Fertility, Migration and Various Related Factors

Fertility

INDICATORS

Crude Birth Rate (CBR)

Definition: number of live births per 100 people per year

Strength: Quick and easy way of measuring and comparing fertility between different countries. Data required is usually readily available.

Limitation: Does not take into account sex composition and age structure of the population

Age-Specific Fertility Rate (ASFR)

Definition: annual number of live births per 1,000 women in particular age groups (usually in 5-year bands: 15-19, 20-24, 25-30, etc.)

Strength: More precise as it takes into consideration the age of the mothers at the point of childbirth, enabling comparisons between the different age groups, with and between countries. This is important for the government to refine its pro-natal policies.

Limitations: Data provided by countries may not be accurate due to large amount of resources needed to track and record births in the country, especially in rural areas in LDCs. Secondly, while the data from ASFR has quantitative value as a policy tool, it does not have explanatory value.

Total Fertility Rate (TFR) - Best

Definition: average number of children a woman is likely to have if she lives to the end of her child-bearing age conforming to the age-specific fertility rates of a given year.

Strength: Takes into account both the age and sex composition of a country, thus allowing demographers to have a more accurate understanding of the fertility situation

Limitations: Data provided by countries may not be accurate due to large amount of resources needed to track and record births in the country, especially in rural areas in LDCs. Secondly, the TFR does not measure the actual number of births per women. It is simply a projection.

VARAIABLES AFFECTING FETILITY

BIOLOGICAL FACTORS

Age and years of marriage

- The longer past puberty a woman waits to have intercourse, the fewer children she will probably have because of the shorter time she will be at risk of bearing children.

- LDCs – lower marrying age, DCs- higher marrying age

- LDCs like Niger has a tradition of marrying their daughters off at an early age. For example, among Fulani herders, marriages are arranged for babies who are still in the womb (strengthen ties, out-of wedlock pregnancy shameful). Even though the legal age of marriage in Niger is 15,girls are often married by 12 and have had children by 16. Contribute to Niger very high TFR of 7.68

- DCs like Singapore; average age of bride is 27. With out-of wedlock children still seen as taboo in Singapore, this has led to a low TFR of 1.10 (2011)

Patterns of sexual activity

- Impacted by several factors like divorce separation, work stress and physical separation of families

- Couples who do not observe postpartum amenorrhea tend to have their next child very quickly.

- LDCs – In Lesotho, mothers are separated from their husbands for as long as they breastfeed. Hence, there would be less chance of having a baby the next time the couple has intercourse.

Length of breastfeeding

- Breastfeeding decreases a woman’s fertility as it suppresses ovulation

- Women who do not breastfeed undergo only 2 months of infertility after giving birth while women who breastfeed undergo 10-18 months of infertility

- Although breastfeeding is a natural contraceptive, the percentage of women who breastfeed has declined with modernization. It is looked upon as a peasant activity. Modern women prefer to bottle-feed as it allows them the freedom to work and have someone else care for their child.

- However, in recent years, there has been an upward trend of women in DCs engaging in breastfeeding. This is due to the increased knowledge of the benefits of breastfeeding to a child like better immune system and the mother who breastfeeds has a 24% reduced chance of having breast cancer. For example, in US, 84% of women with a university degree breastfeed their babies while only 64% of those with a high school education are lactating

Availability and use of birth control measures

- Definition: any method taken to prevent fertilisation or to interrupt pregnancy

- Sterilization (surgical procedure for permanent infertility), Contraception (any measure taken to interrupt ovulation, fertilisation and implantation), Induced abortion

- DCs- Increased knowledge and awareness of birth control measures. They are also more socially accepted. For example, in Singapore, 1 in 4 births have ended in abortion.

