Film Genre Analysis

Module 7 Film/television genres

Objectives: In completing this module, you will be able to:
- understand and apply different approaches for analyzing genre: formalist, audience analysis, and ideological.
- understand the history and evolution of advertising and the forces shaping that history
- devise different genre analysis activities for use in the classroom
- understand and analysis characteristics of different types of genres for the genres described in this module
- present specific characteristics of specific genres not necessarily included in this module to your peers.

There are a wide range of different types of film genres: detective, action/adventure, mystery, science fiction, horror, gangster, romance, comedy, musical,
comedy, animation, detective, spy thriller, as well as specific television genres: game show, prime-time drama, sports broadcast, soap opera, musical, medical drama, news, pro-wrestling, reality-television, talk-show. It is often difficult to identify a particular movie or television show as a primary example of a particular genre because a movie or show may contain elements reflecting different genres. The television show Buffy the Vampire Slayer contains elements of science fiction, horror, action-adventure, and comedy. (For links to different genres of television shows: http://www.specialweb.com/tv/shows.html A genre may also have its own original format invented for or original to a movie or show (Creeber, 2001). While genres are not original, format is “a production category with relatively rigid boundaries that are difficult to transgress without coming up with a new format” (p. 7). For example, certain talk shows such as The Jerry Springer Show or wrestling shows exploit the format of “live” television—the spontaneity of unpredictable action that occurs when a show is broadcast live.

Google: film genres http://directory.google.com/Top/Arts/Movies/Genres/ JahSonic.com: film genres http://www.jahsonic.com/FilmGenre.html Science Daily Encyclopedia: film genres http://www.sciencedaily.com/encyclopedia/list_of_movie_genres The Free Dictionary: film genres http://encyclopedia.thefreedictionary.com/Film%20Genres Moviegoods: film genres http://www.moviegoods.com/dyn_browseCategory.asp?mgaid=goto+film+genre&OVRAW=Film%20Genres&OVKEY=film%20genre&OVMTC=standard For a film genre curriculum: Film Education: Genres: http://www.filmeducation.org/secondary/concept/filmandgenre/docs/frameset.html Dan Chandler: an overview of genre approaches to media http://www.aber.ac.uk/media/Documents/intgenre/intgenre.html Different Perspectives on Genre Study

There are several different perspectives on studying film/television genres, perspectives that draw on the different critical approaches described in Module 4. Each of these critical approaches provides a different way of studying genres. Formalist/structuralist Approach
A formalist/structuralist perspective focuses primarily on identifying both the prototypical “semantic building blocks” of a text and “syntax” of how a particular text interacts with a particular cultural context (Altman, 1995).

Semantic Components. The “semantic” components of a particular genre (roles, settings, imagery, plot, themes/values assumptions) are what filmmakers draw on to construct a genre text:

- roles: roles of hero, heroine, sidekick, alien, monster, criminal, cowboy, mentor, detective, femme fatale, villain, talk-show host., etc. As part of these roles, gender roles are often portrayed in stereotypical ways, as parodied in the short film, Battle of the Sexes. http://www.ifilm.com/ifilm/media/player2/1,4566,123756,00.html?fid=123756&lid=&refsite=3641&rcid=&prn=&it=&pop=&sid= - settings: the prototypical setting or world associated with a genre, for example:
- western: wide open vistas of the Western plains/dessert; the small-town
- gangster: dark, urban, back-street settings
- soap opera: indoor, upper-middle class setting
- spy-thriller: exotic, often urban international setting
- science-fiction: futuristic worlds
- game shows: large studios with lavish prizes displayed

- imagery: certain prototypical, archetypal images (black = evil, vs. white = good) or symbols (the sheriff’s badge, water as initiation) associated with a setting or world.

- plot/storyline: predictable narrative sequences of events, for example, in a crime drama, the problem/solution structure: (
-What is the typical problem?--crime
-Who solves the problem?--the tough cop
-With what means?--violence
-Towards what end?--show that crime doesn 't pay

- themes/value assumptions reflected in the text:
- What 's the problem?--We live in a crime-ridden-world
- Who solves the problem?—Cops, who need to be tough.
- By what means/tools do they solve the problem?-- Eye for an eye, tooth for a tooth") - For what larger thematic reason?--Criminals need to be locked up.

Syntactic components. The syntactic perspective examines the particular arrangements between these building blocks—the ways in which a filmmaker has structured a text (Altman, 1995). Altman cites the example of semantic components of the western as consisting of the open, natural setting; the cowboy/sheriff and the values of the “wild west.” A syntactic perspective focuses more on the relationships between the elements of culture versus nature, frontier versus civilization, community versus individual, and future versus past. The semantic perspective is more applicable to generalizations about large number of films that share similar components. The syntactic perspective is more applicable to explaining how these components work to create meaning.

Focusing on both perspectives helps Altman deal with the range of different examples that could be loosely associated with a particular genre and the challenge of generalizing about a particular genre text. Drawing on both perspective also helps recognize that the semantic components of different genres often overlap as they evolve. He illustrates this with the science fiction genre:

At first defined only by a relatively stable science fiction semantics, the genre first began borrowing the syntactic relationships previously established by the horror film, only to move in recent years increasingly toward the syntax of the western. By maintaining simultaneous descriptions according to both parameters, we are not likely to fall into the trap of equating Star Wars (George Lucus, 1977) with the western (as numerous recent critics have done), even though it shares certain syntactic patterns with that genre (p. 35).

There is also a major tension in genre analysis between the conventional, familiar, formulaic texts, and new forms of genre that challenge the old. As Henry Jenkins http://web.mit.edu/21fms/www/faculty/henry3/genre.html notes, genre texts contain both invention—novel experimentation with the form--and convention—the familiar aspects of the form:

A genre is a "kind" of work, suggesting an exercise in classification, but genres are also formulas that artists draw upon for the production of artworks and conventions that enable consumers to make sense of new works based on their knowledge of previous works in the same category. Genres should not be understood as rules or restrictions so much as enabling mechanisms that allow popular culture to be easily consumed and broadly appreciated. All works are born from a mixture of invention and convention. A work that is pure invention is unlikely to be fully understood or appreciated; a work that is pure convention is likely to be boring and uninteresting. Popular aesthetics centers around this effort then to reach the right balance between invention and convention.

Audience-based Approaches. An audience-based approach assumes that the meaning of a genre lies in the audiences’ application of their own knowledge of the conventions of genre-construction. Rather than assuming that a movie or program must be a certain type, this approach posits that a movie or program is a certain type depending on the particular conventions audiences apply to a text.

Given their background knowledge and attitudes, one audience may perceive a movie as an action/adventure film, while another audience may perceive it as a horror film. This approach emphasizes the processes of applying genre-knowledge conventions as central to constructing the meaning of a genre. It assumes that audiences acquire more sophisticated knowledge of these conventions through increased experience in viewing a genre. These conventions include audiences’ use of their genre know-how to:

- predict story outcomes based on applying knowledge of prototypical storylines—for example, predicting that at the end of a romantic comedy, differences plaguing a couple’s relationship will be resolved, or predicting that a detective will sort through conflicting clues to solve a murder.

- identify the symbolic meaning of images, techniques, or characters’ practices—for example, knowing that images of black or darkness in film noir or a gangster film represents evil; that suddenly breaking into song in the musical is a familiar, if not unrealistic technique; or that the sidekick figure is often attuned to the local environment or world in ways that assist the hero.

- infer the function or role of the setting or context to explain characters’ actions—for example, knowing that the eerie noise or music in a horror movie is signaling the potential for something dire will occur, or knowing that the “live-audience” setting for the talk show serves to enhance the talk-show host’s sense of performing for both a live and a television audience.

Audiences also enjoy complex variations of traditional genres which invite them to apply their know-how to interpret a film or program, particularly when they are faced with deviations from the prototypical genre. The degree to which audiences construct their own meaning of genre texts is evident in television program fan clubs whose members demonstrate their expertise and knowledge about the conventions of a program through on-line exchanges. http://www.fandom.tv/

Moreover, the experience of genre texts is akin to a ritual-like experience associated with folklore and myth that functions in ways that reify audiences’ own cultural beliefs and attitudes (Schatz, 1995). Rather than simply focusing on the components of the Western, in adopting an audience-based perspective, students would examine the Western more as a cultural and social myth that served to define and perpetuate Hollywood representations of the American West. At the same time, novel variations of a genre challenge audiences’ presuppositions about prototypical genre development and roles. In the following four-minute clip, professor/director Bette Gordon argues that contemporary films attempt to do more than simply entertain—they also seek to challenge audiences to grapple with their own values: http://www.columbia.edu/cu/news/media/00/betteGordon/index.html An audience-based approach also attempts to examine how and why certain genres have an appeal for certain audiences in certain cultural periods. For example, in the early seventies, the outlaw-couple gangster films—Bonnie and Clyde, Badlands, Thieves Like Us, and The Sugarland Express—held an appeal to a young audience disenchanted with what they termed “the establishment” (Grant, 1995).

Critical/Ideological Analysis of Genres
Given their prototypical nature, genre films and television programs are ideologically traditional—they reflect values constituting status quo, dominant institutional forces. This suggests the need for another approach in conducting genre analysis: analyzing the ways in which genres not only reflect ideological values, but also how they serve to position audiences in ways that are associated with the interests and agendas of dominant institutional forces creating genre texts. This entails analyzing, as Henry Giroux (1996) argues, “how privileged, dominant readings of such texts construct their power-sensitive meanings to generate particular subject positions that define for children specific notions of agency and its possibilities in society” (p. 100).

For example, using the problem/solution structure (see above), analysis of the law-and-order urban police detective can demonstrate that audiences are often positioned to believe that crime is best solved by violent control as a deterrent, as opposed to alternative approaches—reducing poverty, providing jobs, instituting drug prevention programs, or enhancing education. Moreover, such shows often invite audiences to position people of color as the “urban criminal” who needs to be controlled. Such readings should not entail political or pedagogical indoctrination, but should invite students to examine multiple, alternative interpretations that may or may not coincide with the institutionally-desired subject positions.

Specific genres construct desired stances for certain targeted audiences. The so-called “family film” http://www.startribune.com/stories/1553/2911104.html removes much of the violence and sexual content so that children and parents can view the film together. The “teen” film—romantic comedies, slasher horror, or coming-of-age films, as well as television drama series such as Dawson’s Creek—is designed to appeal to a potentially large adolescent audience. And various television shows position themselves to appeal to particular audiences with particular interests in fishing, home repair, travel, cooking, sports, music, art, religion, technology, etc., and construct their programs around audience’s familiarity with the conventions and discourses associated with examining and sharing information about that topic. For example, the evangelical television show mimics a church-like setting, often with a choir, a “minister,” and various guests who share testimonials about religious conversions.

In responding to the desired institutional stances, audiences evoke their own counter-stances. While females in soap opera fan clubs may organize themselves around a belief in the value of romantic attachment to males as being the most important value in life, they may also challenge the traditional norms of genres by creating their own alternative versions, reflecting their counter-values (see also module on media ethnography). As Henry Jenkins argues, http://web.mit.edu/21fms/www/faculty/henry3/collective%20intelligence.html audiences now operate in a new digitally-mediated participatory culture in which members of fan clubs and active Internet users with ready access to media texts can collect, archive, alter, and share media texts with others as part of their subcultural participation and identity as active audiences.
For example, members of Star Trek fan clubs create their own versions of Star Trek programs in the form of edited videos or fanzine stories (Jenkins, 1992). These edited videos or fanzines might, for example, introduce homoerotic themes into the stories, such as Spock and Kirk engaging in a homosexual relationship. In constructing these virtual worlds, the Internet users and fan-club members are resisting or rejecting the discourses of bureaucratic management or traditional middle-class values to adopt alternative discourses of sexual desire and expression. Or, audiences may role-play performances of The Rocky Horror Picture Show, in which they mimic and parody culturally-dominant
discourses.

In a study of a group of communication studies graduate students who met weekly to watch television as a social event, John Fiske (1994) examined the group 's responses to the situation comedy, Married... With Children, a Fox Network parody of family values with a focus on sexuality. These graduate students made intertextual references to a number of different groups’ competing discourses. One of these discourses was the network’s own discourse of merchandising. The program 's advertisements for McDonald 's or Nike were typically geared for an adolescent market whose members would enjoy watching a comedy about parents coping with adolescent problems. The students often purchased McDonald 's hamburgers to eat during the viewing of the program, thereby commenting about or parodying these ads ' discourse of merchandising. The students also made references to a "family values" discourse of religion employed by a conservative group whose objections to the “immoral” portrayal of sexuality on the program led them to launch a campaign to boycott companies who advertise on the program, creating a tension between a discourse of religion and a discourse of merchandising. Members of the group would note aspects of the program deemed to be potentially objectionable by this and other conservative organizations. The group also responded to the program 's parody of discourses regarding romance and sex by referring to their own romantic and sexual relationships.

Students could also analyze how institutional forces use genres to create fantasy, idealized versions of how problems are solved, who solves the program, and the types of tools employed to solve the problem. For example, films about the Vietnam War http://members.aol.com/warlib/10viet.htm http://www.vietnamwar.net/vwfilms/vwfilms.htm portray the “problem” either as a lack of military effort, determination, or patriotism in wanting to “win” the war (as in The Green Berets with John Wayne, a version of reality consistent with the western genres of “good” versus “evil” promoted by conservative, military institutional forces) or as a failure to understand the complexities of the Vietnam culture and civil war as in Apocalypse Now, Born on the Fourth of July, Full Metal Jacket, Platoon, and The Deer Hunter. These alternative versions of the same “problem” reflect not only different ideological positions, but also different institutional agendas.

The History and Evolution of Genres
Genre analysis also includes understanding the evolution of a genre over time. Genres change and develop because of changes in the culture or historical period in which the genre is being produced. The Western solo hero who was popular in the 1940s and 1950s evolved into the group of heroes in the 1960s and 1970s with Rawhide and Bonanza—shows that reflected a shift in the workplace to that of the group in the corporation or company during that time. And, with the increasing interest in urban crime and international espionage in the 1970s and 1980s, the Western was replaced by the police/detective and the spy/thriller genres.

Genres also gain popularity with certain audiences who seek out these genres given the historical or cultural forces operating in a certain period. During the Great Depression, audiences flocked to movie houses to view Hollywood romantic comedies as a way of escaping the grim realities of everyday lives characterized by poverty and deprivation. The nature of the threat in science fiction movies also shifts to reflect changes in fears or threats facing societies. During the 1930s and 1940s, Americans expressed racial fears, as manifested in the rise of the Klu Klux Klan, and in the film, King Kong.

During the 1990s, with the increased production of films and the control of media conglomerates over the types of films being made, an increasing number of formulaic genre films were produced. Film studios needed to attract large audiences in order to make a return profit on the millions they invested in high-production, special-effects films, so they turned to safe, familiar genres and sequels. As Wheeler Dixon (2000) argues:

What audiences today desire more than ever before is “more of the same,” and studios, scared to death by rising production and distribution costs, are equally loathe to strike out in new generic directions. Keep audiences satisfied, strive to maintain narrative closure at all costs, and keep within the bounds of heterotopic romance, no matter what genre one is ostensibly working in. Yet, at the same time, the studios must present these old fables in seductive new clothing, with high budgets, major stars, lavish sets, and (if the genre demands it) unremitting action to disguise the secondhand nature of the contemporary genre film (p. 8).

