Foster Care Ethics Analysis
The Differences in Ethical Standards between the United States and China
Samantha Bates
University of Denver
When an individual thinks of ethics they may think of universal rules and morals that everyone follows to ensure the safety of persons and social justice for those who violate these said rules. However, they would be wrong in believing such ethical standards are held at such high standards internationally compared to our Western ideals. Even ethical standards in the United States tend to vary across states. While thinking in an ethical mind set I thought about a group of persons, who are important to me, children in the foster care system. This particular group of individuals is important to me because I was a summer counselor for children who were diagnosed with ADHA and other co-diagnoses, and the majority of the children have been through the foster care system. I decided to compare the ethical standards held in the foster care systems in the United States to the foster care systems in China because nearly one-third of Chinese children were adopted into the United States in 2007 (“China adoption statistics,” 2007). Therefore, we are relying on Chinese ethical standards for the care of these children until they are settled in the United States with their family. Child-care in the United States has …show more content…
changed a large portion from what it was historically. There are no gender roles held in the United States and therefore both parents help in providing for their families. Both genders are also the primary caregivers for the children, and there is also a belief that both females and males should be raised equally. Parents in the United States also have a more authoritative parenting style where they hold both discipline and nurturing in high regards. This explains why foster care systems find it important to provide foster children with a stable family environment where the foster parents are able to provide a loving environment for the children and at the same time a place where the children develop a sense of responsibility and healthy modeling is observed. Mori, Liu, Otsuki, Mochizuki, and Kashiwabara (2012) discuss the cultural appropriateness of child-rearing practices in their research article that compares Japanese and Chinese child-care values. Japan is still a traditional culture where gender roles still exist; males provide for the family and females are in charge of the housekeeping and child-care. Therefore, it is the mothers’ responsibility to care for the children. The decline of help from extended families is also exercised in Japan because although they may find family to be important they believe child-rearing to be a domestic responsibility. These values are not held by the Chinese culture. In China there is a need for both parents to provide for the family, and there is also a belief of shared responsibility in child-care. Chinese parents are also advocates of outside child-care help. They receive both public services, such as daycare, and private services, such as the help from extended family, because the concept of extended family is ingrained in the culture, both spouses work, and also because there is easy access to extended family due to the close proximity between family members. Mothers are more over protective, in China, and have higher expectations of their children than Japanese mothers because of China’s one-child policy implemented in 1979. This allows for a one-track mind that we only have one chance to do this right where Japanese families can have multiple children. Chinese mothers, therefore, strongly believe that their child’s development is entirely based on the parents love and efforts. Although these child-rearing practices are important to understand the structure of foster care systems in China they are a far depiction of the truth. The intense love and efforts discussed above for both cultures is an image of reality for healthy children who have families; however, children who are orphaned or disabled face and dissimilar reality. In the United States there appears to be clear cut boundaries and rules when regarding children in foster care. In 2011 there were 423,000 children who were living without permanent families in the foster care system. The majority of the children who are placed in the system are done so because of physical abuse, sexual abuse, malnutrition, neglect, or because their parents are unable to care for them properly (“National facts about,” 2005). Foster care in the United States may vary among states but for the most part it follows the same basic code of ethics outline. The foster care system helps to assist parents in regaining custody or makes alternative plans, intended to be permanent, for the children. Each child is provided a foster family and a social worker who have the skills to support the child’s needs, and legal representation by the agency to ensure timely and skillful responses to case plans involving court proceeding (“Code of ethics,” 2007). Foster care systems require extensive training to become certified foster parents and then require that all foster parents follow 18 core principles (“Code of ethics,” 2007). Along with the key principles set in place there is a code of ethics that the agency holds the foster parents to as well to ensure the best interests of the child are being set forth as the main priority. The codes discuss how foster parents cannot discriminate against the child; they cannot take part in sexual contact or intimacy with the child, the child’s relatives, or anyone on the treatment team for the child, the foster parents have to respect the child’s confidentiality, etc. (Ponder, 2010). As I stated above the foster care system provides the foster child with a social worker. Just as the foster parents are held to certain ethical standards so are the social workers. However, the social workers are held at a more professional level than are the parents. The social