- LDCs – Even though birth control measures are widely available, there is limited access to and high costs of birth control, lack of knowledge, and negative/inaccurate information. Even when there is access to birth control methods and family planning services, acceptance of these is a problem due to religious, cultural and socio-economic problems. For example, in Philippines, a Catholic dominated country, abortion is illegal due to religious reasons.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC FACTORS

Level of healthcare and diet

- Poor sanitation, nutrition, healthcare and disease control has led to high IMR in LDCs. Many children will have to be born to a woman to ensure that at least a couple would survive

-DCs- people have access to better healthcare, sanitation and better diets. Lower IMR, fewer miscarriages, more live births and healthier children. No need for insurance births.

- For example, Afghanistan has the highest infant mortality rate in the world at 136 deaths per 1000 live births. More children need to be born as insurance births to ensure that at least a few survive and enter adulthood. In comparison, Singapore’s IMR for the same period was 1.92 per 1000 live births. Lesser need for insurance births.

Economic and social value of children

- In LDCs, primary industries prevail. Large amounts of manpower is needed to work on farms. Hence, having more children is considered as an economic asset as they would be able to help out in the farms. Also, one or more of the children may migrate and send money back home.

- In DCs, secondary and tertiary industries prevail. Children do not contribute to the family income, instead money have to be spent to feed, clothe, house and school the children. Child labour laws and compulsory education laws in many DCs ensure that the children are provided for. Children are considered as economic liabilities.

Women’s education level and status at work

- With the education of women, comes more opportunities for employment, and hence they are able to attain economic independence. This leads to the empowerment of women and increased social status, freeing them from traditionally subservient roles in the family and society. Women have the autonomy to make decisions for themselves.

- DCs – Women rights activists have caused almost equal rights between men and women, leading to equally education and employment opportunities. TFR of graduates in US is 1.15 while non-university graduates is 1.3.

- LDCs- Low literacy rates and high drop-out rates from school means that women marry and have children early. For example, in Brazil, TFR of those with secondary education is 2.5 while those without is 6.5.

INSTITUITIONAL FACTORS

Customs and religions

- Among the major religious systems in the world like Roman Catholicism, Islam and traditional African societies, having children is encourages. Parts of the texts from Roman Catholicism and Islam can be interpreted that birth control measures are contradictory to theological beliefs.

- LDCs- religion and culture tend to be more influential, keeping fertility rates high. For example, om Philippines, there is a high fertility rate due to the populations strong religious faith in Catholicism, which frowns upon birth control measures.

Government policies

- (DCs) pro-natal policies to increase fertility rates, (LDCs) anti-natal policies to decrease fertility rates

- China’s One-Child Policy – China’s TFR fell from 5 births in early 1970s to 1.54 births per woman in 2011

Mortality

INDICATORS

Crude Death Rate (CBR)

Definition: number of deaths per 100 people per year

Strength: Quick and easy way of measuring and comparing mortality between different countries. Data required is usually readily available.

Limitation: Does not take into account sex composition and age structure of the population. Can’t tell DCs and LDCs apart

Age-Specific Mortality Rate (ASFR)

Definition: total number of deaths per year per 100,000 people of a given age

Strength: More precise as it takes into consideration the age of death, enabling comparisons between the different age groups, with and between countries.

Limitations: Data provided by countries may not be accurate due to large amount of resources needed to track and record occurrences of death in a country, especially in rural areas in LDCs.

Infant Mortality Rates (IMR) -Best

Definition: measures number of infants aged below 1 year old who died per 1000 live births in a population in a year

Essay: The Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) is regarded as one of the best measures of a country’s socio-economic progress, as it is a fairly sensitive indicator of economic development. Babies’ health typically improves earlier and faster than of people at other ages. In general, countries with high levels of income and education can provide the population with access to clean water, sanitation, food, and shelter and healthcare services.

Education can simply refer to a few basic rules which would not lead to unnecessary infant deaths. For example, Afghanistan has the highest infant mortality rates in the world, and this could be due to lack of knowledge of the people. For example, traditional beliefs suggest that the baby should be born into a bowl of dirt. Tetanus contracted by the newborn from the dirt is dismissed as demonic possession. The lack of education and knowledge has led to higher IMR.

