Fundamentals of Rural Sociology and Educational Psychology

READING MATERIAL

FUNDAMENTALS OF RURAL SOCIOLOGY AND EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY
COURSE NO: AEXT 291, B.Sc. (Ag.) II YEAR

PREPARED BY Dr. S.V.PRASAD ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR AND HEAD DEPARTMENT OF EXTENSION EDUCATION S.V.AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE TIRUPATI-517502

ACHARYA N.G. RANGA AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

ACHARYA N.G. RANGA AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY COURSE OUTLINE 1. Course No. 2. Course Title : AEXT 291 : Fundamentals of Rural Sociology and Educational Psychology 3. Credit Hours 4. General Objectives : 2(1+1) : To impart knowledge to the students on sociological and psychological aspects of rural people and to acquaint with some important features of rural society 5. Specific Objectives a) Theory By the end of course, students will be able to i. Understand concept of rural sociology, its importance in agricultural extension, characteristics of Indian rural society ii. Understand social groups, social stratification, culture, social values, social control and attitudes, leadership and training iii. Understand concept of educational psychology, intelligence, personality,

perceptions, emotions, frustration, motivation, teaching and learning b) Practical By the end of practical exercises, students will, be able to i. Acquaint with characteristics of rural society, village institutions and social organizations ii. iii. iv. Select lay leaders and train them Assess personality types, leadership types and emotions of human beings Create a training situation under village conditions

A) Theory Lecture Outlines 1. Sociology and rural sociology, extension education, agricultural extension - meaning and definitions 2. Importance of rural sociology in agricultural extension and their interrelationship 3. Characteristics of Indian, rural society - differences and relationships between rural and urban societies 4. Social group(s) - classification - formation and organization of groups role of social groups in agricultural extension 5. Social stratification - meaning - forms - class system and caste system 6. Culture and different cultural concepts and. their role in agricultural extension 7. Social values, social control and attitudes types and their role in agricultural extension 8. Leadership - meaning - classification of leaders - roles of a leader and different methods in selection of a leader 9. Training of leaders - lay and professional leaders - advantages and limitations in using local leaders in agricultural extension

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10. Psychology and educational psychology - meaning - scope and importance 11. Intelligence - meaning - types - factors and importance in agricultural extension 12. Personality - meaning - types - factors and importance in agricultural extension 13. Perception, emotions and frustration - meaning - types - factors and importance in agricultural extension , 14. Motivation - meaning - types of motives - theories of motivation importance of motivation in agricultural extension 15. Teaching, learning, learning experience and learning situation - meaning and definition -elements of learning situation and its characteristics 16. Principles of :learning and their implications in teaching - steps in extension teaching, B) Practical Class Outlines 1. Visit to a village to study the characteristics of rural society 2. Visit to village institutions - school or cooperative society or gram Panchayat 3. Visit to social organizations - youth club or milk cooperative centre or Water Users Association 4. Visit to a village to conduct the selection of a lay leader based on sociogram technique 5. Visit to a village to identify different social groups to which the farmers are associated 6. Visit to a village to list out the taboos, folkways, rituals and social values in the village 7. Administering psychological tests by students to assess level of intelligence of human beings 8. Administering psychological tests by students to assess the personality types of human beings 9. Conducting role play technique by the students to exhibit different leadership styles 10. Simulated exercises to exercise positive and negative emotions of farmers in village 11. Simulated exercises to reveal the positive and negative emotions of the students in real life situation 12. Simulated exercises on identification of positive and negative emotions and emotionally balanced behaviour 13. Nature of learners behaviour in motivation 14. Creating a learning situation under village conditions for a specific teaching activity 15. Training need assessment of farmers of a village 16. Visit to a village for conducting a training programme

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References Adivi Reddy, A. 2001. Extension Education. Sri Lakshmi Press, Bapatla.

Chitamber, J.B. 1997. Introductory Rural Sociology. Wiley Eastern Limited, New Delhi.

Daivadeenam, P. 2002. Educational Psychology in Agriculture. Agrotech Publishing Academy, Udaipur.

Mangal, S.K. 2000. Educational Psychology. Prakash Brothers, Ludhiana.

Ray, G.L. 2006. Extension Communication and Management. Naya Prakashan, Kolkata.

Vidyabhushan and Sach Dev, D.R. 1998. An Introduction to Sociology. Kitab Mahal Agencies, Allahabad.

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CONTENTS S. No. LESSON PAGE NO. 1. Sociology and rural sociology, extension education, agricultural extension - Meaning and definitions 2. Importance of rural sociology in agricultural extension and their interrelationship 3. Characteristics of Indian rural society, differences and relationships between rural and urban societies 4. Social group/s - Classification, formation and organization of groups, role of social groups in agricultural extension 5. 6. Social stratification - Meaning, forms, class system and caste system Culture, different cultural concepts and their role in agricultural extension 7. Social values, social control and attitudes - Types and their role in agricultural extension 8. Leadership - Meaning, classification of leaders, roles of a leader and different methods in selection of a leader 9. Training of leaders – Lay and professional leaders, advantages and limitations in using local leaders in agricultural extension 10. Psychology and educational psychology - Meaning, scope and importance 11. Intelligence - Meaning, types, factors and importance in agricultural extension 12. Personality - Meaning, types, factors and importance in agricultural extension 13. Perception, emotions, frustration - Meaning, types, factors and importance in agricultural extension 14. Motivation - Meaning, types of motives, theories of motivation, importance of motivation in agricultural extension 15. Teaching, learning, learning experience, learning situation - Meaning and definition, elements of learning situation and its characteristics 16. Principles of learning and their implications in teaching. Steps in extension teaching 51 49 47 42 40 37 35 32 26 22 16 18 13 9 8 6