workers code of ethics is paralleled by the Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct administered through the American Psychological Association. Social workers promote social justice and social change with and on behalf of clients and to strive to end discrimination. The social worker embraces six core values of service, social justice, dignity and worth of the person, importance of human relationships, integrity, and competence. Social workers ensure that their clients have access to resources necessary for their circumstances. The social worker has several ethical standards that they are obligated to follow. Referring back to the competency core value; the social workers practice within their area of competence and enhance their knowledge through continued education, and staying up-to-date on the latest research studies (NASW, 2008). As much as we hope ethics would transfer across all boards and it would allow for us to make a clean comparison that is not the case; especially because there has only been a recent movement in China to move children from institutional care to foster care (Shang, 2002). The reasoning behind why children are placed into care agencies differs from the reasons American children are placed there. Children in China ultimately end up in care facilities because they are orphaned or abandoned because their parents could not afford to care for them or because of China’s one-child policy, or because they are disabled. There is a stigma against the disabled and Chinese families may not have the funds available to care for a disabled child when they know care facilities can fund the children’s medical needs. Another difference between the two nations with the children in the foster care system is that reunification is the goal in the United States; however, that is not a possibility for the children in China because they have no chance to communicate with their birth parents and due to their disabilities they do not have a good chance of being adopted. It is easy to see why creating a foster care system in China would be important. These children need to feel as if they belong to a family, and family foster care is a way to achieve this. Due to the circumstances of the children in China the government agencies take on the responsibilities of being their legal guardian. In the United States legal responsibility of the foster children is shared between the state and the caregiver of the child (Molin & Palmer, 2005). Guardianship raises ethical concerns about informed consent and access to information. The process in the United States is messy because all parties have to be taken into consideration, whereas, in China it would be an easier process. After the communist government came to office in 1949 there were a number of changes made to child-care facilities. The development of children welfare homes relied on the nation’s interests and not those of the children. This became such a big deal that the situation of orphans became a political symbol: either it was regarded as socialists’ advantages or an image that brought shame to the society (Shang, 2002). This would create an ethical dilemma in the United States because the exploitation of the orphans is taking place and the end result either way is harming the children. One ethical code that both nations agree on is meeting physical and mental health care needs of the children (NASW, 2008). Like I states previously this is why children may be abandoned in China because state welfare homes foot the bill for surgical and medical costs for the children (Shang, 2002). Due to all of the changes in China there has been a shift toward better childcare facilities and because of this many informal children’s welfare homes have popped up in China. As great as it is that more people want to help this group of individuals several ethical codes appear to have been ignored. The majority of these informal homes do not have the right to be legal guardians and the staff lack experience in caring for children (Shang, 2002). Now we are breaching an ethical code of legal nature where the children are being put into harm’s way because these agencies cannot care for them properly because they cannot make decisions on the children’s behalf. There is also an ethical concern of the competency of the staff. The Ministry of Civil Affairs (MOCA) has since taken action to address these concerns by requiring local governments to take full responsibility for protecting orphaned or abandoned children. MOCA has also made it where children’s welfare homes must be run by the government or jointly run by NGO’s and civil affairs bureaus at or above country level. The care facilities must also sign a contract with local civil affairs bureaus before placing children in foster care (Shang, 2002). These changes have made it possible for foster care homes to meet the approval requirements and provide safe and secure environments. China is missing a factor for foster children that I find important that the United States has, and that is a social worker for the foster children. Providing a social worker for each child is an ethical standard that the United States holds, but China did not have one trained social worker (Shang, 2002). However, China is planning on employing social workers in the future. Social workers are important because they ensure that the children are receiving the services and resources they need. Not having a social worker is considered an ethical violation in the United States. There are instances when not only that our two nations clash but also when the people of China disagree with their government. A group of individuals who make up the Save the Children Fund (SCF) disagreed with their local officials on whether foster care or institutional care is better for the children. The SCF sides with foster care because the children are better cared for and happier. Local officials disagree and believe institutional care is better because the children can more