Higher incomes increase the chance that babies will have a nutritious, sanitary diet which prevents diarrhoea, an important cause of death among infants. Higher incomes are also associated with a country’s ability or individual means to provide coverage from diseases. For example, LDCs are able to afford higher more advanced medical technologies, which can detect diseases early and stop them. After all, prevention is better than cure. Hence, infants have a higher chance of surviving due to the affordability of advanced medical technology. However, in LDCs, the country may be unable to provide these services for their citizens as they are too expensive, for example, an MRI scan in Singapore may cost between $500-$2000.

Hence, income and education are important factors in lowering IMR of a country. Countries which are highly developed have low IMRs while poorer countries have higher IMRs.

Child Mortality Rate (CMR)

Definition: number of children aged below 5 years old who died per 1000 live births in a population in a year

#similar to IMR

Life Expectancy

Definition: average number of years a person born in a given area can expect to live

Description: Life expectancy can indicate standard of living in a country. This is because life expectancy is affected by the public health and medical care systems. The more economically developed a country is, the higher standard of living.

VARIATIONS OF MORTALITY BETWEEN DCS AND LDCS

Infant mortality rate

- DCs – low IMR (Singapore-1.92, Iceland-2.07)

-LDCs- high IMR (Afghanistan-136, Chad-131.17)

Life expectancies

- The more developed a country is, the higher the life expectancy

- DCs (Japan-82.73, Singapore-80.60)

-LDCs (Lesotho-46, Zimbabwe-47)

Causes of death

- DCs – degenerative diseases (heart diseases, stroke, and cancer). Due to the longer life expectancy, sedentary lifestyle and a high fat and calorie diet, degenerative diseases are prevalent in DCs.

-LDCS- communicable diseases ( influenza, pneumonia), parasitic diseases (malaria), civil wars (Sudan), natural disasters (earthquakes), epidemics (AIDS)

NATIONAL MORTALITY DIFFERENTIALS

Urban and Rural differentials

- LDCs – urban areas have higher mortality rates than rural areas. For example, in Egypt, mortality rates for urban areas was 24 while for rural areas it is 16. Although medical facilities are available in urban areas, they are not always available for those who need it most. Large numbers of poor people living in urban areas are forced to live in slums, where there is poor hygiene, sanitation, leading to the spread of diseases.

-DCs- urban areas have lower mortality rates than rural areas. Advanced medical technology and environmental improvements.

Occupation, Income and Education Differentials in Mortality

- Research has shown that the higher one’s position in society, the longer one is likely to live

- Income- to buy protection against and cure diseases

- Education – to know how the risk of diseases and occupational hazards can be minimized

- For example, in England, researchers followed a group of 12000 civil servants aged 40-64. They were tracked for the next 10 years, and it was clear that the higher the pay grade, the lower the death rate.

Race and Ethnicity Differential

- In most societies where more than 1 racial group exists, one group tends to dominate over the other. The subordinate group would be prejudiced and discriminated against, and not given the same benefits in healthcare and housing, leading to lowered life expectancies.

- For example, in US, African Americans experience higher mortality rates than the white Americans. Between ages 20 and 59, death rates among blacks are more than double for whites. Research has shown that the lower socioeconomic status of African Americans has led to there being a vicious cycle of poverty and crime, thus leading to higher mortality rates.

Marital status differential

- Married people tend to live longer than single people

- Marriage is selective of healthy people. People who are of ill-health would have a lower chance of getting married and higher risk of death

- Marriage is good for health- high incomes due to combined dual income, partners taking care of each other

Factors affecting mortality in LDCs and Dcs

Demographic factors (age and gender)

- Age structure: LDCs tend to have a younger population profile compared to DCs. Younger populations usually have lower CDR due to the reduced number of degenerative diseases that youths face.

- Gender: Life expectancy of a woman is higher than a man. Reasons: physiological makeup, substance abuse, higher probability of violent and unnatural deaths (Women-70, Men-65)

Medical technologies

- Medical technology has led to great improvements in medical care and reduction in mortality rates. For instance, the discovery of X Rays enhanced doctors abilities to treat patients ailments and increase their chance of survival against diseases.

