses energy through mechanisms that do not involve emission of light, is said to undergo a non-radiative process.
Photochemistry of chlorophyll
When sunlight strikes a chlorophyll molecule, the chlorophyll molecule absorbs light. What happens to the excited chlorophyll molecules? The chlorophyll molecules could fluoresce, re-emitting the light. However, if all the chlorophyll molecules fluoresce, then the energy absorbed by the chlorophyll is lost and cannot be used to drive photosynthesis. Instead, the excited chlorophyll molecules transfer energy to chloroplasts to initiate the chemical reactions involved in photosynthesis. Hence the chloroplasts quench the fluorescent emission of chlorophyll, trapping the light energy so that it can be used to drive the chemical reactions of photosynthesis.
In this experiment you will first extract chlorophyll from spinach via column chromatography in the first lab period. In the second lab period you will investigate the photochemistry of chlorophyll. You will (i) record an absorption spectrum of chlorophyll to determine the range of wavelengths of light absorbed by the molecule; (ii) record a fluorescence spectrum to determine the range of wavelengths emitted by chlorophyll (iii) determine the relationship between fluorescence intensity and concentration and (iv) quench the chlorophyll fluorescence which simulates the transfer of energy from chlorophyll molecules to the chloroplasts.
Experimental Procedure (adapted from Reference 1)
1st Lab Period: Extraction of Chlorophyll from Spinach
Equipment and Reagents
2 large Buchner funnels Commercial blender Spinach leaves
4 - 250 mL Erlenmeyers Pasteur glass pipettes Cotton
1 - 500 mL Erlenmeyer Filter paper Sterilized sand
1000 mL Separatory funnel Glass funnel Acetone
2 - 500 mL filter flasks Thermometer Petroleum Ether
4 - 150 mL beakers Rotary evaporator Methylene Chloride
2 - 250 mL Volumetric flasks Anhydrous Sodium Sulfate Alumina
30 - 5 or 10 mL vials Sodium Iodide Heptane
Methanol 3 - 250 mL round bottom flasks
Preparation of a spinach extract
1.
One-half bag of supermarket spinach leaves should be placed in a commercial blender with about 200 mL of water and ground thoroughly for 5-10 minutes, or until all of the leaves are blended.
2. Split the extract into two and filter each using a large Buchner funnel into a 500-mL filter flask. Use additional filter flasks and Buchner funnels as necessary and change the filter paper in the funnel when filtration slows due to clogging. You may need to add excess water to remove all of the spinach remnants from the blender.
3. Meanwhile, prepare 375 mL of petroleum ether/acetone solution in a ratio of 8:2. Pour about 300 mL of this solution into a 1000 mL separatory funnel along with an equal amount of the filtered aqueous extract. Cap and shake the funnel vigorously, remembering to occasionally vent the system by opening the stopcock. Add another 50 mL of the solution and shake again. An emulsion may form. Drain off the aqueous layer (bottom green layer) and then decant the organic layer (light green layer) into a 250-mL Erlenmeyer. Use about 75 g anhydrous sodium sulfate to dry the organic layer and to break up any emulsions. Allow to dry for at least forty-five minutes with regular swirling. You may need to add more sodium sulfate if the sodium sulfate layer looks caramelized due to …show more content…
wetness.
4. Filter a small amount of the combined organic extracts into a 250-mL round bottom flask using a funnel. Use a rotary evaporator to remove the solvent, then filter more organic extract into the round bottom flask and continue the evaporation process. Do not let the temperature of the bath exceed 45 C, although a temperature of 25-35 C should be sufficient to evaporate the petroleum ether/acetone (hot plate set between 2 and 3). The result is a dark green liquid (1-3 mL), which may be diluted with a small amount of 8:2 Petroleum ether/acetone solution and placed immediately on columns using a Pasteur pipette (One partner should finish the evaporation process while the other is setting up the column).