Film versus television genres. There are some important differences between film and television genres. Film genres (see list below) tend to be more general, for example, the western, action/adventure, comedy, horror, science fiction, etc., while television genres (see list below) are often specialized, for example, cooking shows, sports-talk shows, children’s animation, etc. A film that is representative of a certain film genre also tends to be self-enclosed—the conflicts are often resolved within the film, even with film sequels. In contrast, a television genre program tends to be part of a serial, in which a storyline may continue and develop or characters may evolve across different programs.

List of film genres: http://dir.yahoo.com/Entertainment/Movies_and_Film/Genres/ http://www.angelfire.com/al/icia/genres.html http://www.moviegoods.com/dyn_browseCategory.asp?mgaid=goto+film+genre http://www.imdb.com/Sections/Genres/types_all http://www.filmsite.org/ List of television genres: http://uk.dir.yahoo.com/News_and_Media/Television/Genres/ http://dmoz.org/Arts/Television/Programs/ http://news.siteseek.com/dir/News/Television/Genres/ Resources/readings on film/television genres: http://www.ryerson.ca/mgroup/tvcrit.html http://www.amelie-themovie.com/Genres/index.html

For further reading on film/television genres:
Altman, R. (1999). Film/genre. London: British Film Institute
Browne, N. (Ed.) (1998). Refiguring American film genres: History and theory. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
Creeber, G., Miller, T., & Tulloch, J. (Eds.). (2001). The Television Genre Book. London: British Film Institute.
Dixon, W. (2000). Film genre 2000: New critical essays. Albany: State University of New York Press,
Elsaesser, T., & Buckland, W. (2002). Studying contemporary American films: A guide to movie analysis. London: Arnold.
Fischer, L. (1996). Cinematernity: Film, motherhood, genre. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
Grodal, T. (1997). Moving pictures: A new theory of film genres, feelings, and cognition. New York: Oxford University Press.
Grant, B. K. (Ed.). (2003). Film genre reader III. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.
Mittell, J. (2004). Genre and television: From cop shows to cartoons in American culture. New York: Routledge.
Neale, S. (2000). Genre and Hollywood. New York: Routledge.
Neale, S. (Ed.). (2002). Genre and contemporary Hollywood. London: British Film Institute.
Strong, J., Dowd, G., & Stevenson, L. (2003). Genre: Media, meaning and definitions. Bristol, UK: Intellect.

Devising Genre-analysis Activities
For one or more of the different genre types, create your own genre-analysis activities, webquests, or units. In doing so, you need to work both deductively and inductively. You need to provide students with some background theory in terms of the roles, settings, storylines, themes, and value assumptions unique to each genre. At the same time, you need to draw on their prior knowledge of and experience with films or programs associated with a specific genre so that they are connecting the theory to their own experiences. And, once you have modeled your own analysis of genre features across different films or programs, you can then turn to them to have them construct their own connections.

In devising activities, webquests, or units on genres, consider including the following:
- illustrative examples of the different components of a genre using URL links to clips of the different components. For a site with clips from different genres: http://www.ifilm.com/ifilm/all_movies/0,4229,,00.html

- strategies for inductively defining similarities or patterns across these different examples so that students are making valid generalizations about genre components.

- analysis of the representations of gender, class, race, age, region, cultures, and social practices typically found in genres, for example, how Native Americans were represented in the Western (see module on media representations).

- analysis of the problem/solution structure in terms of the nature of the problem, who solves the problem, how the problem is solved, and the final resolution of the problem.

- awareness of how students draw on their own beliefs and attitudes to construct the meaning of genres. You can surface these beliefs and attitudes by having them reflect on the value assumptions associated with the problem/solution structure. For example, in the police/detective genre, the hero must often resort to violence to cope with violent crime—an “eye for an eye, tooth for a tooth” morality. Do students subscribe to such a value assumption? What are reasons why they do or do not subscribe to this value assumption given their beliefs and attitudes?

- understanding the history and evolution of a genre, particularly in terms of how changes in the genre reflected changes in audiences’ beliefs and attitudes across different decades.

- creation of students own abstracts of genres that one might find in a TV guide, genre story scripts, parodies of a genre, or a video/Imovie production. Doing this activity allows students to demonstrate their familiarity with certain genre conventions.

DIFFERENT GENRE TYPES

There are numerous web-based resources for studying about different film/television genres. One of the best is Tim Dirks’ web site: http://www.filmsite.org/ which provides extensive information about a wide range of different genres.

Action/adventure

Action/adventure films typically involve high-budget portrayals of main characters engaged in a series of dramatic, dangerous events involving narrow escapes, fights, or rescues, all filmed in a face-paced style that keeps audiences wondering if the hero or heroine will make it out alive at the end of the film. In films such as Twister, Titanic, Jurassic Park, Tomorrow Never Dies, Armageddon, the Die Hard series, Lethal Weapon series, Terminator 2, there is a lot of hyperbolic, sensationalized violence that mirrors the violence found in computer games. During the 1990s, films within this genre such as Last Action Hero, Face/Off, Con Air, and Snake Eyes, reflected a more postmodern direction towards interrogating the often mindless action of the genre itself (Welsh, 2000).

Action/adventure films: http://www.filmsite.org/actionfilms.html http://www.filmsite.org/adventurefilms.html http://www.imdb.com/Sections/Genres/Action/ 50 top adventure films http://www.imdb.com/Charts/Votes/adventure Cop action films http://www.crimeculture.com/Contents/80sCopFilms.html’ Action/adventure TV shows: http://dmoz.org/Arts/Television/Programs/Action/ http://entertainment.lycos.com/television/guide/action_index.asp

Action films tend to be geared more for adolescents and adults and adventure films tend to be geared more for children, but there are a lot of exceptions. There are also a number of subgenres in this category, for example, disaster, spy thriller/espionage, historical episodes/military, jungle/ wilderness exploration, martial arts, treasure hunters, vigilante, and mythic adventure. http://dir.yahoo.com/Entertainment/Movies_and_Film/Titles/Action_and_Adventure/ One of the most important subgenres is the road movie as in Bonnie & Clyde, Thieves Like Us, Easy Rider, The Wild Ones, Bad Lands, Grapes of Wrath, The Wizard of Oz, True Romance, Two-Lane Blacktop, Convoy, Wild at Heart, Two for the Road, Grapes of Wrath, Kalifornia, Pow Wow Highway, Sugarland Express, Natural Born Killers, Rain Man, Smoke Signals, and O Brother, Where Art Thou? http://www.hackwriters.com/roadone.htm http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/roadmovies.html http://directory.google.com/Top/Arts/Movies/Genres/Road_Movies/ In these movies, characters attempt to escape what they believe are the constraints and limits of society to attempt to discover and experience new forms of freedom on the road. In some cases, they are attempting to escape the law or are on a crime spree. The launch out on a quest in which they encounter, as did the heroes of fantasy quests, various challenges and adventures. They also begin to discover things about themselves. The appeal of the road movie reflects the larger cultural need to explore uncharted, new territories as a way of redefining one’s identity—the idea of the “West” as a place in which one could start over as a new person. Thelma and Louise was an important film in that it challenged the male-dominated nature of the genre by portraying the road quest of two female heroines.

These subgenres reflect and draw on other genres, including police/detective, adventure fantasy, science fiction, video animation/games. For example, the martial arts films of Bruce Lee/Jackie Chan, as well as The Karate Kid films, Sidekicks, Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, Mortal Kombat, The Matrix, Crouching Tiger Hidden Dragon, contain elements of a these different subgenres (Desser, 2000).

In some cases, certain actors have become associated with this genre, creating their own action-hero role prototype: in addition to Lee and Chan, actors Arnold Schwarzenegger, Clint Eastwood, Harrison Ford, Mel Gibson, Dwayne "The Rock" Johnson, Chuck Norris, Steve McQueen, Sylvester Stallone, Jean-Claude Van Damme, John Wayne, Bruce Willis, Charles Bronson, Charlton Heston, and actresses, Sandra Bullock, Ashley Judd, and Michelle Yeoh.

Action/adventure films also tend to spawn sequels such as the series that began with Raiders of the Lost Ark, leading to Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom and Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade, or the Tarzan adventure films: Tarzan, the Ape Man, Tarzan and His Mate, Tarzan Escapes, Tarzan Finds a Son, Tarzan 's Secret Treasure, and Tarzan 's New York Adventure.

Media Awareness Network: The Blockbuster Movie http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/resources/educational/lessons/secondary/movies/blockbuster_movie.cfm Disaster Online: disaster films http://disasteronline.tripod.com/ About Action Adventure films http://actionadventure.about.com/ The Action Kings http://www.geocities.com/theactionkings/ Webquest: Titanic: An Unsinkable Disaster http://www.vordingbg-gym.dk/km/titanic/assignments.htm For further reading:
Inness, S. (2004). Action chicks: New images of tough women in popular culture. New York: Palgrave.
King, G. (2001). Spectacular narratives: Hollywood in the age of the blockbuster. New York:
I.B. Tauris
Osgerby, B., & Gough-Yates, G. (Eds.). (2001). Action TV: Tough guys, smooth operators and foxy chicks. New York: Routledge.
Tasker, Y. (1993). Spectacular bodies: Gender, genre and the action cinema. New York: Routledge.

The Western

Western http://dir.yahoo.com/Entertainment/Movies_and_Film/Genres/Westerns/ http://www.filmsite.org/westernfilms.html http://www.imdb.com/Sections/Genres/Western/ http://www.lewestern.com/ films such as High Noon, Stagecoach, Red River, The Magnificent Seven, or Unforgiven, and television shows such as Bonanza, Gunsmoke, Have Gun—Will Travel, Johnny Ringo, The Lone Ranger, The Annie Oakley Show, The Roy Rogers/Dale Evans Show, Dr. Quinn, Medicine Woman, Rawhide, Sky King, or The Young Riders, is no longer as popular as it was in the 1940s to 1960s. However, it is perhaps one of the most definitive of all genres in terms of consistent adherence to the cowboy hero role and the value assumptions associated with the small western-town setting of the last half of the 19th century. The cowboy hero was typically an “outsider” who was not tied down to “the town” or “women”/family. He (rarely she) would be brought in to deal with the problem—bank robbery, cattle rustling, murder, etc., because the local sheriff and/or townspeople were not able to or lacked the expertise to deal with the problem. This portrayal of the “outsider” who was not part of the system as the agent best able to cope with the problem reflected an ideology of individualism that Ronald Reagan, himself a former actor in Westerns, evoked in running for President as the “outsider” who would clean up and reduce the “Washington bureaucracy.” The settings for the Western were often wide-open vistas and landscapes that conveyed the idea of the American West as “free” and without constraints for individual development and exploitation, again reflecting the ideology of individualism http://www.imagesjournal.com/issue06/infocus/western.htm

This American cultural emphasis on the individual white male hero who expresses his power through his skills with guns contrasts with the Japanese Samurai films in which the hero is made up of a collective group designed to protect society without the use of guns, a reflection of the Japanese cultural value on collective as opposed to individual action. The Hollywood version of the Japanese film, The Seven Samurai, The Magnificent Seven, emphasizes the individual characters’ roles to a greater degree than in the Japanese film: for example, portraying the psychological difficulties of a character who no longer can draw his gun as quickly as he could in the past dramatized by his inability to kill a fly crawling across a table.

While there were a few female western heroes—Dale Evans, Annie Oakley—most of the western heroes were male; females were stereotyped as the “rancher’s daughter” with whom the hero had a fleeting relationship before he rode off into the sunset, the sophisticated “woman from the East,” or the local saloon proprietor, Kitty in Gunsmoke. As with the helpless townspeople, the hero was perceived as the powerful male who could save the female when faced with difficulties—for a 12-minute film, see The Cowboy and the Ballerina http://www.readthewest.com/WesternFilms/interviewIsham.html Native Americans were typically stereotyped as savage “enemies” who needed to be conquered or destroyed as impediments to white western expansion. While the film, Dances with Wolves, portrays Native Americans in a more complex light, the film still privileges a white male perspective on Native American tribal culture.

Later Western films of the 1960s by Sam Peckinpah and “spaghetti”(i.e., Western Italian) director Sergio Leone emphasized more violent, action-packed story elements. During the 1970s, more complex portrayals of the western hero occurred in films such as Robert Altman 's McCabe and Mrs. Miller, in which the seemingly powerful male is challenged by an even stronger and smarter female. More recent Westerns, such as Unforgiven, have introduced heroes who are more conflicted about the “eye-for-an-eye” values of the traditional Western, perhaps reflecting Post-Cold War ambiguities.

Webquest: Western http://curry.edschool.virginia.edu/go/edis771/fall98webquests/student/smelvillekrebs/home.html For further reading:
Buscombe, E., & Pearson, R. (Eds.). (1999). Back in the saddle again: New essays on the western. London: British Film Institute.
Cawelti, J. (1999). The six-gun mystique sequel. New York: Popular Press.
Sauders, J. (2001). The western genre. New York: Wallflower Press.
Slotkin, B. (1999). Gunfighter nation: The myth of the frontier in twentieth-century America. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press.
Walker, J. (Ed.) (2001). Westerns: Films through history. New York: Routledge.

Gangster/Crime

The gangster/crime film portraying the rise and (usually) fall of the gangster/criminal became popular during the 1930s and 1940s with films such as Little Caesar and Scarface, reflecting audiences’ fascination with figures who, such as Gatsby in The Great Gatsby, achieved financial success consistent with the American dream, but did so through illegal means. http://www.geocities.com/~mikemckiernan/ http://www.filmsite.org/crimefilms.html http://www.imdb.com/Sections/Genres/Crime/ http://www.stungunresources.com/1920s_crime_gangster.html Audiences adopted an ambiguous stance towards these characters—they admired their willingness to work hard to achieve success consistent with a “rags to riches” scenario, often through defeating rival gang members, but were repulsed by their use of violence and crime to achieve their goals. The audience also knows the hero is ultimately fated to die or go to prison, given the prevailing value that “crime doesn’t pay.” This ambiguous stance reflects some of the basic contradictions in American culture regarding what constitutes “success”—as defined in terms of financial success and power or as defined in terms of ethical or moral integrity.

During the 1930s, after the Hays Production Code Office objected to the glorification of crime, gangster films focused more on the destruction of the gangster by detective, “gang-fighter” heroes. The gangster/criminal activity from the 1930s to 1950s was associated with bootlegging, racketeering, theft, and bank robbery, as portrayed in Bonnie and Clyde in 1968.

Then, during the 1970s to the 1990s, the gangster film portrayed the ways in which the gangster operated through alternative, more institutionalized criminal activities associated with drugs, extortion, prostitution, and gambling operations, as portrayed in Godfather I, II, III, Goodfellas, Miller’s Crossing, Billy Bathgate, Bugsy, Casino, Prizzi 's Honor, Donnie Brasco, and Reservoir Dogs. More recently, films such as Pulp Fiction, Miller 's Crossing, The Usual Suspects, Fargo, and Jackie Brown, and the television series, The Sopranos, reflect a more ironic, postmodern stance towards crime, combining comic and psychological elements with portrayal of crime.

The setting for the gangster film has typically been dark, urban worlds. One of Martin Scorsese’s early films, Mean Streets, portrayed the world of small-time, petty gangsters who congregated in pool halls and bars of lower Manhattan. One primary reason that the film noir films of the 1940s, such as The Maltese Falcon and The Big Sleep were often gangster/crime films was that the world of those films is often portrayed through the images of dark, back-alley, urban worlds. The role of darkness as associated with criminal activity was reflected in the opening scenes of both The Godfather and The Godfather, Part II. In those scenes, there are large, outdoor parties in which guests are enjoying themselves, scenes bathed in a bright whiteness. These “out-front” party scenes are contrasted with dark “back-room” dealing with The Godfather main characters played by Marlon Brando and Al Pacino granting favors or ordering executions. As with the gangster, audiences adopt ambiguous stances towards the characters in these films, admiring their resistance of constraints, but recognizing that they are not entirely above the law.