- However, these medical technologies are expensive and LDCs might not be able to afford them. For example, MRI scans in Singapore may cost between $500-$2000. Hence, the lack of affordability of these medical technology in LDCs ,may have led to an increase in mortality rates.

Public Health Measures

- Sanitation – refers to measures taken to improve public health, such as provision of clean water and sanitation. In LDCs, water which is contaminated with human excrements would lead to the fast spread of water-borne diseases like dysentery and cholera. In DCs, access to clean water and sanitation facilities is almost universal. According to WHO, 1.1 billion people do not have access to clean drinking water while 2.4 billion do not have access to any type of sanitation facilities. The only way to improve the situation is through financial help and education. For example, community workers in Bangladesh have been educating the people on their menstrual hygiene practice. The villagers would bury old menstrual cloths in the ground, attracting bacteria. Hence, with education, the shift in perception of menstrual issues can be dealt with

-Vaccination- refers to the process of taking a vaccine against contracting a disease. Immunisation protects children from common childhood diseases like polio and adults from malaria. Even though vaccination is useful in combating the spread of diseases, not all populations have had the opportunity to benefit from it. In 1974, the WHO embarked on an Immunisation Programme to vaccinate children against the 6 most common childhood diseases which include tuberculosis, measles and polio. A study in 2004 shows that over 90% of the population in America and Europe have been vaccinated but only 66% in Africa. Led to a high number of child deaths in Africa, 1 113 000 compared to Europe, 32 000

Socio-economic changes

- Standard of living is the level of comfort, material goods and necessities that people living in a geographical location receives. Income and education lead to healthcare amenities, status of women, supply of food and nutrition

Political situation

- Political situations include genocides and wars which serve to increase a country’s mortality rate. Genocide is defined as the deliberate and systematic destruction, in whole or in part, of an ethnic, racial, religious or national group. War is the state of armed conflict between different nations or between different groups between a nation or state. For example, in World War 2 (1939-1945) 60 million people were killed. Hence, an unstable political climate could lead to lowered life expectancies.

Epidemics/Pandemics

- An epidemic is an outbreak of a disease which affects many individuals in a certain country above normal levels. A pandemic is when an epidemic escalates and may affect many countries, continents and even the whole world. An example of a pandemic is the Spanish flu which has claimed 50-100 million people. Another example is AIDS. Especially in Sub-Saharan Africa, AIDS have claimed 80% of the population. There is a lack of condom use as condoms are suspected to carrying the disease itself. Hence, the lack of knowledge and education has led to misinformation, and helped to spread this pandemic. Also, the lack of government support from President Mbeki has led to increased spread of AIDS

Migration

Introduction

- The movement of people from one place to another and results in a permanent change of residence for more than a year

- Mover: move to a new home a short distance away but school, job, shops remain the same. All migrants are movers, but not all movers are migrants

- Internal migration: in-migration & out-migration

- International migration: Immigration and emigration

Classification of Migration

Distance (national vs. transnational tourism)

- National tourism involves moving within a country but transnational is between countries. Usually, transnational tourism id longer distance than national tourism.

- Anomaly: Transnational tourism between India and Bangladesh involves moving a much shorter distance as compared to national tourism between Los Angeles and New York in USA.

Voluntariness of migration (Voluntary vs Involuntary migration)

- Voluntary migration – people relocate on their own free will for a variety of reasons, such as for work or to join their families

- Involuntary migration – refugees, internally displaced persons, slaves

- Refugees – person who is living outside the country of origin because they have suffered persecution of race, religion, nationality, political or other reasons. According to the United Nations Refugee Agency, there are 10 million refugees worldwide

- Internally displaced persons – similar to refugee, but still remains in the country of origin. They remain under the protection of their government. According to UNRA, in 2009, there were 27 million IDP worldwide

- Slave – someone who is legally owned by another person and works for them for no money. They have no rights and were frequently abused. For example, 11 million African slaves were transported to the western hemisphere between the 15th and 19th centuries.