Part II – Column Preparation for Chromatographic Separation The steps that follow are for extracting chlorophyll from each extract. Hence, for each spinach extract follow the procedure below. Your group will be running two columns; the chlorophyll extracted from one column being used for the fluorescence vs. concentration experiments and the chlorophyll from the second column being used for the chlorophyll quenching experiments. 1. Clamp a 14.5 x 0.5 cm glass Pasteur pipette in a thermometer clamp. Do not screw the clamp too tightly or the pipette will break. Make sure the pipette is vertical and firmly clamped.
2. Pack the column. In a 150-mL beaker, put about 20 mL of petroleum ether and place it under the column. Dip a small swab of cotton into the petroleum ether and gently insert it into the column using another pipette or a wooden splint. Pack about 1.0 cm of cotton into the narrow section of the pipette to prevent solid substrate from flowing through the column. Do not pack the cotton too tightly.
3.
Add sterilized sand to the column to form a 0.5-1.0 cm layer above the cotton. Using a pipette and bulb, rinse the sides of the column with a little petroleum ether to wash down any sand sticking to the sides of the column.
4. Add about 30 mL of petroleum ether to a second 150-mL beaker. Then add approximately 5 g of alumina (aluminum oxide) and swirl to make a slurry. To transfer the slurry to the pipette column, use a pipette with its narrow end broken off. Break the pipette carefully in a towel. The column will run quickly at first, so in order to prevent the alumina from drying out, hold a finger over the bottom of the column during the addition of the slurry. Pack 6 cm of alumina evenly. You may wish to mark off the 6 cm beforehand. Avoid any air bubbles in the packing of the alumina, and maintain the petroleum ether level above the level of the alumina.
5. In order to protect the surface of the alumina, add another 1.5-2 cm of sand. At this point, the packing should be just below the neck of the pipette.
6. Pre-weigh two clean, dry, 250 mL round bottom flasks. To weigh them, place the flasks on top of a beaker, and then subtract the weight of the beaker. You will rotary evaporate your carotene and chlorophyll extracts in these flasks.
Part III – Chromatographic Separation of
Extract
1. Let the column begin to drip. When the petroleum ether level approaches the top layer of sand, pipette your spinach extract onto the column. Add two pipettes of spinach extract onto the column. When the column has reached the top sand layer, continue to add petroleum ether. Never allow the solvent level to be lower than the sand layer. Otherwise, the column will begin to dry out, air pockets or cracks will form in the alumina, and you will get poor separation. The -carotene will begin to move down the column as a yellow/orange band or streak with some green material (chlorophyll) remaining at the top of the column.
2. After the second addition of petroleum ether, or when the orange band stops moving down the column, begin eluting with methylene chloride. Collect several fractions in a 250-ml flask as the -carotene comes off. Continue eluting until all of the orange color has disappeared from the column and the liquid coming off. Combine the carotene extracts from both of your columns, and place the -carotene extract on a rotary evaporator and remove the solvent (One lab partner may want to rotary evaporate the carotene while the other finishes eluting the chlorophyll). Temperatures between 25-35 C should be sufficient to evaporate the methylene chloride. You will be left with a yellow-orange powder.
3. When no more orange is seen in the cotton at the bottom of the column and the eluted fluid is colorless, begin eluting with acetone. You should see the green band begin to move down the column. If the band stops moving, add one pipette of methanol. Continue adding solvent until all of the chlorophyll has come off the column (The column will have a light green coloring at the end). Combine the chlorophyll extracts from both columns and use the rotary evaporator to concentrate the green extract. Do not let the temperature of the bath exceed 45 C, although a temperature of about 25 C should be sufficient to evaporate the acetone. You will be left with a dark green slimy substance, chlorophyll.
Photochemistry of chlorophyll (2nd lab period)
In this experiment, you will excite a solution of the chlorophyll using the 635 nm radiation of a diode laser. The laser you will use is a low power, continuous source laser. This experiment does not require a laser to be used to excite the chlorophyll molecules in solution. However, the fact the laser light is intense, monochromatic (i.e. pure in color), and collimated allows the use of a low-cost, low power laser in a relatively simple experimental setup, with sufficient sensitivity to make the measurements described below.