Crimeculture: crime film genre http://www.crimeculture.com/Contents/CrimeFilms-5.html Bibliography on Gangster films http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/gangsterbib.html For further reading:
Hardy, P. (Ed.). (2000). The Overlook film encyclopedia: The gangster film.
New York: Overlook Press.
Leitch, T. (2002). Crime films. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Mason, F. (2003). American gangster cinema: From “Little Caesar” to “Pulp Fiction.” New
York: Palgrave.
Munby, J. (1999). Public enemies, Public heroes: Screening the gangster from Little Caesar to
Touch of Evil. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Rafter, N. (2000). Shots in the mirror: Crime films and society. New York: Oxford University Press.
Shadoian, J. (2003). Dreams & dead ends: The American gangster film. New York: Oxford
University Press.

Detective/Film Noir

The detective/film-noir genre http://www.thrillingdetective.com/ http://www.filmsite.org/mysteryfilms.html focuses on the problem of the violation of the law, determining reasons for the violation, identifying possible violators, relying on informants and evidence, coping with mishaps and false leads, revealing the actual violator, and restoring a sense of equilibrium (Miller, 2001).

The 1940s and 1950s film noir genre portrayed the often corrupt world of The Maltese Falcon, The Big Sleep, Double Indemnity, The Killers, Notorious, The Postman Always Rings Twice, Key Largo, The Lady From Shanghai, The Third Man, Sunset Boulevard, The Big Heat, Lady in the Lake, and The Lady from Shanghai,based on detective novels by such writers as Dashiell Hammett and Raymond Chandler. These films, usually made in black and white with low lighting, interior settings, and inventive camera techniques, conveyed a sense of bleak, cynical pessimism—that the institutions of law and order are themselves corrupt. More recent films such as Chinatown, The Long Goodbye, and L.A. Confidential make nostalgic references to these 1940/50 films, particularly in terms of highlighting the corruption of the system

The police/detective/crime television shows http://dmoz.org/Arts/Television/Programs/Dramas/Cop_Shows/ http://dir.yahoo.com/News_and_Media/Television/Shows/Cop_Shows/ http://www.thrillingdetective.com/trivia/detlinks7.html such as Dragnet, Baretta, C.S.I.
(Crime Scene Investigation), Cagney and Lacey, Hill Street Blues, Homicide, Law & Order, Miami Vice, Prime Suspect, Poirot, Inspector Morse, and NYPD Blue develop the main character of the detective in more detail across the series, so that audiences establish a relationship with the character.

The detective/film noir genre focuses on the character of the often cynical, worldly detective figure—Sherlock Holmes, Sam Spade, Charlie Chan, Philip Marlowe, as well as the detectives who appear on PBS’s Mystery Theater: Hercule Poirot, Miss Marple, Adam Dalgliesh, Inspector Morse, Brother Cadfael, Ross Tanner, Chief Inspector Jane Tennison, Hetty Wainsthrop, Dave Creegan, and Cordelia Gray. http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/mystery/detectives/index.html ; see also http://dir.yahoo.com/News_and_Media/Television/Shows/Mystery/

PBS Teaching Guide: The Hound of the Baskervilles http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/masterpiece/hound/tguide.html These detective heroes are often complex figures, whose identity is often
interchangeable with that of the criminal. The thin line between the detective and the criminal was portrayed by Clint Eastwood in the Dirty Harry series in which the detective resorts to violence to achieve his goals.

In addition to the detective hero, there is typically a sidekick, who, as in the Western, lacks the deductive skill of the hero, but who often has access to insider information useful to the hero. There is, particularly in film noir, the figure of the beautiful, but duplicitous femme fatale, who manipulates the hero into actions that benefit her, often at the hero’s expense.

More recent films such as The Last Seduction, Red Rock West, and Croupier, explore new themes of deception/morality, reflecting a post-Vietnam War perspective related to violence and crime.

MysteryNet http://www.mysterynet.com/tvmovies/ Pamela Green: Sherlock Holmes: Teaching English through Detective Fiction http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1989/4/89.04.04.x.html British Film Institute: Ghost Stories on Film http://www.bfi.org.uk/education/resources/teaching/secondary/ghoststories/ Christopher Ingham, The Murder Mystery http://www.lessontutor.com/ci5.html Webquest: Who Killed William Robinson? (an historical mystery) http://web.uvic.ca/history-robinson/ Webquest: Write an historical mystery http://dina17.tripod.com/mywebquest/index.htm For further reading:
Miller, R. (1996). Mystery!: A celebration: stalking public television 's greatest sleuths. New
York: Bay Books.
Muller, E. (1998). Dark city: The lost world of film noir. Boston: St. Martin’s Press.
Spicer, A. (2002). Film noir. New York: Longman.

Comedy

Comedy has been one of the most consistently appealing genres.

Comedy films http://www.filmsite.org/comedyfilms.html http://www.imdb.com/Sections/Genres/Comedy/ http://www.phatnav.com/wiki/wiki.phtml?title=Comedy_film Television comedies http://entertainment.lycos.com/television/guide/comedies_index.asp http://dir.yahoo.com/News_and_Media/Television/Shows/Comedies/ http://www.transparencynow.com/tablesitcom.htm http://www.comedy-zone.net/zones/filmtv.htm http://dmoz.org/Arts/Television/Programs/Comedy/Sitcoms/ http://www.museum.tv/archives/etv/C/htmlC/comedydomes/comedydomes.htm

American Film Institute’s 100 funniest films: http://www.AFI.com/tv/pdf/laughs100.pdf There are a number of different comedy subgenres that vary according to differences in the comic techniques employed.

Mime. Early film comedy that emerged in the silent film era focused on non-verbal pantomime, in which exaggeration and physical dexterity functioned as comic elements. Early stars of this genre were Charlie Chaplin, Harold Lloyd, and Buster Keaton. In Charlie Chaplin’s films, he typically employed sight gags to ridicule and challenge social norms, particularly the pretentiousness of the powerful. For example, in The Rink, he literally runs circles around his opponent, portrayed as a clumsy bully. As such, he represented the “little guy” in society who is able to use his skills to assert his own power. With the development of sound, Chaplin turned to more serious movies, often raising tough questions about social values.

Slapstick. Slapstick involves blatant, overt physical pranks—slipping on a banana peel or attempting to carry a piano up steep stairs, as evident in the early films of Abbott and Costello, Laurel and Hardy, and The Three Stooges, and then later films with Jerry Lewis, the Pink Panther series, and Jim Carrey, which added verbal repartee. Also, much of animation, such as the Road Runner films, consists of physical slapstick.

Parody/satire. Films by Woody Allen, Mel Brooks, and the Marx Brothers, as well as Saturday Night Live engage in parody or ridicule of institutions, traditional social norms, and other genres. In the Woody Allen films such as Bananas, Sleeper, Annie Hall, Manhattan, Zelig The Purple Rose of Cairo, Hannah and Her Sisters, Husbands and Wives, and Bullets Over Broadway, Allen uses witty dialogue to mimic and parody different discourses of therapy, religion, business, sports, and academia. For example, a character who, in standing in line with Allen outside a movie theater, employs pretentious academic language to discuss a film. Television shows such as Rowan and Martin’s Laugh-In, The Smothers Brothers, Monty Python’s Flying Circus, Beavis and Butthead, and Saturday Night Live consist of sketches ridiculing a range of topics, including various television genres.

The parody form itself http://www.fact-index.com/p/pa/parody.html Parody films http://www.inetfilm.com/movies/parody/parody.html Woody Allen sites: http://www.geocities.com/SunsetStrip/Club/9542/woody.html http://members.tripod.com/bestfilms/woody.htm http://www.3rdmandesigns.co.uk/woodycompendium/framed.htm http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Woody_Allen http://www.sensesofcinema.com/contents/directors/03/allen.html http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000095/

Webquest: Mock Marlowe http://homepage.mac.com/sltvandoren/Mock_Marlowe.html Situation comedy. Television situation comedies have made up a large bulk of prime-time television since the 1950s with shows such as I Love Lucy, The Honeymooners, The Phil Silvers Show, Father Knows Best, The Dick Van Dyke Show The Ossie and Harriet Show, My Three Sons, and the later shows, Cheers, Frasier, the Beverly Hillbillies, All in the Family, The Mary Tyler Moore Show , The Cosby Show, Murphy Brown, Ellen, Family Ties, The Jeffersons, Roseanne, Married…With Children, Seinfield, Absolutely Fabulous, Frasier, Friends, Home Improvement, The Simpsons, Mad About You, South Park, King of the Hill, Sports Night, Ed, and Sex and the City.

In the typical comedy storyline, there is a movement from equilibrium to disequilibrium back to equilibrium. Consistent with classical theater comedies of Shakespeare, Moliere, and Wilde, equilibrium is disrupted when characters are confused about each other’s true intentions or their actual status in society. In The I Love Lucy Show, Lucy was often caught up in schemes that led to difficulties with Ricky. Coping with these challenges creates further confusions and disruptions. However, the confusions and mixed identities are eventually straightened out, leading to a happy ending in which challenges to institutional equilibrium are mitigated and society is restored. This means that comedy entails more than just humor—it also represents a basic stance towards institutions. As Northrop Fyre argued, comedy celebrates the restoration of society, in contrast to tragedy, which challenges society.

The roles in comedy are typically one-dimensional prototypes, as opposed to tragic characters who are complex and contradictory. There is often a “buffoon” who is oblivious to what’s going on, the “straight man” who serves as an audience for the main character’s comic lines, the “trickster” who creates pranks, and the “wise elder” who straightens out problems or issues, leading to resolution. In the 1950s, programs such as Ozzie and Harriet, Leave it to Beaver, and Father Knows Best portrayed fathers as omniscient, central, but one-dimensional white-middle class figures. In the 1970’s and 1980’s, All in the Family, Sanford and Son, and The Cosby Show portrayed fathers and mothers a somewhat more realistically. Producer Norman Lear in All in The Family portrayed Archie Bunker as a conservative, bigoted working-class father who is out of touch with changes in contemporary beliefs and attitudes towards class, gender, and race. However, many viewers actually perceived him in a positive light as defending their own conservative values (Pungente & O’Malley, 1999). And, Bill Cosby had hoped that the portrayal of an idealized, successful, upper-middle class Black family on The Cosby Show would enhance race relations in the 1980’s. However, a study of black and white viewer response found quite different reactions from the two groups (Jhally & Lewis, 1992). The Black audiences responded positively to the portrayal of intelligent, independent Huxtable family members as challenging stereotypes of Blacks. At the same time, the program served to reify conservatives’ attitudes towards Blacks. During the Reagan era of the 1980s in which affirmative action, civil rights, and economic support for Blacks were being reduced, the White audience perceived the program as evidence that Blacks were successful as an economic class and did not need further support. They also assumed that if Blacks “worked harder,” they could “make it on their own” as did the Huxtables (Jhally & Lewis, 1992). In the 1980s, comedies such as Married With Children and Roseanne dealt more realistically with issues of sexuality, gender, and class identities.

Comedies often occur in two settings—the family home or the workplace (Hartley, 2001). While earlier comedies of the 1950s to 1970s focused more on the family, later comedies of the 1980s and 90s focused more on the workplace—to some degree the workplace became more of a site for “family” interpersonal conflicts. Moreover, programs such as Married…With Children, Roseanne, and The Simpsons began to portray darker, problematic aspects of family life that was never portrayed in the often Pollyannish, idealized homes of early shows (Pungente & O’Malley, 1999). This raises the question, as some critics have charged, whether “negative” portrayals of the family on The Simpsons lead viewers to assume a more negative perspective on the family in lived-world contexts. Portrayals of work-place comedy focus on tensions associated with confusion between work-place and personal lives, as well as challenges to status roles in the workplace.

Romantic comedy. Romantic comedy films—Groundhog Day, My Best Friend’s Wedding, Four Weddings and a Funeral, When Harry Met Sally, Sixteen Candles, Moonstruck, Sleepless in Seattle, Clueless, Notting Hill, and While You Were Sleeping—remain one of the most popular genres since the heyday of the Hollywood studio system in the 1930s, to 50s, that produced Some Like it Hot, rated the funniest film on the AFI list. In romantic comedy, a couple is coping with challenges to their relationship—for example, lovers begin to suspect that the other person has not been faithful in the relationship. In My Best Friend’s Wedding, the two main characters are convinced that they are not right for each other—and their friends perpetuate that perspective. However, as in situation comedy, the young couple discovers their true love for each other, leading to a resolution and often marriage. The underlying value assumption is that the traditional family/love relationship is a viable institutional norm.

In a more serious form of the romantic comedy, the female heroine initially engages in a stand-offish, impersonal male, who has difficulty knowing how to express his feelings for the heroine. The heroine functions to bring out his more romantic, emotional side, so that, by the end of the story, the hero demonstrates or declares his love for the heroine. This storyline is manifested in Dirty Dancing, in which the strong-silent male returns at the end of the film to express his love for the heroine in a final dance scene. A variation of this theme is the male lover who expresses himself through surrogate whom the heroine rejects for the true love (Roxanne) or who openly shares the process of learning to articulate his love, as did the John Cusack character in High Fidelity. The film and television adaptations of the Jane Austen novels, Pride and Prejudice, Sense and Sensibility, and Emma, and Clueless, a modern adaptation of Emma, demonstrate the 19th century origins of this romance storyline.

In contrast to romantic comedy, in tragic romance films such as Love Story, Fatal Attraction, House of Mirth, The Bridges of Madison County, The English Patient, The End of the Affair, Titanic, Romeo and Juliet, and Jungle Fever the heroine/hero seeks forbidden love, thereby violating social norms associated with class, race, religion, or family ties. For Romeo and Juliet, their love is more important than allegiances to their families. In contrast to comedy, they suffer for their violation of social norms and institutions, serving to interrogate the conservative nature of institutions. Ironic/critical comedy. There a number of comedy films, including M*A*S*H, Dr. Strangelove; Men in Black, Working Girl, The Truman Show, The Full Monty, The Van, Lost in America, Broadcast News, Raising Arizona, Fargo, Life is Beautiful, and Pleasantville that contain comic elements, but also raise larger questions about the break-down of institutions. For example, The Full Monty and Snapper portray the plight of unemployed blue-collar workers in Britain whose work is no longer valued in the new “service/information” economy, leading to depression, family conflicts, and attempted suicides. To maintain their sense of dignity, they create new forms of work—creating a strip show, running a mobile restaurant, and playing in a band. The comic element derives from the fact that the heroes’ the familiar skills were no longer applicable to operating in these new modes. And, films such as The Truman Show and Pleasantville raise questions about media constructions of reality and the blurred distinction between a media reality and a lived-world reality (see also reality TV shows).