easily accept a communal lifestyle and they are better prepared for hard work in the future. One could say that the local official’s beliefs are unethical because they do not necessarily provide the children with a loving, nurturing, and stable family care environment. However, their views agree with their cultural values about child-rearing by ensuring the child is prepared for the future. These views do not necessitate a violation of ethics in Chinese culture. In 1997 foster care was agreed upon being the best choice for orphaned children (Shang, 2002). In the United States foster parents are put through rigorous education and training courses in order to become certified. Historically, China used volunteer foster parents, especially in rural areas where the numbers of foster care homes were limited. The Chinese government also does not cover the full cost of the foster child; therefore, the adults volunteering for foster care are in the high to middle class range because they are the only group of people who can afford to provide care for a foster child. It is easy to see why these two characteristics of the foster parents in China would cause people from America an ethical headache. The entire code of ethics is thrown out the window when you do not require much from the foster parents. There is no guarantee that the child is safe, that confidentiality is being kept, that the child’s needs are being met, etc. As for their being a standard of income necessary for foster a child, the Chinese foster care facilities are discriminating against families who may better qualify for the position. A new procedure for foster parents was created in 1997. Newly recruited parents take a one-day training course, they are put on probation for three months, staff from the foster care agency visit the family once a month and contact the families through telephone once a week, and after the three months period is up a formal contract is signed between the agency and the parents. Even now the criteria for choosing foster parents in China are culturally oriented. The responsibility of checking in on foster children and their new families is disseminated between the community and the staff members of the foster care agency (Shang, 2002). This dissemination of responsibility would be seen as unethical in the United States; whereas, in China it is a reliable way of watching over the children because of the importance place on the community. While researching the topic of foster care in the United States I learned that we have clear boundaries for what is and is not acceptable when making ethical decisions. I thought it was great that our foster care system places such an effort on including everyone in the child’s life on decisions being made for the child. There is an underlying level of respect for all of the parties being affected. I also learned that in terms of ethics across nations for foster care not a whole lot exists. However, it was good to hear that there is a new movement towards putting a better foster care system in place. One of the hardest obstacles I faced in researching the topic was discovering the lack of training that is made available and mandatory for foster parents in China. I was glad to find that staff members are taking more initiative in checking in on the children, but I do not believe one-day of training is enough to begin placing children in adults care. Another fact that was hard for me to swallow was the reasoning behind why the children were put into foster care in China. I personally put a lot of the blame on the government’s one-child policy because it seemed to me that the biological parents were playing God and decided whether or not they wanted to keep their infant or try again. I took this point of view because of the high number of females and disabled children who were abandoned. I did not get a lot of positive feedback about the past and current policies in China’s foster care system. G.S. found it upsetting how easy it seemed families were able to get approved for foster care in China. G.S. also said he wished there was a more nurturing and loving environment available to these children for their own development, but also because of the large number of children adopted in from China to the United States. I agree with G.S. response about the importance of a nurturing environment for foster children around the world. I wish I would have directed my ethics paper more towards the mental health ethics and beliefs between the two nations. I believe there may have been more ethical concerns because of the beliefs each nation holds about mental health care.
References
China adoption statistics. (2007). Retrieved from http://ouradopt.com/content/china-adoption-statistics
Code of ethics for foster parents. (2007, May). Retrieved from http://www.nfpainc.org/Default.aspx?pageId=1020550
Foster care alumni of america. National facts about children in foster care. (2005). Retrieved from http://www.fostercarealumni.org/resources/foster_care_facts_and_statistics.htm
Molin, R., & Palmer, S. (2005). Consent and participation: Ethical issues in the treatment of children in out-of-home care. American journal of orthopsychiatry,75(1), 152-157. doi: 10.1037/0002-9432.75.1.152
Mori, E., Liu, C., Otsuki, E., Mochizuki, Y., & Kashiwabara, E. (2012). Comparing child-care values in japan and china among parents with infants . International journal of nursing practice, 18(2), 18-27. doi: 10.1111/j.1440-172X.2012.02025.x
National Association of Social Workers [NASW] (2008). Code of ethics of the National Association of SocialWorkers.Washington, DC: National Association of SocialWorkers
[NASW]. Retrieved from http://www.socialworkers.org/pubs/code/code.asp
Ponder, A. (2010, October 10). Code of ethics: Foster parent ethics. Retrieved from http://www.slideshare.net/nfinited/code-of-ethics-foster-parent
Shang, X. (2002). Looking for a better way to care for children: Cooperation between the state and civil society in china.