The setup is shown above. The laser beam strikes a cuvette filled with the chlorophyll solution. The chlorophyll molecules absorbs the 635 nm light (check your absorption spectrum). The excited chlorophyll molecules then fluoresce. At 90o to the direction of the incident light is first filtered by a colored glass that absorbs light at 635 nm and only allows the fluorescent light. Fluorescence is typically at longer wavelengths than the wavelength of light used to excite molecules (compare the absorption and fluorescence spectra you will record in Parts II and III below). The filtered light then strikes a light detector called a photodiode (the photodiode is similar to the photodiodes used to measure the speed of light in the Introduction to Lasers experiment). The output of the photodiode is a voltage proportional to the light intensity striking it. In this case the photodiode output voltage is proportional to the fluorescence intensity. The photodiode voltage is recorded by a voltmeter. The black box enclosing the cuvette and photodiode is to prevent room light from being detected by the photodiode.
Part I – Making Stock Solutions
Determine the mass of each residue using the method you used previously to weigh the flasks. Having weighed the chlorophyll samples, determine the volume of heptane (solvent) required to prepare a stock solution of 1.3 x 10-3 M. Prepare the solution in a 100 or 250 mL volumetric flask. The two stock solutions should be capped and refrigerated until needed (Some of the chlorophyll may need to be eluted with a small amount of acetone if it sticks to the side of the round bottom flask).
Repeat the same procedure with the -carotene extract, preparing a 1.3 x 10-3 M solution of the -carotene.
Part II – UV Visible Absorption Spectrum
You will record an absorption spectrum of chlorophyll using the stock solution. An absorption spectrum reveals the range of wavelengths at which the molecule absorbs light.
1. Turn on UV Visible Spectrophotometer (Lambda 19) and computer.
2. On the main menu, click on ‘UV Win Lab’ icon.
3. When the methods page appears, select ‘chloro.msc’ method. The parameters for recording the absorption spectrum of chlorophyll have been entered into this method. Note the start and end wavelengths that will be scanned.
4. Go to the ‘Sample’ tab. Change the ‘sample info’ to your email address.
5. Return to the ‘Scan’ selection. Click on the ‘setup’ key on the toolbar. Wait for the start button to turn green and click on it. Click on ‘ok’ if the ‘methods info’ box appears.
6. The program will ask you to insert the sample ‘blank’. Insert reference and sample cuvettes filled with heptane, into their respective slots (The reference cuvette goes in the back slot and the sample cuvette goes in the front one). If your cuvette is clear on two sides and frosted on the other two sides, make sure the clear sides of the cuvette are facing the open sides of the holder in the spectrophotometer. This means that the frosted side of both cuvettes should be facing you. Press ‘ok’.
7. After the background correction with the blank is complete, the program will ask you to insert the sample. Remove the sample cuvette and discard the solvent (heptane). Fill the cuvette to about 3/4 level with the stock solution. Return the cuvette to the sample slot, and click on ‘ok.’ You should see the absorption spectrum of chlorophyll appear as the scan progresses.
8. After the sample has been read, click on ‘print’ under the ‘file’ selection. Make sure that the printer switch is set to ‘B’ first.
9. Do not discard the stock solution in the cuvette. You will use this cuvette filled with the stock solution to record a fluorescence spectrum.
10. Record an absorption spectrum of the -carotene stock solution, repeating the procedure described above
Part III – Fluorescence or Emission Spectrum
Now you will record a fluorescence or emission spectrum of chlorophyll. A fluorescence spectrum is a plot of the range of wavelengths emitted by a molecule when it is excited at a fixed wavelength. For you to be able to record a fluorescence spectrum, clearly the excitation wavelength must correspond to a wavelength at which the molecule absorbs. From your absorption spectrum of chlorophyll determine the peak absorption wavelength, i.e. the wavelength at which the molecule absorbs the strongest.
1. Place the cuvette filled with the stock solution in the sample holder in the fluorescence spectrometer.
2. Launch the program FL Win
3. Select the method file CHLOROP.MTH
4. Based on your absorption spectrum enter value for the excitation wavelength
5. Choose a start wavelength about 20 nm below the excitation wavelength.
6. End the scan at 800 nm
7. Click the green light to start the scan.
8. A fluorescence spectrum of chlorophyll excited at the wavelength that you entered should appear as the spectrometer scans over the wavelength range.