About Comedy: Movies http://comedymovies.about.com/ links to history of comedy films http://faculty.washington.edu/kgb/complit303/links.htm#comedy Satire Screening Room http://www.geocities.com/Hollywood/8200/ About Comedy: TV sitcoms http://primetimetv.about.com/index.htm Comedy Central cable TV show http://www.comedycentral.com/ Screwball Comedy http://www.moderntimes.com/screwball/ 1,302 links to situation comedy shows http://dmoz.org/Arts/Television/Programs/Comedy/Sitcoms/ BBC sitcoms http://www.bbcamerica.com/genre/comedy_games/comedy_games.jsp Dan Ryder, We Ain’t No Situation Comedy http://seed.mainecenter.org/application/files/packets/PDF317.pdf. Roy Stafford: Getting the Joke: Teaching the Comedy Film http://www.mediaed.org.uk/posted_documents/comedyfilms.pdf. University of California, Berkeley, Bibliography on Television situation comedy http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/tvcomedy.html For further reading:
Cavell, S. (1981). Pursuits of happiness: The Hollywood comedy of remarriage. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Gehring, W. (1999). Parody as film genre: Never give a saga an even break. New York: Greenwood Press.
Gehring, W. (2002). Romantic Vs. screwball Comedy: Charting the difference. New York: Rowman & Littlefield.
Harries, D. (2000). Film parody. London: British Film Institute
King, G. (2002). Film comedy. New York: Wallflower Pres.
Neale, S., & Krutnik, F. (1990). Popular film and television comedy. New York: Routledge.
Rickman, G. (Ed.). (2002). The film comedy reader. New York: Limelight.
Voytilla, S., & Petri, S. (2003). Writing the comedy film: Make 'em laugh. New York: Michael Wiese Productions.

Science Fiction/Fantasy

Science fiction and fantasy films/television http://dir.yahoo.com/Entertainment/Movies_and_Film/Genres/Science_Fiction_and_Fantasy/ http://www.warwick.ac.uk/~pyrel/index.html http://www.magicdragon.com/UltimateSF/movies.html http://www.filmsite.org/sci-fifilms.html http://www-users.cs.york.ac.uk/~susan/sf/films/ http://www.sffworld.com/tvmovies/ http://www.sciflicks.com/ http://www.scifilm.org/ http://www.geocities.com/Hollywood/Lot/2976/SF2-movie.html http://members.tripod.com/scifimoviepage/index.html http://www.scifimovies.com/

Fantasy films http://www.filmsite.org/fantasyfilms.html are related in that both involve audiences in the experience of alternative worlds and ways of thinking. Through the experience of these alternative perspectives, audiences may return to their lived-world experience with new, alternative, creative insights. In both genres, audiences need to be able to suspend their disbelief and momentarily enter into an alternative world without imposing their reality-bound assumptions—the belief that “this would never happen in the real world.” The fantasy genre focuses more on the mythic, magical quest journey in which the “good” heroes confront various challenges associated with “evil,” challenges that test their tenacity, particularly in the final challenge. In 20,000 Leagues Under the Sea, based on the Jules Verne novel, Captain Nemo and his submarine crew journey to the depths of the ocean and face the giant squid. In The Wizard of Oz, the band of characters cope with different challenges, culminating with the final confrontation with the Wizard. Many of the fantasy heroes are loners or orphans who come out of obscurity to become heroes (Scott, 2002). In The Lord of the Rings, The Fellowship of the Ring, Frodo Baggins lives alone in a rural village until he is summoned to lead a group to face a whole series of bizarre, supernatural creatures and worlds, each requiring him and his companions to out-wit the enemy in the land of Mordor. In The Harry Potter series, Harry is an orphan who lives with his abusive aunt and uncle. Superman is a “mild-mannered reporter” until he is faced with the need to intervene to save someone. Spiderman is an “outsider” high school student until he is transformed into Spiderman.

These loner, outsider figures appeal to adolescent audiences who experience a related sense of being outsiders who imagine themselves as becoming heroic. As A. O. Scott (2002) notes:

For all their ancient and futuristic trappings, fantasy stories speak directly to the condition of contemporary male adolescence, and they offer a Utopian solution to the anxiety and dislocation that are part of the pyschic landscape of youth. Freaks become heroes. The confusing issue of sex is kept at a safe distance; romantic considerations are ancillary to the fight against evil, and to the cameraderie of warriors. But ultimately, whatever fellowship he may have found along the way, the hero 's quest is solitary, his triumph an allegory of the personal fulfillment that is, in the real world, both a birthright and a mirage.

Scott also notes that the appeal of fantasy is based on the nostalgic, conservative desire for the restoration of innocence and goodness in a world perceived as cynical, corrupt, evil, and complex. Fantasy worlds revolve around simplistic binary distinctions between to good versus evil, in which the good ultimately triumphs.

And, Scott notes, the hero triumphs not through greater physical prowess, but through his knowledge of specific details, outwitting the enemy. Again, this focus on knowledge appeals to the outside nerd who has acquired detailed, seemingly useless knowledge and fantasy lore. This appeal is socially manifested in audience participation in fan clubs http://dir.yahoo.com/Entertainment/Movies_and_Film/Titles/Science_Fiction_and_Fantasy/Space_Battles/Star_Wars/Fan_Clubs/ http://directory.google.com/Top/Arts/Television/Programs/Science_Fiction_and_Fantasy/Star_Trek/Fan_Clubs/ in which knowledge about the particular fantasy establishes one’s identity in these clubs through participation on fan chat rooms, fanzines, and conventions (see also media ethnography). In his study of Trekkies, Henry Jenkins (19 ) found that members of Star Trek fan clubs actively engaged in assuming Star Trek roles, sharing artifacts, and creating their own edited video-tape versions of past shows.

Another essential element of fantasy is the role of magic as manifested magic transformations in which human characters are transformed into flying figures or assume special powers. One of the reasons that fantasy works well as animated films, as in Toy Story, Shrek, Monsters, Inc., Fantasia, Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, Fantasia,
Who Framed Roger Rabbit, and Mulan is that animation, as well as the use of computer special effects, dramatically portray the transformation power of magic.

The adventure science-fiction film such as Star Wars, The Empire Strikes Back, and Return of the Jedi, as Joseph Campbell (1991) demonstrates in his book, The Power of Myth, share with fantasy quest films the focus on mythic/archetypal quest, in this case, Luke Skywater’s search for the father represented by Darth Vader, involving the traditional tension between good versus evil—the encroaching power of “the empire,” made up of the “Jedi Knights,” the “Jawas” who trade “androids,” and the “Droids.”

As in the horror genre, there is a fascination with the unknown, alien “other” portrayed in the science fiction genre as a threat to civilization, as well an uneasy ambiguity associated with the idea that our own technological advances may serve to be destructive. The nature of the alien has shifted with shifts in cultural attitudes and fears. In the 1950s, fear of the presumed pervasive Communist threat was manifested in the fact that alien invaders were “out there,” but invisible. Other films, such as Invasion of the Body Snatchers, challenged the cultural conformity associated with the 1950s, as did Fahrenheit 451 in the 1960s and A Clockwork Orange in the 1970s. With the rise of technological advances in the 1960s, 1970s, and 1980s, the threats took the forms of technology gone amok—nuclear disasters, mutant insects, computer breakdowns, skyscraper fires, etc. In the 1990s, the threat of environmental destruction, epidemic diseases, mind-control, and genetic manipulation was reflected in films such as 12 Monkeys, Contact, The Matrix, and Gattaca. For example, in Gattaca, the potential effects of genetic manipulation is examined in terms of a family having to decide to not genetically modify one of their sons.

Television science fiction/fantasy series http://dmoz.org/Arts/Television/Programs/Science_Fiction_and_Fantasy/ http://www.magicdragon.com/UltimateSF/index.html http://dir.yahoo.com/News_and_Media/Television/Shows/Science_Fiction_and_Fantasy/ such as Star Trek, Star Trek Generations, Star Trek: First Contact also involve space adventure conflicts with “the other.” In this series, the sidekick figure, as in the Western, Dr. Spock, is someone who can connect to the local culture of alien worlds, providing Captain Kirk and his crew with useful information.

Science fiction films such as Outbreak, Strange Days, 12 Monkeys, Men in Black, The Matrix, and Minority Report and television series The Twilight Zone, Dr. Who, and The X-Files examine larger issues of the effects of changes in science/technology on society, as well as unexplained paranormal psychological events, time travel, mind-control, and alien abduction that elude scientific explanation. In many cases, the technological advances portrayed in science fiction films portend actual advances that later occur. For a comparison of the technology portrayed in Stanley Kubrick’s 2001, made in 1968, and the actual technology of 2001 see: http://www.thetech.org/2001ds/ Science fiction film/television often draws on the themes, ideas, and storylines of science fiction writers such as Ray Bradbury, Isaac Asinov, and Philip Dick. For example, Philip Dick’s 1968 novel, Do Androids Dream of Electric Sheep? was the basis for Blade Runner, which portrays a cop who kills artificially created humans; his 1966 story, "We Can Remember It for You Wholesale” was the basis for Total Recall, a story about a man who has an adventure on Mars implanted in his memories; and his 1956 story, "The Minority Report," was the basis for Minority Report, about police use of precognitive mutants to arrest people before they commit crimes.

One important subgenre of science fiction/fantasy is the computer video game, which, as Henry Jenkins argues http://web.mit.edu/21fms/www/faculty/henry3/pub/complete.html serves to transports its users into a different social realm or world.

Sci-fi Space http://www.scifispace.com/ Sci-fi cable channel http://www.scifi.com/ Science Fiction Movie Heaven http://www.shipofdreams.net/sfmovies/ Bright Lights science fiction film journal http://www.brightlightsfilm.com/20/20_scifi1.html Computer Crowsnest: Science fiction site http://www.computercrowsnest.com/ Courses in science fiction http://www.users.muohio.edu/erlichrd/courseinsf/ http://www.d.umn.edu/cla/faculty/tbacig/hmcl3220/

Webquest: War of the Worlds: Fear of Invasion http://www.itsco.org/webquest/class/janice/ Lorna Dils, Science Fiction and the Future http://www.yale.edu/ynhti/curriculum/units/1987/2/87.02.04.x.html Lesson plan: Blade Runner http://www.ardecol.ac-grenoble.fr/english/brunner/enbrplan.htm Guy Walters: Artificial Intelligence in the Cinema http://www.times-archive.co.uk/news/pages/tim/2000/03/17/timaonaon02002.html Suite 101: Science Fiction and Society http://www.suite101.com/welcome.cfm/sf_and_society University of California, Berkeley library: Bibliography on science fiction films http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/scifibib.html Webquest: Anthem: A Utopian Society http://projects.edtech.sandi.net/lewis/anthem/ Webquest: A Cyber-Science Magazine http://projects.edtech.sandi.net/lewis/anthem/ Webquest: Spaceship Earth http://homepages.wmich.edu/~c1comrac/spaceshipearth.htm Webquest: Frankenstein http://www.gowcsd.com/master/ghs/english/propp/frnkqust/index.htm Webquest: Censorship and Fahrenheit 451 http://www.mediaworkshop.org/humanities/loonam/ Webquest: Energy Quest http://www.geocities.com/brookwebquest1/ For further reading:
Haber, K. (Ed.). (2003). Exploring the Martix: Visions of the cyber present. Boston: St. Martin’s
Press.
King, G., & Krzywinska, T. (2001). Science fiction cinema. New York: Wallflower Press.
Kuhn, A. (Ed.). Alien zone II: The spaces of science-fiction cinema. London: Verso.
Telotte, J. (2001). Science fiction film. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Tulloch, J., & Jenkins, H. (1995). Science fiction audiences: Watching Doctor Who and Star
Trek. New York: Routledge.
Wagner, J., & Lundeen, J. (1998). Deep space and sacred time: Star Trek in the American mythos. New York: Praeger.

Webquest: Fahrenheit 451: Book Burning: It’s not Just Science Fiction http://projects.edtech.sandi.net/roosevelt/bookburning/ Horror/Monster

The horror/monster film http://www.filmsite.org/horrorfilms.html http://www.imdb.com/Sections/Genres/Horror/
(Godzilla, The Night of the Living Dead, Silence of the Lambs, Cape Fear, The Texas Chainsaw Massacre, Jaws, The Shining, Scream, Scream 2, I Know What You Did Last Summer, The Blair Witch Project) http://www.angelfire.com/al/icia/horror.html http://www.horrormovies.com/flash_home.html and television series genre (Buffy the Vampire Killer) http://dmoz.org/Arts/Television/Programs/Horror/ http://dir.yahoo.com/News_and_Media/Television/Shows/Horror/ http://directory.google.com/Top/Arts/Television/Programs/Horror/ is one of the more popular genres with adolescents.

Horror/monster films/television programs revolve around the theme of a fear of death/mortality or id/sexuality, which is manifested in the zombies, creatures, vampires (Count Dracula),

Dracula’s Home Page http://www.ucs.mun.ca/~emiller/ Webquest: Dracula http://www.d.umn.edu/~lmillerc/TeachingEnglishHomePage/TeachingUnits/web.htm werewolves, devils, witches, mutant insects, and monsters who threaten to take over and destroy a family, community, or world. The power of the genre, as popularized by Stephen King’s novels, lies in its ability to create an initial sense of stability associated with a realistic portrayal of a familiar, everyday world which an audience associates with their own world. That initial sense of everyday stability is then disrupted by an attack that implies that we are all mortal and susceptible to destruction. In The Night of the Living Dead, an innocent couple is out driving in a rural area when suddenly the female is attacked by a group of zombies who have come back from the dead and need to destroy humans to survive. The zombies represent not only potential destruction, but also the loss of identity/humanity associated with death. In describing his own reaction to the film, Barry Grant (1995) notes that he was shocked by the realization that the film was not simply about the zombies, but that the zombies represented the average person, including one of the characters, Harry Cooper, who is more interested in saving himself than helping save the other characters trapped in a house under attack by the zombies, and particularly when the hero Ben is shot at the end by the sheriff and the posse because he is mistaken for one of the living dead:

The night of the living dead is not the evening of the film’s narrative but the darkness in the human spirit brought about by the absence of compassion and understanding; and, second, who the living dead really are—not the lurching zombies but average folk like Harry Cooper, the sheriff and his men, and, ultimately, myself…D. H. Lawrence once referred to those people who did not fully embrace what he perceived as the life principle as the “living dead,” saying that they were both angels and devils, at once vibrant and corrupt (p. 125).

Similarly, in the Invasion of the Body Snatcher films, the victims lose their sense of individuality and uniqueness associated with being human. The theme of the loss of identity is associated with the issue of the creation of the “human” monster in Frankenstein—and whether or not the created monster is human. The “mad scientist” character who can create the monster links horror to the science fiction theme of the use of technology for destructive purposes.

One of the most important of the horror directors was Alfred Hitchcock whose films Psycho and The Birds employed innovative techniques to create a sense of horrific suspense in audiences. More current horror/monster “slasher” films such as Halloween and Friday the 13th employ less subtle graphic portrayals of murder and were marketed for adolescent audiences through sensationalized trailers and ads. Films such as The Silence of the Lambs and The Blair Witch Project deal with some of the basic psychological aspects of horror involved in understanding motives associated with murder. The Blair Witch Project creates a sense of everyday reality disrupted by murder through the use of quasi-documentary techniques of the hand-held camera to create a familiar “home-movie” context for audiences.