Social service review, 1-25. Retrieved from http://jc3th3db7e.search.serialssolutions.com/?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&ctx_enc=info:ofi/enc:UTF-8&rfr_id=info:sid/summon.serialssolutions.com&rft_val_fmt=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:journal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Looking for a Better Way to Care for Children: Cooperation between the State and Civil Society in China&rft.jtitle=The Social Service Review&rft.au=Shang, Xiaoyuan&rft.date=2002-06-01&rft.pub=The University of Chicago
Press&rft.issn=0037-7961&rft.volume=76&rft.issue=2&rft.spage=203&rft.epage=228&rft_id=info:doi/10.1086/339671&rft.externalDocID=10.1086/339671
Samantha Bates
University of Denver
When an individual thinks of ethics they may think of universal rules and morals that everyone follows to ensure the safety of persons and social justice for those who violate these said rules. However, they would be wrong in believing such ethical standards are held at such high standards internationally compared to our Western ideals. Even ethical standards in the United States tend to vary across states. While thinking in an ethical mind set I thought about a group of persons, who are important to me, children in the foster care system. This particular group of individuals is important to me because I was a summer counselor for children who were diagnosed with ADHA and other co-diagnoses, and the majority of the children have been through the foster care system. I decided to compare the ethical standards held in the foster care systems in the United States to the foster care systems in China because nearly one-third of Chinese children were adopted into the United States in 2007 (“China adoption statistics,” 2007). Therefore, we are relying on Chinese ethical standards for the care of these children until they are settled in the United States with their family. Child-care in the United States has …show more content…
changed a large portion from what it was historically. There are no gender roles held in the United States and therefore both parents help in providing for their families. Both genders are also the primary caregivers for the children, and there is also a belief that both females and males should be raised equally. Parents in the United States also have a more authoritative parenting style where they hold both discipline and nurturing in high regards. This explains why foster care systems find it important to provide foster children with a stable family environment where the foster parents are able to provide a loving environment for the children and at the same time a place where the children develop a sense of responsibility and healthy modeling is observed. Mori, Liu, Otsuki, Mochizuki, and Kashiwabara (2012) discuss the cultural appropriateness of child-rearing practices in their research article that compares Japanese and Chinese child-care values. Japan is still a traditional culture where gender roles still exist; males provide for the family and females are in charge of the housekeeping and child-care. Therefore, it is the mothers’ responsibility to care for the children. The decline of help from extended families is also exercised in Japan because although they may find family to be important they believe child-rearing to be a domestic responsibility. These values are not held by the Chinese culture. In China there is a need for both parents to provide for the family, and there is also a belief of shared responsibility in child-care. Chinese parents are also advocates of outside child-care help. They receive both public services, such as daycare, and private services, such as the help from extended family, because the concept of extended family is ingrained in the culture, both spouses work, and also because there is easy access to extended family due to the close proximity between family members. Mothers are more over protective, in China, and have higher expectations of their children than Japanese mothers because of China’s one-child policy implemented in 1979. This allows for a one-track mind that we only have one chance to do this right where Japanese families can have multiple children. Chinese mothers, therefore, strongly believe that their child’s development is entirely based on the parents love and efforts. Although these child-rearing practices are important to understand the structure of foster care systems in China they are a far depiction of the truth. The intense love and efforts discussed above for both cultures is an image of reality for healthy children who have families; however, children who are orphaned or disabled face and dissimilar reality. In the United States there appears to be clear cut boundaries and rules when regarding children in foster care. In 2011 there were 423,000 children who were living without permanent families in the foster care system. The majority of the children who are placed in the system are done so because of physical abuse, sexual abuse, malnutrition, neglect, or because their parents are unable to care for them properly (“National facts about,” 2005). Foster care in the United States may vary among states but for the most part it follows the same basic code of ethics outline. The foster care system helps to assist parents in regaining custody or makes alternative plans, intended to be permanent, for the children. Each child is provided a foster family and a social worker who have the skills to support the child’s needs, and legal representation by the agency to ensure timely and skillful responses to case plans involving court proceeding (“Code of ethics,” 2007). Foster care systems require extensive training to become certified foster parents and then require that all foster parents follow 18 core principles (“Code of ethics,” 2007). Along with the key principles set in place there is a code of ethics that the agency holds the foster parents to as well to ensure the best interests of the child are being set forth as the main priority. The codes discuss how foster parents cannot discriminate against the child; they cannot take part in sexual contact or intimacy with the child, the child’s relatives, or anyone on the treatment team for the child, the foster parents have to respect the child’s confidentiality, etc. (Ponder, 2010). As I stated above the foster care system provides the foster child with a social worker. Just as the foster parents