Time (short-term vs long-term)

Short-term – few years. Example: Work permit holders in Singapore such as maids from Indonesia and construction workers from Bangladesh.

Long-term – permanent residency. In Singapore, they are those who have obtained citizenship. Singapore had about 19 000 new citizens in 2010

Type of labour in transnational migration (skilled vs unskilled labour)

- Skilled labour - any worker who has some special skill, knowledge, or ability in their work. Examples of skilled labour include doctors, managers, engineers and technicians

- Unskilled labour - any worker who does not possess any special skill, knowledge or ability in their work and therefore can mainly perform simple manual tasks. Unskilled jobs thus require hardly any formal education, training and experience.

Causes of migration

Push factors

- Economic factors: Low income levels and high rates of unemployment due to a lack of jobs are key reasons for people to move away from a place. Rural areas tend to have high rates of unemployment as technological change in agriculture via mechanisation reduces labour needs

- Social factors: lack of educational opportunities at the place of origin. However, the most significant social reason for migration is cultural practices such as marriage, whereby in most LDCs, the bride is expected to move into her husband’s place of residence

- Environmental factors: Inhospitable climates such as cold temperatures and arid conditions deter settlement and tend to motivate residents to move to other areas. Natural disasters, such as earthquakes and droughts can cause famine and crop failures which motivate people to move to other areas in search of a better quality of life.

- Political factors: refugees seeking political freedom for fear of persecution for reasons such as differences in race, religion, nationality or political opinions. For example, the Rwandan Genocide in 1994 led to massive emigration of Hutus into neighbouring Congo. Governments can also implement forced relocations

Pull factors

- Economic factors: People are attracted to places where they can find better paying jobs and enjoy better quality of lifestyle such as better housing furnishings, more entertainment facilities, and so on

- Social factors: reunification of families. People tend to be attracted to areas that have a similar identity to their own, or possess a culture of tolerance and acceptance of diversity. This has led to the formation of ethnic enclaves such as the various Chinatowns all over the world.

- Environmental factors: favourable climates with ample precipitation, fertile soils and scenic locations which attract people to such locations

- Political factors: countries with liberal democratically elected governments are favoured destination locations. In some countries, government migration policies can also serve as a pull factor. For example, the Indonesian Transmigration Policy and the Brazil Frontierway Policy offered the promise of land or peasant farmers, who migrated in large numbers to the peripheral areas of the two countries

Factors affecting Migration Process

Migrant’s access to information

- Can come from mass media and social networks. The information may change the individual’s perspective on the potential migration locations.

- Chain migration: Initial migrates to a country would send letters and postcards, detailing information of the country. This may cause the relatives to migrate as well. Eg: Mexico to US

Migrant’s access to transport

- Mass public transport systems has led to the movement of huge numbers of people for migration

- Spread of road networks and highways have caused the internal movement of people

- Lowered cost of air travel has increased the transnational movement of people

Migrability of Person

- Age groups: Younger people aged 15-35 years are more likely to migrate as they are more mobile. This marks the start of their working career and so they wish to grab as many opportunities as they can. Young people have lesser personal ties and responsibilities unlike older people. In DCs, there is retirement migration, where those aged 60-70 years migrate to more relaxed places to retire.

- Gender: In DCs, due to gender equality, there is almost equal number of men and women who migrate. In LDCs, generally, it is the male who migrates more as their traditional responsibility is to find food for the family, while the women is to stay and home and care for the children. However, in south Southeast Asian countries, most migrants are females as they perform domestic jobs and factory jobs.

- Level of Education: Generally, highly educated and skilled people tend to have lesser barriers to migration, particularly if potential destination regions or countries are experiencing a shortage of workers possessing such skills.