From an audience analysis perspective, one issue associated with horror films is the presumed effects on viewers of viewing sensationalized violent horror film content on. Since the inception of the genre, critics have charged that violent, sensationalized “slasher” horror films have a negative influence on adolescent audiences’ attitudes and behaviors related to violence. However, one question to raise about this critique is the extent to which, contrary to critics’ “moral panics” about these adverse effects, adolescent viewers are capable of constructing their own alternative meanings of these texts ( Henry Jenkins and his son discuss the topic of “moral panics” and responses to Buffy the Vampire Slayer in terms of differences in generational perspectives. http://web.mit.edu/21fms/www/faculty/henry3/buffy.html All Horror Movies http://www.allhorrormovies.com/ Horror Film Compendium http://www.xmission.com/~tyranist/horror/ Classic Horror—the history of horror http://classic-horror.com/ Dark Universe http://dark-universe.com/ The Chamber of Horrors http://www.chamberofhorrors.20m.com/ House of Horrors http://www.houseofhorrors.com/ Dark Webonline http://www.darkwebonline.com/ ReelHorror http://www.reelhorror.com/ Forever Horror http://www.michalak.org/fh/ Suite 101: Horror films: reviews http://www.suite101.com/subjectheadings/contents.cfm/1311 Horror-Wood magazine http://www.horror-wood.com/ University of California, Berkeley Library: Bibliography on horror films http://www.lib.berkeley.edu/MRC/horrorbib.html Webquest: Edgar Allan Poe: Father of Horror http://www.geocities.com/educationplace/poe/wqpoe.htm For further reading:
Gelder, K. (2000). The horror reader. New York: Routledge.
Grant, B. (1996). The dread of difference: Gender and the horror film. Austin, TX: University of
Texas Press.
Jancovich, M. (2001). Horror: The film reader. New York: Routledge.
Jones, D. (2003). Horror: A thematic history in fiction and film. London: Arnold.
Skal, D. (2001). The monster show: A cultural history of horror. London: Faber & Faber.
Wells, P. (2001). The horror genre. New York: Wallflower Press.

Suspense Thriller/Spy/Heist

A genre related to the action, mystery, detective, and even horror film genre is the suspense thriller/spy/heist film featuring plots in which the audience is never quite sure if a main character will successfully escape being harmed or will succeed on a dangerous mission, or, in the case of the heist film, pull off the heist. http://www.filmsite.org/thrillerfilms.html http://www.imdb.com/chart/thriller http://www.bbc.co.uk/films/gateways/genre/thriller/index.shtml http://movieweb.com/movies/search.php

American Film Institute: 100 years of thriller films http://gary.appenzeller.net/AFI_Thrills_Y.htm Alfred Hitchcock was the master of the suspense thriller. He placed his characters, as in North by Northwest or Rear Window, in situations in which they are continually confronting death as their enemies seek to murder them.
Alfred Hitchcock sites: http://hitchcock.tv/ http://www.mysterynet.com/hitchcock/ http://www.imdb.com/name/nm0000033/ http://alfredhitchcock.directorscut.info/en/ http://www.hitchcock.nl/eng.htm http://www.tdfilm.com/

Images: material from Hitchcock films http://www.imagesjournal.com/issue09/infocus.htm The spy genre involves a similar complication in which the spy is placed in dangerous situations in which his true identity as spy may be exposed. The spy hero must also employ many of the nefarious techniques of the enemy to survive. http://www.cia.gov/spy_fi/ http://www.geocities.com/swcomer/cloak_and_dagger/

One of the most familiar of the thriller/spy genres is the James Bond movie series in which the James Bond character created by Ian Fleming was played by five different actors: Sean Connery (Dr. No, From Russia With Love, Goldfinger, Thunderball, You Only Live Twice, Diamonds Are Forever), George Lazenby (On Her Majesty 's Secret Service), Roger Moore (Live and Let Die, The Man With the Golden Gun, The Spy Who Loved Me, Moonraker, For Your Eyes Only, Octopussy, A View to a Kill), Timothy Dalton (The Living Daylights, License to Kill), and Pierce Brosnan (GoldenEye, Tomorrow Never Dies, The World is Not Enough). What accounts for the popularity of the James Bond film series? In a study of British viewers responses to these films during the Cold-War era of the 1960s, Bennett and Woollacott (1987) found that the Bond films evoked a stance that invited audiences to adopt a pro-Western, anti-Communist, masculine ideological stance consistent with the prevailing cultural attitudes during that period. Thus, the meaning and value of the action/adventure genre film is not embedded within the film, but resides in the larger cultural attitudes audiences bring to the film.

James Bond sites: http://www.jamesbond.com/ http://movie-reviews.colossus.net/bond.html http://www.klast.net/bond/filmlist.html http://www.ianfleming.org/index.shtml http://home.earthlink.net/~atomic_rom/007/films.htm http://www.ajb007.co.uk/

The heist genre, including films such as The Thomas Crown Affair, The Italian Job, Goodfellows, The Killing, The Score, The Good Thief, Oceans 11, Snatch, Three Kings, The Way of the Gun, Gone in 60 Seconds, Heist, A Fish Called Wanda, The Grifters, Nine Queens, Croupier, The Hard Word, Catch Me If You Can, and Lock, Stock and 2 Smoking Barrels, typically involve a gang’s attempt to pull off a highly challenging robbery of extensive wealth or executing a forgery or art thief requiring a lot of careful planning. In the actual heist itself, there are often suspenseful moments in which it seems as if things will go awry, which they sometimes do, only to have the heist succeed, but then, once they acquire their wealth, they are no longer satisfied because the thrill of pulling off the heist is behind them.

About movies: The heist http://actionadventure.about.com/cs/heistmovies/index.htm Other important thrillers include Steven Spielberg’s Jaws and Francis Ford Coppola 's, The Conversation, as well as Silence of the Lambs, Speed, The Usual Suspects, The Sixth Sense, and Memento.

Morehart, P. (2002). Charles Derry: The suspense thriller. City Beat. http://citybeat.com/2002-02-28/getlit.shtml Schneider, K. (1999). With violence if necessary. Journal of Popular Film and Television http://www.findarticles.com/cf_dls/m0412/1_27/55437786/p1/article.jhtml For further reading:
Chapman, J. (2000). Licence to thrill. New York: Columbia University Press.
Cook, K. (2003). Wake in Fright. New York: Prion Books.
Cork, J., & Scivally, B. (2002). James Bond: The legacy. New York: Harry Adams.
D’Abo, M., (2003). Bond girls are forever : The women of James Bond.New York: Harry Adams.
Derry, C. (2001). The suspense thriller: Films in the shadow of Alfred Hitchcock. New York: MacFarland.
Dougall, A. (2000). James Bond: The secret world of 007. New York: Penguin.
Frank, A. (1998). Frank 's 500: The thriller film guide. New York: Batsford.
Hicks, N. (2002). Writing the thriller film: The terror within. New York: Michael Wiese Productions.
Leigh, J., & Nickens, C. (1995). Psycho: Behind the scenes of the classic thriller. New York: Harmony Books.
McGilligan, P. (2003). Alfred Hitchcock: A life in darkness and light. New York: Regan Books.
Rubin, M. (1999). Thrillers. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Rubin, S. (2002). The complete James Bond movie encyclopedia, newly revised edition. New York: McGraw Hill.

Soap Opera

The soap opera television genre http://dmoz.org/Arts/Television/Programs/Soap_Operas/ http://dir.yahoo.com/News_and_Media/Television/Shows/Prime_Time_Soaps/ http://dir.yahoo.com/News_and_Media/Television/Shows/Soap_Operas/ is best characterized by its ongoing, open-ended serial narrative development that engages audiences with it’s “good” and “evil” characters and emotional conflicts in ways that keeps them tuning in week after week. One form of the genre consists of day-time soap opera:
All My Children, Another World, As The World Turns, Bold and the Beautiful, Coronation Street, Days of Our Lives, General Hospital, Guiding Light, One Life to Live, Passions, Sunset Beach, and Young and the Restless.

In these shows, the settings in earlier shows, geared primarily for a female audience, were interior contexts inhabited by upper-middle-class characters—upscale homes/condos, doctors’/lawyers’ offices, or expensive restaurants/resorts. These traditional contexts referred to gendered oppositions between the “female” as associated with the home, personal matters, talk, and community, and the “male” as associated with public activity, work, action, and individualism. More recently, as audiences have broadened, there are a wider variety of settings, including exterior ones. The primary emphasis in these shows is on subjective, interpersonal conflicts associated with deception, miscommunication, infidelity, greed, jealously, need for control/power, or revenge. Dramatic events are built around talk: arguments, lies, shouting matches, gossip, accusations, false promises, etc., associated with a range of complex relationships within and across families and social networks. Underlying these events is an ethical dilemma as to whether certain social norms have been violated, norms that are continually being interrogated as society changes. While there are a number of on-going subplots, conflicts are never totally resolved, given the on-going nature of the program in which audiences can tune in at any time and understand the story. In the 1970s and 1980s, some of these programs migrated to prime-time slots: Peyton Place, Dallas, Twin Peaks, and Dynasty, followed by Beverly Hills 90210, The Colbys, Falcon Crest, Knots Landing, Malibu Shores, Melrose Place, Pasadena, Savannah, Spyder Games, Titans, and Sex and the City in the 1990s. These often highly melodramatic programs continued to challenge traditional norms of behavior, as did Beverly Hills 90210 and Melrose Place, presenting prime-time discussions of sexuality and relationships that serve to attract new adolescent audiences to prime-time viewing.

An important component of soap opera is the highly active, loyal audience base, as manifested in the multitude of soap opera fan clubs http://members.aol.com/soaplinks/index.html http://soaps.about.com/cs/fanclubs/ http://www.soapcentral.com/ps/fanclubs.php http://www.soapoperafan.com/

These clubs function to provide information about episodes audiences may have missed, as well as speculating about what may or should happen to characters. Chat room discussions also focus on issues of the lack of realism, ideological objections to story developments, and analysis of the actors and actresses. And, they serve as a vicarious stimulus for discussing related issues in audiences’ own personal lives.

Analysis of soap opera audiences has moved away from the earlier assumption that the largely female audience adopted passive, deluded stances (Tulloch, 2001). One of the important issues for audiences is the extent to which they accept soap opera portrayals as realistic versus fictional representations of everyday emotional relationships. In an important study of audience response to Dallas, Ian Ang (1985) posited that audiences’ responses are constituted by a “structure of feeling” in which emotions associated with movements between happiness and unhappiness is central to female audiences’ identification with characters. More recent analyses of audiences’ responses have focused on the value of talk and gossip as important tools in females’ own lives (Brown, 1994; McKinley, 1997). And, issues of class may also shape audience responses. Cheryl Reinertsen, analyzed a group of her daughter’s female friends’ weekly viewing of two television programs, Beverly Hills 90210 and Melrose Place. In responding to these programs, the females evidenced a tension between vicariously experiencing the pleasure of romantic relationships and their middle-class, achievement-oriented attitudes. For example, in one episode of 90210, a female college student becomes engaged to an older man. The group shared their displeasure with her decision to become engaged: “‘She likes him just because he’s rich.’ ‘She should stay in college.’ ‘She’s too young.’ ‘Wait until her parents find out. They will really be mad’” (Reinertsen, 14-15). These responses reflect a commitment to middle-class beliefs in the value of sacrificing immediate emotional needs in order to obtain economic success. In examining the tensions between the discourses of romance and the discourses of achievement-orientation, some of these females begin to reflect on how these discourses shaped their own responses to these programs.

TeachIt: writing about soap operas http://www.teachit.co.uk/index.asp?M=3&A=5&S=185&Z=1#S185 Webquest: As Mt. Olympus Turns http://projects.edtech.sandi.net/kearny/mythsoap/ British Film Institute: Teaching Guide: Soap Opera http://www.bfi.org.uk/nationallibrary/collections/16+/soaps/soaps.pdf For further reading:
Alexander, L., & Cousens, A. (2004). Teaching TV soaps. London: British Film Institute.
Buckley, E., & Rout, N. (Eds.). (2004). The soap opera book: Who’s who in daytime drama. New York: Todd Publishers.
Fulton, E. (1999). Soap opera. Boston: St. Martin’s Press.
Hobson, D. (2003). Soap opera. New York: Polity Press.
Museum of Television. (1997). Worlds without end: The art and history of the soap opera. New York: Harry N. Abrams.
Witebols, J. (2004). The soap opera paradigm: Television programming and corporate priorities. New York: Rowman & Littlefield.

The Talk Show

The television talk show http://directory.google.com/Top/Arts/Television/Programs/Talk_Shows/ http://dir.yahoo.com/News_and_Media/Television/Shows/Talk_Shows/ http://talkshows.about.com/mlibrary.htm http://dmoz.org/Arts/Television/Programs/Talk_Shows/ http://www.interbridge.com/lineups.html consists of four different subgenres:

1) the morning talk shows: Today Show, Good Morning America, and the Early Show, as well as CSPAN call-in talk shows.

2) the day-time talk: some of which are characterized as “tabloid” or the “confessional” (Shattuc, 2001) talk show, as well as “courtroom” shows (on the air in 2002): Judge Judy, Oprah Winfrey, Judge Joe Brown, Maury Povich, Jerry Springer, Divorce Court, Montel Williams, Live with Regis and Kelly, Judge Mathis, Texas Justice, People 's Court, Judge Hatchett, John Edward, Jenny Jones, Ricki Lake

3) prime-time/late-night talk show—currently (2002) Larry King Live, The Tonight Show with Jay Leno, Late Show with David Letterman, Late Night with Conan O 'Brien, The Charlie Rose Show, and The Late Late Show with Craig Kilborn

4) political talk shows—currently (2002) Crossfire, The McLaughlin Group, Meet the Press, Face the Nation, This Week. Reliable Sources, Capitol Gang, CNN Sunday Morning, Late Edition, Both Sides, Fox News Sunday, and The Beltway Boys.

The morning and prime-time/late shows retain a consistent format established by early hosts in the 1950s through 1970s: for the morning shows: Dave Garroway, Arlene Francis, Arthur Godfey, Garry More, Art Linkletter, Merv Griffin, Hugh Downs, Ernie Kovacs, Mike Douglas; and for late shows: Jack Paar, Steve Allen, Dick Cavett, David Susskind, Barbara Walters, and Johnny Carson. Bernard Timberg (2000), identifies five characteristics of this subgenre:

- the centrality of the host. The program revolves around the host—Larry King, Jay Leno, David Letterman, Charlie Rose—as the central figure of the program. The host often has control over the show’s content and guest selection. The host is often supported by others—Ed McMahon was Johnny Carson’s “straight man,” who laughed at his jokes and provided an immediate conversational audience. The hosts often serve as commodities for their networks—functioning to promote not only their shows, but also the network itself and other products.

- the present-tense flow. Even though the shows are pre-taped, they are highly structured in ways that create the illusion that they are occurring “live” in present time for the viewer audience.

- varied modes of address. The host is simultaneously addressing a range of different audiences: the immediate audience on stage (guests, co-hosts, or bandleader), their studio audience, and the viewer audience, all in ways that serve to engage the viewer audience as the intimate “you.”

- the commodity function. The show serves not only as an advertising vehicle, but it also serves to promote the celebrities who appear on the show. Stars of television programs on the same network often appear as guests to promote those network programs.

- structured spontaneity. Despite the seemingly spontaneous nature of the program, a large cast of writers, producers, celebrating agents, and technical people construct a scripted, semi-rehearsed production that adheres to time constraints and certain publicity messages they wish to convey.

Recently talk show hosts have functioned to provide their own versions of daily news events for their relatively younger audiences who may not be acquiring news from other sources.

The day-time “tabloid”/”confessional” show, such The Oprah Winfrey Show traditionally appealed to more of a female audience, but more recently sensationalized shows such as The Jerry Springer Show has attracted an adolescent male audience. These shows are often organized around particularly themes or topics often related to interpersonal conflicts, health, beauty—and, on the tabloid shows, sex, drugs, and divorce (Shattuc, 2001).