are held to certain ethical standards so are the social workers. However, the social workers are held at a more professional level than are the parents. The social workers code of ethics is paralleled by the Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct administered through the American Psychological Association. Social workers promote social justice and social change with and on behalf of clients and to strive to end discrimination. The social worker embraces six core values of service, social justice, dignity and worth of the person, importance of human relationships, integrity, and competence. Social workers ensure that their clients have access to resources necessary for their circumstances. The social worker has several ethical standards that they are obligated to follow. Referring back to the competency core value; the social workers practice within their area of competence and enhance their knowledge through continued education, and staying up-to-date on the latest research studies (NASW, 2008). As much as we hope ethics would transfer across all boards and it would allow for us to make a clean comparison that is not the case; especially because there has only been a recent movement in China to move children from institutional care to foster care (Shang, 2002). The reasoning behind why children are placed into care agencies differs from the reasons American children are placed there. Children in China ultimately end up in care facilities because they are orphaned or abandoned because their parents could not afford to care for them or because of China’s one-child policy, or because they are disabled. There is a stigma against the disabled and Chinese families may not have the funds available to care for a disabled child when they know care facilities can fund the children’s medical needs. Another difference between the two nations with the children in the foster care system is that reunification is the goal in the United States; however, that is not a possibility for the children in China because they have no chance to communicate with their birth parents and due to their disabilities they do not have a good chance of being adopted. It is easy to see why creating a foster care system in China would be important. These children need to feel as if they belong to a family, and family foster care is a way to achieve this. Due to the circumstances of the children in China the government agencies take on the responsibilities of being their legal guardian. In the United States legal responsibility of the foster children is shared between the state and the caregiver of the child (Molin & Palmer, 2005). Guardianship raises ethical concerns about informed consent and access to information. The process in the United States is messy because all parties have to be taken into consideration, whereas, in China it would be an easier process. After the communist government came to office in 1949 there were a number of changes made to child-care facilities. The development of children welfare homes relied on the nation’s interests and not those of the children. This became such a big deal that the situation of orphans became a political symbol: either it was regarded as socialists’ advantages or an image that brought shame to the society (Shang, 2002). This would create an ethical dilemma in the United States because the exploitation of the orphans is taking place and the end result either way is harming the children. One ethical code that both nations agree on is meeting physical and mental health care needs of the children (NASW, 2008). Like I states previously this is why children may be abandoned in China because state welfare homes foot the bill for surgical and medical costs for the children (Shang, 2002). Due to all of the changes in China there has been a shift toward better childcare facilities and because of this many informal children’s welfare homes have popped up in China. As great as it is that more people want to help this group of individuals several ethical codes appear to have been ignored. The majority of these informal homes do not have the right to be legal guardians and the staff lack experience in caring for children (Shang, 2002). Now we are breaching an ethical code of legal nature where the children are being put into harm’s way because these agencies cannot care for them properly because they cannot make decisions on the children’s behalf. There is also an ethical concern of the competency of the staff. The Ministry of Civil Affairs (MOCA) has since taken action to address these concerns by requiring local governments to take full responsibility for protecting orphaned or abandoned children. MOCA has also made it where children’s welfare homes must be run by the government or jointly run by NGO’s and civil affairs bureaus at or above country level. The care facilities must also sign a contract with local civil affairs bureaus before placing children in foster care (Shang, 2002). These changes have made it possible for foster care homes to meet the approval requirements and provide safe and secure environments. China is missing a factor for foster children that I find important that the United States has, and that is a social worker for the foster children. Providing a social worker for each child is an ethical standard that the United States holds, but China did not have one trained social worker (Shang, 2002). However, China is planning on employing social workers in the future. Social workers are important because they ensure that the children are receiving the services and resources they need. Not having a social worker is considered an ethical violation in the United States. There are instances when not only that our two nations clash but also when the people of China disagree with their government. A group of individuals who make up the Save the Children Fund (SCF) disagreed with their local officials on whether foster care or institutional care is better for the children. The SCF sides with foster care because the children are better cared for and happier. Local officials disagree and believe institutional care is better because the children can more easily accept a communal lifestyle and they are better prepared for hard work in the future. One could say that the local official’s beliefs are unethical because they do not necessarily provide the children with a loving, nurturing, and stable family care