9. On the printer next to the absorption spectrometer, set the printer selection knob to A.
10. Print the fluorescence spectrum.
11. In the experiments in Part IV and V the photodiode will be detecting a fluorescence signal over the range of wavelengths indicated by the fluorescence spectrum.
Part IV – Fluorescence vs. Concentration
This experiment investigates the relationship between fluorescence intensity and concentration.
1. Using one of the stock solutions prepare six dilutions of chlorophyll (MW 900) of concentrations ranging from 1.3 x 10-3 M to 4.0 x 10-5 M. Prepare at least 3mL of each solution. For each concentration prepare THREE solutions (for replicate measurements).
2. Fill the cuvette with the most dilute sample place it in the sample holder. Block the laser light right before the entrance to the cuvette and record the reading on the voltmeter. This is the background reading (with no fluorescence signal). Unblock the laser beam so that the cuvet is now illuminated by the laser. Record the voltmeter reading.
3. Repeat this procedure for all solutions. Be sure not to move the sample holder when changing solutions.
Part V – Fluorescence Quenching
This experiment investigates the effect of a quencher on the fluorescence intensity. In this experiment the quencher is sodium iodide (NaI). The NaI is a source for iodide ions (I-) which perform the same task as the cholorplasts in the photosynthetic cycle. Namely collisions between excited chlorophyll molecules and I- molecules results in energy being transferred from the excited chlorophyll to the I-. The result is that the chlorophyll is –de-excited and the I- excited. In leaves, the chlorophyll transfers its energy to the cholorplasts. The cholorplasts use this energy to initiate the chemical reactions of the photosynthesis.
1. Make a 10 mL sample of 0.5 M NaI in acetone. Be sure to keep the solution capped since acetone is volatile at room temperature.
2. Prepare 6 dilutions of NaI (MW = 149.89 g/mol) from the stock 0.5 M NaI solution. Keep these samples capped at all times.
3. Using the second stock chlorophyll solution prepare solutions of chlorophyll “spiked” with NaI (the NaI will act as a quencher for the chlorophyll fluorescence, the same way that the choloroplats quench chlorophyll fluorescence). For each concentration of the NaI solution, take 1 mL of the NaI solution and add 2 mL of the chlorophyll stock solution. Also for each NaI concentration prepare three spiked solutions.
4. Measure the fluorescent intensity for each solution, following step 2 of Part IV.
Data Analysis for Parts IV and V
1. For each of the fluorescence signal readings subtract the corresponding background reading.
3. For a given concentration average the three readings.
4. For the fluorescence vs. concentration experiment, plot the signal vs. concentration.
5. For the quenching experiment, plot the signal vs. concentration.
Issues to think about for the “Discussion” section of the lab report
1) Look at the absorption spectrum of chlorophyll and compare this with an emission spectrum of the sun (you can find an emission spectrum of the sun in astronomy books, or on the internet). Why is chlorophyll ideal for absorbing light energy from the sun? Which regions of the electromagnetic spectrum does chlorophyll absorb the strongest?
2) Why is 635 nm appropriate for exciting chlorophyll?
3) From the absorption spectra of chlorophyll and -carotene can you explain why chlorophyll is green and -carotene orange?
4) Why do you measure fluorescence intensity at 90o to the incident (excitation) radiation?
5) What does the trend in the plot of fluorescence vs. concentration indicate?
6) What is the effect of NaI on the fluorescence intensity of chlorophyll? Relate this to the relationship between chlorophyll and chloroplasts.
7) For photosynthesis, would you expect the rate of fluorescence to be faster or slower than the rate of quenching by chloroplasts? Explain your choice of answer.
There maybe other issues you would like to discuss in your lab report. The above questions are just to help you focus your discussion of the results of the experiment.
References:
1) Principles of Modern Chemistry; Oxtoby, D.W. et al, Saunders College Publishing, 4th Edition (1999), p. 600 - 614
2) Laser Experiments for Beginners; Zare, Richard N. et al., 1995, University Science Books, Sausalito, California.