The increased popularity of “courtroom” shows dramatizes personal or family conflicts within a seemingly legal area. These shows attempt to actively promote conflicts between participants, often resulting in arguments, taunts, and physical fights. They also engage audience members as players in these conflicts, asking them to create alliances between the conflicting participants. These shows’ focus on dramatic conflict between participants serve to overlap with the conflicts portrayed in soap opera (see soap opera) and reality television.

The “confessional” shows focus more on having participants articulate personal problems that are then addressed by an “expert” or by the host as a moral guide (Shattuc, 2001). The prevailing discourse of these shows is therapeutic—the assumption that through “talking-out” issues and improving interpersonal relationships, problems can be solved, a discourse that masks the influence of institutional forces. For example, in an analysis of a series on racism on The Oprah Winfrey Show, Janice Peck (1995) found that race was defined primarily in terms of interpersonal conflicts, resulting in the admonition that if people simply treated each others as “humans” and improved their relationships, racial conflict would be mitigated, an analysis that frames racism as a matter of personal prejudice.

Favorite Talk Show Forum http://bhalter.tripod.com Peter’s Reviews of late night show topics http://www.petersreviews.com/latenite.html Mittell, J. (2003). Television talk shows and cultural hierarchies. Journal of Popular Film and
Television.
http://www.findarticles.com/cf_dls/m0412/1_31/101937867/p1/article.jhtml

For further reading:
Grindstaff, L. (2002). The money shot: Trash, class, and the making of TV talk shows. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Shattuc, J. (1996). The talking cure: TV talk shows and women. New York: Routledge.
Timberg, B. (2002). Television talk: A history of the TV talk show. Austin: University of Texas Press. The political talk show http://www.alltalkshows.com/sunday_talk/shows.html often features competing political perspectives from what is described as the “liberal” and the “conservative” side, in which participants argue with each other in a highly dramatic, combative manner with little contextualization or development of ideas. Deborah Tannen (1999) characterizes this as the “argument culture” in which one-upping one’s opponents is valued more than enlightening an audience on an issue. Moreover, the “guests” who appear on Sunday morning talk shows generally represent status quo institutional perspectives and are largely white males. One study by The White House Project of programs aired from January 1, 2001 to June 30, 2001 found the male guests outnumbered females by 9 to 1; between September 11 and October 28, the number of females guests dropped by 39%.

Radio talk shows. While this module on genres focuses primarily on film/television genres, there is also a strong link between the television and the radio talk show genre. Radio talk shows http://search.yahoo.com/search?p=radio+talk+show http://directory.google.com/Top/Arts/Radio/Formats/Talk_Radio/Programs/ such as national National Public Radio programs, Car Talk, The Connection, Sound Money, Let’s Talk Business, Talk of the Nation, Talk of the Nation, Science Friday, Splendid Table, To the Best of Our Knowledge http://www.npr.org/about/programs/allnprprograms.html as well as numerous local radio talk shows attract large audiences. In contrast to most of television talk shows, these shows, particularly those on National Public Radio, are often more substantive because they are not influenced by a visual format or by commercial forces. At the same time, the majority of commercial talk radio shows with hosts such as Rush Limbaugh, Howard Stern, G. Gordan Liddy, Dr. Laura, James Dobson, and others reflect a popular appeal to a loyal conservative, often male, audience due to its reputation as what Henry Giroux (1996) describes as:
The “bad boy” of the communication industry. Given the unrehearsed nature of talk, it is less controlled and more open to the speaking the unspeakable. Moreover, the often spontaneous nature of its content, along with it’s appeal to audiences willing to believe that they have been excluded from mainstream media, gives talk radio an outlaw status and popularity with often marginalized segments of the American public (p. 151).
These hosts assume power over the topics covered by screening calls so that deviant perspectives are excluded, undermining the presumed “balance” required for broadcasters. Programs that reflect a more liberal or populist perspective such as Hightower Radio on ABC radio have difficulty staying on the air. When Disney purchased ABC, they stopped supporting Hightower Radio and it went off the air.

Talk Radio News http://talkradionews.com/ Sports Television sports/films about sports/outdoors/and sports talk shows constitute a major genre in terms of audience size, particularly for championship sports coverage of the World Series, Superbowl, Final Four, NBA championships, Stanley Cup, World Cup, Triple Crown, Indianapolis 500, and golf/tennis/marathon/track/championships. These sports championships—many of which are annual events—can be thought of as “media events” (Dayan & Katz, 1992)—in which the techniques, commentary, and promotion hype the broadcast as a special, unusual event “that we have all been waiting for.” For example, coverage of the Super Bowl builds on its history by showing highlight clips of previous Super Bowls to create a sense of its prestige. The Super Bowl functions as a social event in the lives of many Americans, who structure parties around viewing of the game.

Television sports coverage combines two competing genre forms—journalism that attempts to provide background information about players, coaches, policies, contract negotiations, and strategies—and promotion that attempts to promote or dramatize sports in order to attract an audience (Brookes, 2001). This promotion often takes the form of building up conflict between opposing teams, as well as using instant replays, slow motion, and computer graphics to visually dramatize the coverage. The focus on promotion was evident in the NBC coverage of the 2000 Olympics, which focused more on appealing to American audiences by covering primarily American athletes and by providing dramatic background biographical stories about these athletes, a focus that sacrificed balanced journalistic coverage of the Olympics.

Sports coverage also emphasizes the “personal” side of players’ lives, emphasizing how players or teams as the underdog have overcome adversities—injuries, racial/sexist prejudice, or “down” times—to go on to become a star. This theme of succeeding against all odds serves as the basis of sports films such as The Natural, Hoosiers, Raging Bull, the Rocky films, Major League, White Boys Can’t Jump, and Remember the Titans. What these films often do not portray is how various institutional forces and systems—the media, sports-equipment industry, competitive high school/college sports programs, and false beliefs about “making it” in professional sports serve to define athletes’ experience. Hoop Dreams, http://www.finelinefeatures.com/hoop/ a documentary about two African-American high school basketball stars, portrays the ways in which these students’ lives are shaped by these various systems.

One of the issues in media coverage of sports is how they portray instances of violent actions in which players may deliberately injure another player or when players are simply injured given the violent nature of certain sports. Portrayals of violence are often excused or rationalized with a “boys will be boys” discourse of masculinity.
Media Awareness Network lesson: Violence in sports http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/resources/educational/lessons/elementary/violence/violence_in_sports.cfm A related issue concerns the coverage of females in sports media, something alluded to in Module 4. Females are often portrayed more in terms of their appearance and attractiveness as opposed to their athletic abilities, while males are portrayed in terms of their physical skills and strength. Much of this is due to the relatively high percentage of male reporters and “commentators” compared to female reporters and “commentators,” resulting in a largely masculine discourse perspective on sports.

Education Media Foundation: Playing Unfair: The Media Image of the Female Athlete http://www.mediaed.org/videos/MediaGenderAndDiversity/PlayingUnfair Media Awareness Network lesson: Media Coverage of Women and Women 's Issues http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/issues/stereotyping/women_and_girls/women_coverage.cfm Women’s Sports Foundation: lots on links on coverage of women in sports http://www.womenssportsfoundation.org/cgi-bin/iowa/issues/media/index.html Tucker Center for Research on Girls and Women in Sport http://education.umn.edu/tuckercenter/default.html Game Face: What Does the Female Athlete Look Like? http://www.gamefaceonline.org/ FemmeFan: for female sports fans http://www.femmefan.com/ Zine: Girl Jocks Rule http://www.girljock.com/ Lesson: history of media coverage of women in sports http://www.riverdeep.net/current/2000/03/front.150300.women.jhtml One of the important subgenres of television sports is professional wrestling, http://www.wwe.com/ http://www.nwa-wrestling.com/ http://www.prowrestling.com/ http://dir.yahoo.com/Entertainment/Sports_Entertainment/Professional_Wrestling/Wrestlers/ a popular television genre, particularly for adolescent males, who often make their own backyard video versions that mimic the show.

From an audience perspective, Henry Jenkins (1997) argues that the appeal of professional wrestling is that it builds on traditional melodramatic conflict between good versus evil in which working-class adolescent males identify with the “good” wrestler who seeks revenge against the chicanery and trickery of the “bad” wrestler, who represents the traditional authoritative forces who seek to limit or control these males. Jenkins also argues that the highly participatory nature of the audience role allows males to express their emotions in a safe manner.

Another subgenre is the “outdoors” television show http://dmoz.org/Recreation/Outdoors/Television_Shows/ http://dir.yahoo.com/News_and_Media/Television/Shows/Recreation_and_Sports/Sports/ http://dir.yahoo.com/News_and_Media/Television/Shows/Recreation_and_Sports/Outdoors/ related to providing useful information about hunting, fishing, camping, hiking, and gardening.

And, a subgenre that supports the sports industry is the largely (but not exclusively) male sports talk show http://www.hbo.com/ontherecord/ http://www.timmccarver.com/ http://foxsports.lycos.com/content/view?contentId=532643 While it draws on the daytime talk show format, it differs from the often-therapeutic discourses of these shows by avoiding personal matters and focusing on sharing sports information or ”stats.”
The shows also provide a lot of visual drama by replaying game highlights, often for the purpose of promoting a team. Much of the talk revolves around issues associated with a celebration of “competitive spirit”/”team-work.”

There is also an important relationship between sports and advertising or promotions in which sports stars and teams are used in ads or use to promote certain products or events.
Media Awareness Network lesson: Sports Personalities in Magazine Advertising http://www.media-awareness.ca/english/resources/educational/lessons/secondary/advertising_marketing/sports_ads.cfm The New York Times Learning Network: Clayton DeKorne, Getting In the Game
Exploring Interactive Relationships Between Television Shows and the Internet http://www.nytimes.com/learning/teachers/lessons/20010607thursday.html?searchpv=learning_lessons The New York Times Learning Network: Abby Remer and Alison Zimbalist, Kicking It Around
Evaluating Perspectives on Women 's World Cup Soccer: A Language Arts Lesson. http://www.nytimes.com/learning/teachers/lessons/19990709friday.html?searchpv=learning_lessons Webquest: Extreme Sports http://www.longwood.k12.ny.us/wmi/wq/werner2/index.htm For further reading:
Baker, A., & Boyd, T. (Eds.). (1998). Out of bounds: Sports, media, and the politics of identity. Bloomington, IN: Indiana University Press.
Creedon, P. (Ed.). (1994). Women, media and sport: Challenging gender values. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Rowe, D., & Rowen, D. (1999). Sport, culture and the media: The unruly trinity. London: Open University Press.
Smith, R. (2001). Play-by-play: Radio, television, and big-time college sports. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Sperber, G. (2001). Beer and circus: How big-time college sports is crippling undergraduate education. New York: Owl Books.
Wenner, L. (Ed.). (1998). Mediasport. New York: Routledge.
Whannel, G. (2001). Media sport stars: Masculinities and moralities. New York: Routledge.
White. G. E. (1998). Creating the national pastime. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
WEB SEARCH

Game Shows/Reality Television Game shows http://dmoz.org/Arts/Television/Programs/Game_Shows/ http://dir.yahoo.com/News_and_Media/Television/Shows/Game_Shows/ http://directory.google.com/Top/Arts/Television/Programs/Game_Shows/ began in the 1950s with shows such as The $64,000 Question and The Big Payoff which ultimately went off the air due to scandals associated with providing contestants with answers—the subject of the movie, Quiz Show. Between that time and the 1990’s, some shows, such a Wheel of Fortune, What’s My Lines, Jeopardy!, Hollywood Squares, To Tell the Truth, or The Price is Right, as well as shows such as The Newlywed Game, Family Feud, and The Dating Game, continued to be aired, but with the Who Wants to be a Millionaire?, initially aired in Britain, and then by ABC in the 1999/2000 (six and one-half hours a week in 2000), the genre became the most watched of all television shows. These shows cost little to produce and, with shows such as Wheel of Fortune, can uses prizes as one more mode of advertising products.

One of the appeals of the show is the idea, associated with advertising employed to promote casino gambling, state lotteries, or horse racing, is that “anyone can win”—that someone can walk in off the street and win large sums of money. This appeal reflects the larger cultural myth that anyone, with a little luck, can “strike it rich” as a primary goal in life. This serves to further promote the larger consumerist, capitalist discourse constituting commercial television in which “winning” in life entails acquiring consumer goods.

One of the key features, similar to that of the talk show, is the unpredictable “liveness” of the shows—their sense of spontaneity, surprise, and improvisation, which, as Michael Skovmand (2000), makes it difficult to analyze the genre features of particular shows as shaped by a single organizing perspective: “One program may chronicle the fortunes of the heroic failure, another the luck streak of the mediocre contestant. There is no telling in advance, because neither an absent auteur nor the host of the show wields a determining influence on the course of events” (p. 368).

Skovmand argues that shows such as Wheel of Fortune are highly inclusive in that they are not based on exclusive competencies or expertise, but rather on luck or chance associated with card games or bingo. The underlying theme, consistent with the “anyone can win” cultural myth, is that “everyone wins.” The drama of the program, accentuated by audience participation, revolves around the element of risk and luck associated with selecting the “right answer.” This focus on “getting the right answers” also reflects myths about knowledge and schooling as primarily that of acquiring information.

The success of the highly popular Who Wants to be a Millionaire? and Who Wants to Marry a Multimillionaire? paralleled the emergence of the similarly competitive “reality television” shows http://dmoz.org/Arts/Television/Programs/Reality-Based/ http://directory.google.com/Top/Arts/Television/Programs/Reality-Based/ http://dir.yahoo.com/News_and_Media/Television/Shows/Reality_Television/ http://www.realitytvlinks.com/ http://www.realityblurred.com/realitytv/ in the late 1990s such as Big Brother and Survivor. These shows built on the earlier “trauma TV” quasi-documentary shows, Rescue 911, Real Life Heroes, and America’s Most Wanted which employ camcorder/”actual footage” portrayal of “real” events, first person narratives, reconstruction of “actual” events, and commentators’ voice-overs (Dovey, 2001). To this was added a game-like context in which participants were portrayed in a documentary format competing with each other and voting on who remains in the game. While these shows lost some of their popularity after 9/11, they remain popular for certain audiences who become engaged with the participants’ lives.

One reason for the popularity of these shows is that, in contrast to drama shows, they are relatively inexpensive to create. They also involve a high level of conflict between participants, which producers highlight in their editing of content to create some degree of drama. Students could examine the ways in which these shows are shaped through editing techniques and the degree to which the shows portray the complexities of relationships and response to challenging situations.

Another subgenre of reality television involves placing people in difficult contexts—in 1900, in a London house based on life in 1900 http://www.pbs.org/wnet/1900house/ and in Frontier House, in the 1883 in the American frontier of Montana http://www.pbs.org/wnet/frontierhouse/ and showing them coping with the difficulties of life without contemporary amenities. Underlying these shows is a basic assumption they are portraying “reality” in terms of the events portrayed—people breaking down under the stress, when, in fact, the “reality” portrayed is often highly edited, staged events to show more dramatic moments of what, in “reality,” may be relatively uneventful lives. These shows also assume that “reality” entails a highly competitive set of relationships between people—a Darwinian survival of the fittest world in which there are always winners and losers.