environment. However, their views agree with their cultural values about child-rearing by ensuring the child is prepared for the future. These views do not necessitate a violation of ethics in Chinese culture. In 1997 foster care was agreed upon being the best choice for orphaned children (Shang, 2002). In the United States foster parents are put through rigorous education and training courses in order to become certified. Historically, China used volunteer foster parents, especially in rural areas where the numbers of foster care homes were limited. The Chinese government also does not cover the full cost of the foster child; therefore, the adults volunteering for foster care are in the high to middle class range because they are the only group of people who can afford to provide care for a foster child. It is easy to see why these two characteristics of the foster parents in China would cause people from America an ethical headache. The entire code of ethics is thrown out the window when you do not require much from the foster parents. There is no guarantee that the child is safe, that confidentiality is being kept, that the child’s needs are being met, etc. As for their being a standard of income necessary for foster a child, the Chinese foster care facilities are discriminating against families who may better qualify for the position. A new procedure for foster parents was created in 1997. Newly recruited parents take a one-day training course, they are put on probation for three months, staff from the foster care agency visit the family once a month and contact the families through telephone once a week, and after the three months period is up a formal contract is signed between the agency and the parents. Even now the criteria for choosing foster parents in China are culturally oriented. The responsibility of checking in on foster children and their new families is disseminated between the community and the staff members of the foster care agency (Shang, 2002). This dissemination of responsibility would be seen as unethical in the United States; whereas, in China it is a reliable way of watching over the children because of the importance place on the community. While researching the topic of foster care in the United States I learned that we have clear boundaries for what is and is not acceptable when making ethical decisions. I thought it was great that our foster care system places such an effort on including everyone in the child’s life on decisions being made for the child. There is an underlying level of respect for all of the parties being affected. I also learned that in terms of ethics across nations for foster care not a whole lot exists. However, it was good to hear that there is a new movement towards putting a better foster care system in place. One of the hardest obstacles I faced in researching the topic was discovering the lack of training that is made available and mandatory for foster parents in China. I was glad to find that staff members are taking more initiative in checking in on the children, but I do not believe one-day of training is enough to begin placing children in adults care. Another fact that was hard for me to swallow was the reasoning behind why the children were put into foster care in China. I personally put a lot of the blame on the government’s one-child policy because it seemed to me that the biological parents were playing God and decided whether or not they wanted to keep their infant or try again. I took this point of view because of the high number of females and disabled children who were abandoned. I did not get a lot of positive feedback about the past and current policies in China’s foster care system. G.S. found it upsetting how easy it seemed families were able to get approved for foster care in China. G.S. also said he wished there was a more nurturing and loving environment available to these children for their own development, but also because of the large number of children adopted in from China to the United States. I agree with G.S. response about the importance of a nurturing environment for foster children around the world. I wish I would have directed my ethics paper more towards the mental health ethics and beliefs between the two nations. I believe there may have been more ethical concerns because of the beliefs each nation holds about mental health care.
References
China adoption statistics. (2007). Retrieved from http://ouradopt.com/content/china-adoption-statistics
Code of ethics for foster parents. (2007, May). Retrieved from http://www.nfpainc.org/Default.aspx?pageId=1020550
Foster care alumni of america. National facts about children in foster care. (2005). Retrieved from http://www.fostercarealumni.org/resources/foster_care_facts_and_statistics.htm
Molin, R., & Palmer, S. (2005). Consent and participation: Ethical issues in the treatment of children in out-of-home care. American journal of orthopsychiatry,75(1), 152-157. doi: 10.1037/0002-9432.75.1.152
Mori, E., Liu, C., Otsuki, E., Mochizuki, Y., & Kashiwabara, E. (2012). Comparing child-care values in japan and china among parents with infants . International journal of nursing practice, 18(2), 18-27. doi: 10.1111/j.1440-172X.2012.02025.x
National Association of Social Workers [NASW] (2008). Code of ethics of the National Association of SocialWorkers.Washington, DC: National Association of SocialWorkers
[NASW]. Retrieved from http://www.socialworkers.org/pubs/code/code.asp
Ponder, A. (2010, October 10). Code of ethics: Foster parent ethics. Retrieved from http://www.slideshare.net/nfinited/code-of-ethics-foster-parent
Shang, X. (2002). Looking for a better way to care for children: Cooperation between the state and civil society in china.
Social service review, 1-25. Retrieved from http://jc3th3db7e.search.serialssolutions.com/?ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&ctx_enc=info:ofi/enc:UTF-8&rfr_id=info:sid/summon.serialssolutions.com&rft_val_fmt=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:journal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Looking for a Better Way to Care for Children: Cooperation between the State and Civil Society in China&rft.jtitle=The Social Service Review&rft.au=Shang, Xiaoyuan&rft.date=2002-06-01&rft.pub=The University of Chicago
Press&rft.issn=0037-7961&rft.volume=76&rft.issue=2&rft.spage=203&rft.epage=228&rft_id=info:doi/10.1086/339671&rft.externalDocID=10.1086/339671