- Stage of Life Cycle: In most contemporary societies, it is expected that young adults will leave their parents’ home, establish an independent household, get a job, marry, and have children. Each of these several phases may lead to a move to a different location. Among young couples, the smaller the family and the younger the children, the greater the probability of migration, but once a child is old enough to start school, the temptation to move seems to go down.

Patterns of recent Migratory flows

Patterns of Transnational Migration

The volume of transnational migration has been increasing since the 1960s

- 145 million people lived outside their native countries in the mid-1990s and this number is increasing every year. Since 1960, the more developed regions have been net gainers of emigrants from the less developed regions. During 1990 – 2000, the more developed regions were gaining 2.6 million migrants annually

- Asia (1.4 million out-migrants annually) was by far the major source of migrants between 1990 – 2000, followed by Northern America (1.3 million annually), Latin America and the Caribbean (0.8 million annually)

- In 2010, the total number of international migrants in the world was estimated at 214 million people – up from 191 million in 2005. Given that the estimated number of internal migrants is 740 million, around a billion people are migrants

The pattern of transnational migration is that most LDCs show negative net migration rates while most DCs show positive net migration rates.

- People move from LDCs to DCs in search of better economic opportunities

- Emancipation of women in DCs has led to their inclusion in the workforce, creating a growing market for their services, especially in domestic and healthcares services. This has led to a large increase in the number of migrants to take up these jobs. Around 11million Filipinos work overseas with a majority of them female and working as domestic helpers or in hospice industries

Several regions are economic magnets which attract large numbers of immigrants

- Economic magnets: regions with high rates of economic growth and expanding economies. Includes the NIEs of Asia, the Middle East, and some countries of Latin America

- High number of migrants to NIEs can be due to the rapid growth of their economies. For example, as Singapore expands into the tertiary and quaternary industries, it has led to a chronic shortage of labour for jobs in the primary and secondary industries which does not require very skilled labour. This leads to a large flow of unskilled labour in Singapore. Another example is of Indonesian workers migrating to Malaysia to work in oil palm plantations

- Economic centres like Singapore and Hong Kong have been attracting large numbers of migrants, who may take up residence here. (Women)

Patterns of National Migration

Urban-urban rural migration in DCs

- The outward movement of population in North America and Europe has caused many metropolises to experience a net loss of population. This slowing down of growth rates in the larger cities is part of a decentralisation process from the bigger cities to the smaller ones

- With the advent of globalisation, companies wanting to lower production costs would build production lines in smaller cites while the headquarters remain in the big cities

Urban-rural national migration in DCs

- Retirement migration – With an ageing population, retirement migration would increase. Affluent retirees from towns and cities would migrate to the countryside to enjoy the better environment there

- Since the 1960s, in USA, there has been substantial migration from the Frostbelt (northern areas) to Sunbelt states (Florida, California), which offers more opportunities for outdoor recreation. As the retirees are freed from personal responsibilities, they are relatively more mobile and prefer to enjoy their retirement in warmer climates. In fact, many towns and villages in the UK, such as Slapton, are dominated by elderly people

- It is also found in LDCs, albeit on a smaller scale. It usually takes the form of return or reverse migration, when migrants return to their place of origin after having worked in the destination

Rural-urban national migration in LDCs

- Most dominant pattern of migratory flows in LDCs. Undertaken mainly by lowly-skilled, poverty stricken workers who have been displaced as a result of technological advancement in agriculture. Examples include Mumbai in India, and Mexico City in Mexico

- Land fragmentation: in traditional societies in LDCs, when a farmer dies, he allows the farmland to be shared equally among all his children. When the plots become too small and inefficient to be farmed as a result of environmental degradation, these farmers move to urban areas to find a job and earn an income

- Traditionally, males are the main agents of migration. However, with globalisation and emancipation of women in DCs, there has been a growing market for domestic and healthcare services which women provide. This has led to an increase of women migrating into the cities. Examples include Malaysia and Thailand

Rural-rural national migration in LDCs

- Virgin land development – The development of new agricultural lands have encouraged people to move from overcrowded land areas to newly developed lands. Such migrations have been widely encouraged to spread population and development into relatively empty areas, raising their productivity and the income of the settlers in them. Previously, opening of a new piece of land was done individually. However, currently, it is done in the form of government settlement schemes

- Irrigation project development - brings water and increase the economic opportunity to previously dry areas

- Eradication of pests and diseases – With the eradication of pests and diseases, the land would be fit for human and economic survival. An example would be the Anchau settlement in Nigeria in 1937. With the eradication of the tsetse fly, some 4300 people were resettled under this scheme.