Beth Rowen: History of Reality TV http://www.infoplease.com/spot/realitytv1.html Reality TV Channel http://www.realitychannel.tv/ Reality TV Planet http://www.realitytvplanet.com/ Reality World TV http://www.realityworldtv.com/ Reality News Online http://www.realitynewsonline.com/cgi-bin/ae.pl Fans of Reality TV http://www.fansofrealitytv.com/ Lesson: The Reality of Reality TV http://ltag.tased.edu.au/effectteach/units7_10/English/Realitytv/realitytv_print.pdf. For further reading:
Andrejevic, M. (2003). Reality TV: The work of being watched. New York: Rowman & Littlefield.
Balkin, K. (Ed.). (2004). Reality TV. New York: Greenhaven.
Brenton, S., & Cohen, R. (2003). Shooting people: Adventures in reality TV. London: Verso.
Friedman, J. (Ed.). (2002). Reality squared: Televisual discourse on the real.
New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
Murray, S., & Ouellette, L. (2004). Reality TV: Remaking television culture. New York: New York University Press.
Smith, M., & Wood, A. (2003). Survivor lessons: Essays on communication and reality television. New York: McFarland.

Animation

While animation as a film technique was discussed in Module 3, it is also important to examine animation films and television programs as a genre http://www.imdb.com/Charts/Votes/animation http://directory.google.com/Top/Arts/Animation/Movies/Titles/ http://directory.google.com/Top/Arts/Animation/Cartoons/ in which animals, people, birds, trees, plants, and houses are transformed and personified as humans vice versa. This emphasis on metamorphosis of images is a primary tool associated with the fairy tale/fable literary genre on which many animation films are based: Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs, Beauty and the Beast, Pinocchio, Bambi, Aladdin, Sleeping Beauty, Cinderella, The Many Adventures of Winnie the Pooh, and Peter Pan. Many of the Disney versions of these stories reflect a consistent value orientation privileging a “innocent,” idealized cultural model of the world. For example, The Many Adventures of Winnie the Pooh represents a highly sanitized version of the original stories, in which the complexity of characterization; the imaginative, literary language; and the high quality art work has been replaced by bland versions that wash out the realistic, foreboding nature that lies at the heart of fairy tales and fables.

Many of the Disney animation films contain sexist and racist role representations. In his analysis of these films, Henry Giroux (2001) http://www.gseis.ucla.edu/courses/ed253a/Giroux/Giroux2.html posits that the female main characters in The Little Mermaid, Beauty and the Beast, and Pocahontas all adopt subordinate gender roles consistent with patriarchic values. For example, Ariel in The Little Mermaid, gives up her voice in order to obtain legs so that she can pursue the handsome prince, a literal and symbolic loss of agency for the purpose of romance. In Beauty and the Beast, Belle, as does the heroine in romance novels and romantic comedy, transforms the brutal beast into a caring male, the dramatization of how the female’s primary role is to solve the male’s problem. And, in Pocahontas, the Native American princess saves John Smith from being executed by her father, another portrayal of a female defining herself primarily through relationship with a male.

Giroux also identifies instances of racist portrayals in Aladdin, in which the villains have Arabic physical features and accents, a reification of Edward Said, “Orientalism”—the Euro-American representation of the Arab world in deficit terms as foreign, bizarre, exotic, mysterious, quasi-barbaric, and deceitful. In The Lion King, the evil lion Scar is portrayed as darker than the other lions. While the royal family speaks in British accents, the hyena storm troupers speak in Black dialect. In all of this, being white and male is assumed to be the privileged norm against which “others” are subordinated. Giroux argues that this is consistent with the larger Disney corporate value system that appeals to a traditional white, middle-class conservative American audience.

However, contrary to the Disney films, animation films such as Toy Story, Toy Story 2, Mononoke Hime, Shrek, Monsters, Inc., Waking Life, and Who Framed Roger Rabbit employ creative techniques of the genre to explore alternative value perspectives.

Much of the Saturday morning cartoon television shows http://dir.yahoo.com/News_and_Media/Television/Shows/Animation/ such as Scooby-Dee, The Powerpuff Girls, Jem, Futurama, Hey Arnold, Batman, are equally sexist and largely white. The shows The Simpsons, Beavis and Butt-Head, South Park, and King of the Hill reflect a more cynical, irreverent stance on contemporary society. As Douglas Kellner (2000) argues, while critics blamed the characters on Beavis and Butt-Head as negative examples for adolescents, the show, derived from Wayne’s World and other aspects of media culture, is more of a critique of the economic decline of the working-class family, the lack of educational and employment opportunities, and contemporary media culture. In contrast to Disney’s idealized, innocent version of American culture, for Kellner, the characters’ destructiveness reflects: their hopelessness and alienation and shows the dead-end prospects for many working- class and middle-class youths. Moreover, the series also replicates the sort of violence that is so widespread in the media from heavy metal rock videos to TV entertainment and news. Thurs, the characters’ violence simply mirrors growing youth violence in a disintegrating society and allows the possibility of a diagnostic critique of the social situation of contemporary youth (p. 325).

Animation Journal http://www.animationjournal.com/ For further reading:
Bruna, K. R. (2004). Addicted to democracy: South Park and the salutary effects of agitation (Reflections of a ranting and raving South Park junkie).
Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 47(8). http://www.readingonline.org/newliteracies/lit_index.asp?HREF=/newliteracies/jaal/5-04_column_med/index.html
Irwin, W., & Conard, M., & Skoble, A. (Eds.). (2001). The Simpsons and philosophy:
The d 'oh! of Homer. New York: Open Court.
Keslowtiz, S. (2003). The Simpsons and society: An analysis of our favorite family and its influence in contemporary society. New York: Hat’s
Off Books.
Stabile, C., & Harrison, M. (2003). Prime time animation: Television animation and American culture. New York: Palgrave.
Wells, P. (1998). Understanding animation. New York: Routledge.
Williams, R. (2002). The animator 's survival Kit: A manual of methods, principles, and formulas for classical, computer, games, stop motion, and Internet animators. London: Faber & Faber.

Comics

Another important genre is that of the comic book. http://dir.yahoo.com/Entertainment/comics_and_animation/comic_books/ http://dmoz.org/Arts/Comics/

Teachers can have students study comics both in terms of the historical development of comics from early rise of the superhero figures of the 1920s and 1930s to the patriotic hero of the 1940s to the censorship of the 1950s which did little to undercut the rising popularity of comic books during that period. http://www.geocities.com/SoHo/5537/hist.htm http://www.comic-art.com/history.htm http://www.dereksantos.com/comicpage/comicpage.html They can also examine the rise of some of the major comic books publishers, DC, Marvel, Disney, Archie, Darkhouse, Image Comics—and how they each established their own unique style, for example, the Marvel comic book style of Spiderman.
DC Comics http://www.dccomics.com/ Marvel Comics http://www.marvel.com/flash.htm Disney Comics (unofficial site) http://www.wolfstad.com/dcw/ Darkhorse Comics http://www.darkhorse.com/ Image Comics http://www.imagecomics.com/ Archie Comics http://www.archiecomics.com/9.html Students can also examine databases of comics to examine historical trends in the shifting development of comics:
Michigan State University Library, Comic book genres http://www.lib.msu.edu/comics/rri/grri/genre.htm#genres Grand Comic Book Database http://www.comics.org/ The Comic Book Homepage http://www.geocities.com/SoHo/5537/index.htm Comic Book Resources http://www.comicbookresources.com/ Words and Pictures Virtual Museum http://www.wordsandpictures.org/index.cfm James Branch Cabell Literacy: Comic Arts Collection http://www.library.vcu.edu/jbc/speccoll/comicbk1.html Michael Rhode: Comics Research Bibliography http://rpi.edu/~bulloj/comxbib.html Comics Archive http://my.execpc.com/~icicle/main.html New York City Comic Book Museum http://www.nyccomicbookmuseum.org/main.htm Students can also study the artistic aspects of comic book design by analyzing the use of technical aspects of blocking, shifting between blocks, visual display, lines, dialogue balloons, story summaries, etc., related to the development of storylines and characters. If they do not have access to comics, they can go online:
1,043 comic strips/panels http://dmoz.org/Arts/Comics/Comic_Strips_and_Panels/ 145 online comic books http://dmoz.org/Arts/Comics/Online/Comic_Books/ Web Comics http://www.webcomics.com/ They can then construct their own comic books using online resources/fonts/images http://www.idleworm.com/how/index.shtml http://www.members.shaw.ca/creatingcomics/artists.html http://www2.comicbookfonts.com/e/env/0001miAMMDkKuWsmdE8E7G9/home.html?link=/home.html http://www.studiodae.com/whizbang.html http://www.balloontales.com/index.html http://www.polykarbon.com/ http://www.hoboes.com/html/Comics/Creators/ http://www.blambot.com/ http://www.mangaschool.com/ Teachers can also consider integrating comics into the literature curriculum by selecting stories and characters from comics consistent with the themes or topics of a particular literature unit. For a useful discussion of what aspects of comics appeals to students, and how to help studentssee Robyn Hill, (2002), The Secret Origin of Good Readers: A Resource Book. http://www.night-flight.com/secretorigin/ (pdf, online book).

Comics Worth Reading: reviews http://www.comicsworthreading.com/ Comic Books for Young Adults http://ublib.buffalo.edu/libraries/units/lml/comics/pages/ Girls in the Comics http://www.gnofn.org/~jbourg/grrls/comix/comix.htm National Association of Comics Art Educators http://www.teachingcomics.org/ The Comics Journal http://www.tcj.com/1_frontdesk/about.html Teachers Guide to Using Professional Cartoonists http://cagle.slate.msn.com//teacher/ Study Guides: Teaching Comics http://www.teachingcomics.org/studyguide.php#studyguides Steve Higgins, Advocating Comics, Broken Frontier http://www.brokenfrontier.com/columns/advocatingcomics/archive/2004/acfeb20.htm Comics blog http://comics.212.net/ For further reading:
Carrier, D. (2001). The aesthetics of comics. University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press.
Klock, G. (2002). How to read superhero comics and why. New York: Continuum Publishing.
McAllister, M., Sewell, E., & Gordon, I. (Eds.). (2001). Comics & ideology. New York: Peter Lang.
McCloud, S. (1994). Understanding comics. New York: Perennial.
Morice, D. (2002). Poetry comics. New York: Teachers & Writers Collaborative.
Varnum, R., & Gibbons, C. (2002). The language of comics: Word and image. Oxford, MS: University Press of Mississippi.
Versaci, R. (2001). How comic books can change the way our students see literature: One teacher 's perspective. English Journal, 90(7), 61-67. http://www.teachingcomics.org/curriculum/perspective.php Wright, B. (2003). Comic book nation: The transformation of youth culture in America. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.

Graphic Novels

Related to the comic book is the graphic novel, whose popularity in the past 20 years has increased dramatically. Probably the best known graphic novel is Art Spiegelman 's MAUS, which portrays the world of a Polish Jewish ghetto during World War II in a comic format.

Art Spiegelman 's MAUS: Working-Through The Trauma of the Holocaust http://jefferson.village.virginia.edu/holocaust/spiegelman.html The graphic novel combines the visual material of comic books with the novel form and they tend to be written for more of an adolescent audience, although a lot of graphic novels are popular with upper elementary school students. In describing the differences in audience, Keir Graff (2003) noted:

I’ve developed a simple system that will avoid offending even the most condescending comic-book cognoscenti: if it’s clearly for children, such as Casper the Friendly Ghost, use comic book with confidence; for anything else, use graphic novel. You may receive a smug correction, explaining why Daniel Clowes’ 8-Ball is a comic but his Ghost World is a graphic novel—aficionados are a notoriously detail-oriented lot—but you won’t have erred by telling a fan his favorite form is just kid stuff. And what the heck are manga? Japanese comics, noted for characters with big hair and big eyes. In their home country they have fans of all ages—and both genders. Though the story sensibility is very different, manga art has been infiltrating American pop culture for some time. Even if you think you’re not familiar with it, you probably have seen some examples already (think Pokémon).

Jessica Abel: What is a Graphic Novel? (a visual introduction to the genre) http://www.artbomb.net/comics/introgn.jsp Online graphic novels http://www.e-sheep.com/main.shtml http://www.fantagraphics.com/comics/comics.html http://www.nbmpublishing.com/ http://www.artbomb.net/home.jsp

Best Graphic Novels Reviewed http://www.rationalmagic.com/Comics/Best.html 101 Best Graphic Novels http://www.bookfinder.us/review6/1561632856.html School Library Journal: Graphic Novels Roundup http://www.schoollibraryjournal.com/community/152/Graphic+Novels+Roundup/21355 Gorman, M (2002, August 1). What Teens Want: 30 Graphic Novels you Can 't Live Without. School Library Journal http://www.schoollibraryjournal.com/index.asp?layout=article&articleid=CA236064 Examples of graphic novels:

Asamiya, K., Batman: Child of Dreams.
Bendis, B., Ultimate Spider-Man Power and Responsibility.
Brennan, M., Electric Girl.
Busiek, K., Kurt Busiek 's Astro City Life in the Big City.
Charlip, R. Fortunately.
Clowes, D., Ghost World.
Collins, M. & Rayner, R. Road to Perdition.
David, L., Beetle Boy.
DeMatteis, J. M. & Barr, G., Brooklyn Dreams.
Dixon, C., & Gorfinkel, J. Birds of Prey.
Eisner, W., A Contract with God and other Tenement Stories.
Eisner, W. City People Notebook
Eisner, W. New York: The Big City.
Ennis, G., Preacher: Dixie Fried.
Fujishima, K., Oh My Goddess! 1-555-GODDESS.
Gaiman, N., Black Orchid.
Gaiman,N., Death The High Cost of Living.
Geary, R., The Mystery of Mary Rogers.
Giardino, V., A Jew in Communist Prague: Adolescence.
Gonick, L., The Cartoon History of the Universe II.
Groening, M., Bart Simpson 's Treehouse of Horror Spine-Tingling Spooktacular.
Hernandez, G., Palomar: The Heartbreak Soup Stories.
Hosler, J., Clan Apis.
Inzana, R. Johnny Jihad.
Kafka, F., Kuper, P., & Feiffer, J. Give It Up! And Other Short Stories.
Kafka, F., The Metamorphosis. Ed. and illus. by Peter Kuper.
Kim, H., My Sassy Girl.
Kiyama, H.F., The Four Immigrants Manga.
Kubert, J., Yossel: April 19, 1943: A Story of the Warsaw Ghetto Uprising.
Kudo, K., Mai the Psychic Girl.
Kuper, P., Give it up! And other stories.
Laird, O.L., Jr., Laird, T.N., & Bey, E.A., Still I rise.
Laird, R., Still I Rise: A Cartoon History of African Americans.
Loeb, J., Batman: the Long Halloween.
Messner-Loebs, W. & Kieth, S., Epicurus the Sage.
Millar, M., Ultimate X-Men: The Tomorrow People.
Miller, F.,Sin City.
Miller, R., Elektra Assessin.
Mills, P., Slaine: The Homed God.
Miyazaki, H., Nausicaa of the Valley of Wind Perfect Collection Vol. 1
Moore, A., Promethea Book One.
Moore, T., Strangers in Paradise High School!
Morrison, G., Arkham Asylum.
Mueller, J., Oink: Heaven’s Butcher.
Nishiyama, Y., Harlem Beat No. 1.
Petrie, D., Buffy the Vampire Slayer Ring of Fire.
Rabagliati, M., Paul Has a Summer Job.
Rall, T. 2024.
Ross, A., & Dini, P., Superman: Peace on earth.
Sacco, J. The Fixer: A Story from Sarajevo.
Sakai, S., Usagi Yojimbo Grasscutter.
Satrapi, M., Persepolis: The Story of a Childhood.
Smith, C. Loki and Alex: The Adventures of a Dog and His Best Friend.
Smith, J., Bone Out from Boneville.
Smith, K., Daredevil Visionaries.
Spiegelman, A., & Kidd, C., Jack Cole and Plastic Man.
Takahashi, R., Ranma 1/2 Volume I.
Thompson, C., Blankets.
Ware, C., Quimby the Mouse.
Watson, A., Geisha.
Wegman, W., Surprise Party.
Wegman, W., Little Red Riding Hood.
Wegman, W., My Town.
Weissman, S., White Flower Day.
Winick, J., Pedro & Me Friendship, Loss, & What I Learned.
Winick, J., The Adventures of Barry Ween, Boy Genius.
Woodring, J., The Frank Book.