- Popular movements associated with seasonal employment in agriculture - The demand for agricultural labour fluctuates throughout the year being generally heaviest at planting and harvest time. Many of them move to work for wages in private farms, commercial plantations, timber concessions and mines.

Patterns of recent Migratory flows

Impacts on places of origins/source

Reduces overpopulation – High rates of population growth, especially in LDCs, could result in unemployment when the economy does not grow in tandem with population growth. Due to technological advances in agriculture, this has led to a lessened need for manual labour. Hence, there is out-migration from the countryside to cities.

Transfer of technology - Professionals working overseas gain valuable foreign technology which they can then use to provide growth stimuli in their own countries

Provide important remittances - Migrants’ remittances provide an important source of funds for many LDCs. It was estimated that workers’ remittance globally exceeded US$250 billion in 2006. In many LDCs, these remittances allow the migrants family to improve their standard of living and quality of life through education and healthcare. It could also improve the conditions of the area in terms of infrastructure such as medical facilities and social infrastructure such as education.

Reduced population pressure on the land - The moving out of people from overpopulated locations such as villages reduces the pressure on the land and prevents potential problems such as overgrazing.

Loss of human capital (brain drain) – Highly educated workers leave LDCs to work in DCs. This leads to a loss of intellectual resources from LDCs which are trying very hard to improve their economies. An example is India, where the education has led to a creation of highly trained professionals who have migrated to other countries such as USA. In terms of internal migration, migrants who are highly skilled would move out of their origin. Without a skilled labour force, foreign investors are less likely to invest in the source area, thereby lowering potential growth in the area.

Changes in population structure - Transnational migrants are frequently young male adults. Hence, emigration from rural areas in LDCs results in demographic ageing and depopulation and a higher ratio of females

Impacts on places of destination

Source of human resources – Most countries have restrictive immigration policies, where they only allow people who have the skills which are in shortage. Migrants help to ease the labour shortages in these countries and facilitate economic growth

Permit growth with lower inflation - Migrants increase the amount of labour in the destination countries and this lowers the unit labour cost. This allows the economy of the host country to grow with lower inflation

Contribute to cultural enrichment - Migrants bring with them attitudes, outlooks, ideas and aspirations which contribute to the cultural enrichment of the destination countries

Slow down population ageing – as most migrants are young and in their reproductive years, they can reduce the ageing population and help increase birth rates

Creation of political and social tensions - This is because migrants are often seen as imposing costs on society especially if they are unemployed and are dependent on an already overstretched social welfare, health and education & services. The issue of a national identity and social conflict arise when diverse groups of migrants fail to integrate

Increased pollution - Increased population pressure could result in the creation of squatter settlements and their associated pollution problems

Impacts on migrants

Increased earning, employment opportunities and better quality of life - Migrants tend to be able to have greater employment opportunities and earn more in their host countries compared to their home countries. This enables them to potentially lead a better quality of life with their increased earning power

Face discrimination – differences in terms of culture, language, behaviour and ethnicity might lead to hostility and discrimination from the host country’s people. They are seen as different and competing for jobs with the locals

Separations from family, relatives and friends – Migrants might experience mental stress and homesickness from being separated from their family, friends and relatives. In fact, recently, there have been an increasing number of maid deaths as they could not take the homesickness. With the advent of technology such as telephone, their mental stress have alleviated somewhat, but it is still a daunting experience to work overseas in unfamiliar settings

Refer to lecture notes for impact on nationhood, identity and feminisation of labour