The Librarian 's Guide to Anime and Manga http://www.koyagi.com/Libguide.html Recommended Graphic Novels for Public Libraries http://my.voyager.net/~sraiteri/graphicnovels.htm Graphic novel reviews http://www.geocities.com/SoHo/Study/4273/graphic.html http://www.rambles.net/gnovels.html

Manga/Graphic Novels http://www.rightstuf.com/1-800-338-6827/catalogmgr/jcfMPiWuflAy5x62Ip/browse/category/4/644/0 No Flying No Tights: teen reviews of graphic novels http://www.noflyingnotights.com/ Webquest: Net Force—the uses of graphics on the Web based on graphics in comic books http://www.geocities.com/lukasaurus_smith/ Chandler-Olcott, K., & Mahar, D. (2001). Considering genre in the digital literacy classroom. Reading Online,5(4). (teaching Anime genre forms) http://www.readingonline.org/electronic/elec_index.asp?HREF=hillinger/index.html For further reading:
Bruggeman, L. (1997). “Zap! whoosh! kerplow! Build high-quality graphic novel collections with impact.” School Library Journal, January: 22–27.
Crawford, P. (2004). A novel approach: Using graphic novels to attract reluctant readers. Library Media Connection. 26-28.
Eisner, W. (1996). Graphic storytelling and visual narrative. New York: Poorhouse Press.
Frey, N., & Fisher, D. (2004). Using graphic novels, Anime, and the Internet in an urban high school. English Journal, 93(3), 19-25.
Gorman, M. (2003). Getting graphic! Using graphic novels to promote literacy with preteens and teens. Worthington, Ohio: Linworth Publishing.
Gorman, M. (2003, November/December). Graphic novels and the curriculum connection. Library Media Connection, 20-21.
Miller, S., & Shoemaker, J. (Eds.). (2004). Developing and promoting graphic novel collections. New York: Neal-Schuman Publishers.
Rothschild, D. A. (1995). Graphic novels: A bibliographic guide to book-length comics. Englewood, CO: Libraries Unlimited.
Sabin, R. (2001). Comics, comix & graphic Novels : A history Of comic art. New York: Phaidon Press.
Schwarz, G.E. (2002, November). Graphic novels for multiple literacies. Journal of
Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 46(3). http://www.readingonline.org/newliteracies/lit_index.asp?HREF=jaal/11-02_column/index.html Weiner, S. (2002). Beyond superheroes: Comics get serious. Library Journal, 127(2),
55–58. http://www.libraryjournal.com/index.asp?layout=articleArchive&articleId=CA191649&display=searchResults&stt=001
Weiner, S., & Decandido, K. (Eds.). (2003). The 101 best graphic novels. New York: NBM Publishing.
Weiner, S., & Couch, C. (Eds.). (2004). The rise of the graphic novel. New York: NBM Publishing.

Teaching Activity
Ask students to work in pairs to present a PowerPoint presentation on one particular film or television genre.
1. Do some research on a genre by going on the Web via Google (type in name of genre) or using the links in this module.
2. Summarize the key components of the genre in terms of the:
- prototypical roles
- setting(s)
- language/discourse
- typical storylines in terms of the problems/issues dealt with (“crime”), who solves the problem (“the tough cop”), the means used to solve the problem (“violence”), and themes (“that crime doesn’t pay”), and value assumptions (“eye for an eye, tooth for a tooth”).
3. Find a visual still clip (from the Web) or URL that contains a video clip (trailers would be very useful—go to the trailer sites http://www.apple.com/trailers/ http://www.darkhorizons.com/trailers.php http://www.movie-list.com/ http://home.real.com/?src=rg http://www.theater.nl/onstage/0,2083,1753,00.html http://www.vidnet.com/ http://www.hollywood.com/multimedia/ http://uk.imdb.com/Sections/Trailers/ http://www.sonypictures.com/spe/zones/clip_vault_index.html 4. Prepare a summary in PowerPoint.

References
Altman, R. (1995). A semantic/syntactic approach to film genre. In B. K. Grant (Ed.), Film Genre Reader II (pp. 26-40). Austin: University of Texas Press.
Ang, I. (1985). Watching “Dallas”: Television and the melodramatic imagination. New York: Routledge.
Bennett, T., & Woollacott, J. (1987). Bond and beyond: The political career of a popular hero. New York: Methuen.
Brooks, R. (2001). Sport. In G. Creeber (Ed.), The television genre book (pp. 87-89). London: British Film Institute.
Brown, M. E. (1994). Soap opera and women’s talk. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Creeber, G., ed (2001). The television genre book. London: British Film Institute.
Dayan, D., & Katz, E. (1992). Media events: The live broadcasting of history. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Desser, D. (2000). The martial arts film in the 1990s. In W. Dixon (ed), Film genre 2000: New critical essays(pp. 77-110) Albany, NY: SUNY Press.
Dovey, J. (2001). Reality TV. In G. Creeber (Ed.), The television genre book (pp. 134-137). London: British Film Institute.
Fiske, J. (1994). Audiencing: Cultural practice and cultural studies. In N. Denzin & Y. Lincoln (Eds.), The handbook of qualitative research(189-198). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Giroux, H. (2001). The mouse that roared: Disney and the end of innocence. New York: Rowman & Littlefield.
Giroux, H. (1996). Fugitive cultures: Race, violence & youth. New York: Routledge.
Graff, K. (2003, February 1). References on the Web: Graphic novels.
Booklist.
http://www.ala.org/ala/booklist/speciallists/speciallistsandfeatures3/referenceonweb/graphicnovels.htm
Grant, B. K. (1995). Experience and meaning in genre films. In B. K. Grant (Ed.), Film Genre Reader II (pp. 114-127). Austin: University of Texas Press.
Hartley, J. (2001). Situation comedy. In G. Creeber (Ed.), The television genre book (pp. 65-67). London: British Film Institute.
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Teaching activities on genre developed by students in CI5472, Spring, 2004:

Louise Covert and Becca Robertson
I think it would be interesting to look at the truly American Western genre with my students and explore the evolution of the type of film in the history of American Movie making. In particular, I think it would be an excellent way to look at the evolution of how women and men were and are now portrayed in earlier and more recent western filmmaking. Also, the difference in the dignity afforded to Native Americans in Dances With Wolves as juxtaposed with early westerns and the inaccurate stereotypes of that culture.
I enjoy teaching students about the spaghetti westerns (Italian movies), and some of the most popular early American actors who became famous in their roles as cowboys or lawmen in the early west (rugged individualism, outsider).

I also like comparing and contrasting the movie, The Magnificent 7
(a western) and The Seven Samurai - one of my favorite Japanese films...(the individual vs. collective values reflected therein...and the transformation of the American heroes in that film (Magnificent 7) to a more collective effort the save the townspeople from the raiders and bandits. I think that, as a class, we would go through some of these elements of the genre, and then I would ask students to further explore one or more aspects of the western 's evolution and provide examples to explain and share with our class.

Mary Hagen and Beth O 'Hara
In teaching 7th grade language arts one lesson we explore is setting -- what it is and how the author creates it. This is a perfect opportunity to bring in film/TV to examine setting and how it is created. It would be interesting to compare the settings in different genres and examine how they are created by the authors and how they affect the story line/characters. Finding generalizations across genres and typical aspects to the setting of different genres would be accomplished by breaking into groups to explore certain genres and reporting back to the group on what information they found about setting and their genre. It would be especially interesting to look at such genres as the western and what 7th graders today think of them -- my guess is most are not very familiar due to their age. My next step would be to examine characters across the genres -- how they are created and what types of characters are typical in certain genres.

Our main goal would be for the students to construct their own knowledge about aspects of certain genres, explore genres they are not already familiar with, and relate genre to setting and characters, etc.

Katrina Thomson and Jennie Viland
Have students pick an independent novel to read in a genre that they enjoy (e.g. science fiction, romance, mystery, detective, horror, historical or whatever). After they have read it, have them find/choose a film of the same genre (but not the film version of the same book - that way that can 't get away with just watching the movie). Have them compare the two in terms of the characteristics of the genre. What are the elements that are similar and/or different in the different media? A further exercise might be to right a film/book review of each, or to write a "pitch" about how the student would turn the book into a film drawing on the characteristics of that genre to bring it to life (elements such as cast, setting, special effects etc. should be included in the pitch).

Adam Banse & Dan Gough
Just as spoofs are a good entryway into exploring and understanding advertising, they could also be used to examine genre in film.
Students could research genres, just as we did in class, and establish a list of norms and regulations commonly associated with that genre. Students could then play with the genre by creating a spoof. Students could complete this assignment by making their own spoof Imovie, storyboarding a spoof movie, writing a screenplay proposal or even just designing a poster for a spoof movie of a genre.
By taking apart the genre, we feel that students may construct a better understanding of it as well. The process could be modeled by showing clips of famous spoof movies and exploring how they subvert the norms.

Jennifer Larson
My idea about genre deals with something I’ve seen as a problem when students write their short story, which has been an archetypal hero narrative. They often don’t know where to start and try to reproduce the latest movie they saw rather than writing about what they know. I think doing something with genre would help them write better stories.

I would start by having students brainstorm a list of things they spend a lot of time with and therefore know a lot about: dancing, hanging out with friends, sports, etc. This will offer them choices of the setting for their story.

Next I’ll have them brainstorm problems that can occur in these situations archetypally, this will lead to the problem in the ordinary world that needs to be solved.

Next I’ll ask students write down personal problems/flaws that the hero could have in these situations that would need to be solved in order for the hero to solve the problem in the ordinary world.
Finally, we’ll consider genre. I’ll ask students to write down as many genres as they can based on what they’ve seen on TV and in film. Different people in class will brainstorm the characteristics of different genres; we’ll share them so students can choose the genre that will best deliver the story they can write based on what they know.

Anne Holmgren and Dixie Boschee
Select a film genre that has obvious setting, plot, characters, iconography, and language/discourses and issues/encounters. For this example, we will use adventure and show the first of the Indiana Jones movies. The class watches the movie as a whole, but is divided into groups of the following: (1) setting (2) characters (3) iconography (4) plot (5) issues/encounters (6) language/discourses. Each group is responsible for defining what is typically encountered in adventure movies based on what they already know and from this film. From here, they will work on their own genre film analysis, but the first one is done in class together.

Rachel Godlewski and Jessie Dockter
After introducing students to various genres, students could individually, or in pairs, choose a genre to investigate through both literature and film. Students could compare historical fiction with historical film, romantic literature (Victorian authors -- not Harlequin) with romantic film, mystery with mystery, westerns with westerns, etc. Once they choose a genre, they would select books to read and movies to view. Students would need to determine the elements of the genre in print and in film, and explain the ways in which those elements remain the same or differ in the two mediums. The final product could be an essay, a presentation, or both. The final project would require students to choose specific passages from the books, and clips from the films to share with the class.

Meghan Scott and Megan Dwyer-Gaffey
We thought it would be interesting to do a compare/contrast presentation with genres. After studying the various genres in class and modeling a compare/contrast presentation to the students, they would do their own project. Students could do one of three things: compare and contrast two films in the same genre, compare and contrast the same film in a certain genre (for example, they could do the original Thomas Crowne Affair and the remake or, like we saw in class, the original and remake of Ocean’s Eleven (where two groups had two very different impressions of the same film within the heist genre), or compare and contrast a novel with its movie counterpart.

Erin Grahmann and Erin Warren
Intro activity: have students pick their favorite movie. They must form a presentation that takes that movie, and movies like it, and points out the typical setting, plot, characters, and themes. They can work in groups, perhaps, and then will present it to the class. After these presentations, the teacher will bring everything together by telling the students that they just defined multiple genres: action, drama, comedy, horror, etc. Thus, the students will form authentic, spontaneous ideas about this subject, making it much more meaningful to them.

Reid Westrem and Brock Dubbels
This is really the sketch of an idea. Actually, our idea related to our genre study of mockumentaries, which succeed by playing off the viewers understanding of the documentary genre. So a natural activity would be to ask student to produce a brief genre parody film, maybe relating it to a famous scene in a classic film.

How about a study of an unintentional parody? Obviously, we all believe that we can learn something from great films. But can we also learn from lousy films? The '50s B-movie has almost become a sort of genre unto itself, but when these films were made they were attempted as "horror" or "science fiction" movies. Students could choose a "bad" movie from a list provided by the teacher -- anything by Ed Wood would do, such as "Plan 9 from Outer Space" -- and compare it with a respected movie from the same genre. Students would show representative scenes from each movie to the class, analyzing them to show why one works and the other doesn 't. Furthermore, since the whole notion of "success" and "failure" requires an implicit set of standards, an extension activity could be to try to explicitly define the standards of excellence that apply to a certain genre. A further extension would be to watch another film from the same genre (neither a classic nor a bomb) and write a review based on these standards.

Kathryn Connors and Amy Gustafson
Amy and I would have students create a short film that shows insight into a particular genre. This could mean that they followed the structure of a genre. Or they could try to defy the structure of a genre. Of course they could also try to combine some genres. They would present their films and talk about the choices they made. Then the class could talk about how the film was effective and how it compared to other works in the genre. If there was not enough time or a lack of resources for actual filming, students could do skits.

Katherine Schultz and Kari Gladen
This lesson would be placed at the end of a unit in which students study genres in films and television. Students will be divided into groups of 3-4. Each group will focus on a particular genre. The groups will study their particular genre to the point where they become familiar with the patterns and semantic components commonly found within them. Class time and media center visits will be allotted for students to view movies and complete research. Students will then be asked to pick a particular scene in a movie that exemplifies their genre most clearly. If possible, help students to obtain copies of the scripts. Within these groups, each student will be assigned a movie/TV production role. Students might be in charge of directing, imagery, or set design. On the final day of the activity, students will direct and perform their chosen scenes using the scripts and casting and directing their peers. Tell each group that they are responsible for directing their classmates and emphasizing the components central to the genre they are representing. The final performances will be recorded and played for the class. Each group will present their genre performance and explain the patterns and intentions they had while making directorial decisions.

Tammy McCartney and Kimberly Sy
Have students recognize films that are "multi-gendered." Select a film that has strong appeal in more than one genre (example: action and romance). Students will view the film and recognize the components that make it fall into both categories. Discussion could lead to a debate on which genre makes a stronger case—which target audience would enjoy the film more?

This activity also connects well with archetype studies in the literary world. Connect the fact that many films belong to more than one genre with the fact that many novels fall into more than one archetype (depending on your reading and analysis).

Josh Wetjen and Tom Deshotels
In order to draw student attention to differing genres, we would ask students to bring in their favorite song. After hearing some of the class songs, we would ask the students to make a list of all the types of music they brought as a class (pop, rap, heavy metal, etc.). Then we would attempt to define those different styles (heavy bass lines, repetitive beat, distorted guitar, etc.). We would ask what some similarities are between music genres and what truly defining characteristics a genre possesses alone. For fun, we could combine typically unique qualities from one genre to others to create a new genre.