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COURSE NO: AEXT 291 TITLE: FUNDAMENTALS OF RURAL SOCIOLOGY AND EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY THEORY NOTES LECTURE NO.: 1. SOCIOLOGY AND RURAL SOCIOLOGY, EXTENSION EDUCATION, AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION - MEANING AND DEFINITIONS Sociology – Introduction: The term sociology was coined by Auguste Comte (1789-1875) who is often referred as the father of sociology who named it from two words, of which one is Latin word ‘socius’ meaning companion and the other is Greek word ‘logos’ meaning speech or reasoning.

SOCIOLOGY

SOCIUS (Latin) (Companion)

LOGOS (Greek) (Speech or reasoning)

The etymological (based on the origin of the word) meaning of sociology is thus ‘the science of society’. Sociology has been referred to as systematized knowledge in the study of human social relationships. The content or subject matter of sociology is not literary writing as is assured (thought) by many people. It is a detailed and systematic study of society. There are animal societies also but sociology studies only human societies. Human beings have progressed to a large extent and therefore, sociology is used for the systematic study of the human being in group relations. Sociology is concerned with people and without people or human beings there cannot be sociology, it cannot be in isolation as its main emphasis is on their relationship with other persons. They stay in groups and therefore the sociologists study people organized in families, friendship groups, temples, schools, industrial plants and in other organizations. The fundamental process in any society is interaction or social interaction. In short sociology studies the social behavior of people, their different social groups and the intra and interrelationship of these social groups. Sociology is the web or tissue of human interaction and interrelationship – Ginsburg Definitions and scope of Rural Sociology or what is rural sociology: Rural sociology is a branch of sociology. It is made up of two terms rural and sociology that is science of rural society. It is the study of the sociology of life in the rural environment, which systematically studies the rural communities to discover their conditions and tendencies and formulate the principles of progress as the term implies. It is limited to the study of various aspects of rural society.

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Definition: According to Smith rural sociology is the body of facts and principles of the systematized knowledge, which has developed the application of scientific method in the study of human relationships in rural environment and people, engaged directly or indirectly in agriculture occupation. An extension worker is a change agent. Transfer or communication of innovations is the main job of these changes agents. But for introducing improved farm practices, an understanding of the farmer, his social and cultural environment within which he operates, his home, his village and the local region is necessary.

Rural sociology provides such knowledge and makes possible the planning of a strategic approach for the desired changes. It allows constant analysis of the rural situation and within reasonable limits prediction of possible results. From this point of view the main emphasis in the community development programs is on changing human behavior and working with rural people by using educational methods. For doing this, as stated earlier the change agent, must have adequate knowledge and skill in methods of communication. In addition to this the change agent must know what is going on, in the minds of rural people, their relationships and interactions, their groups, their institutions, their organizations and the culture they share. All these factors influence the farmers’ behavior. The knowledge regarding these factors is provided by rural sociology. In the absence of this knowledge of rural society the change agent will not be able to plan a proper strategy of change. The change agent at the first instance has to understand their programmes and their objectives. Secondly he must know the currents of thoughts in the minds of the people with whom he works. He needs to understand their motives, their reactions and their receptivity to new ideas. He should also understand why some people are more receptive than others, why some people take the initiative and lead and why others hesitate Scope of Rural Sociology: Rural sociology works in three areas a. Accumulation and use of sociological knowledge and use it for solving the present problems of rural society (subject matter of rural sociology) b. Direct its efforts in obtaining sociological knowledge by empirical research procedures (research in rural sociology) c. Channel its efforts by keeping faith in the methods used in this discipline in solving the problems of rural society (solving the problems of rural society) Rural Sociology – its importance to extension work: 1. In the context of community development and rural development programs deliberate efforts are made to bring about social change in rural areas. This change is brought about not in a vacuum but in a structure of human relations, which necessitates the study of rural sociology

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2. An extension worker is a change agent. He has to bring about changes in the rural culture. Therefore, he has to understand the culture in which he has to bring about changes 3. In the cross-cultural situation, it is likely that the change agent may develop the ethnocentric attitude, which makes him difficult to work successfully. Study of rural sociology helps to overcome this difficulty. 4. Some times. The change agent, while working in rural communities, does not keep the established pattern of hierarchy, this creates problems in his working. Rural sociology helps him to understand the same and its importance 5. The value system of individuals, families, groups and communities is an important factor to be kept in mind while trying to bring about changes in the farming communities

Therefore, it is necessary for a student of rural development to study the subject of rural sociology to bring about planned change in the rural communities effectively and without resistance LECTURE NO.: 2. IMPORTANCE OF RURAL SOCIOLOGY IN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION AND THEIR INTERRELATIONSHIP Extension education (Agricultural Extension) in the field of agriculture is concerned with agricultural education aimed at assisting people to bring about continuous improvement in their physical and social well being through individual and cooperative efforts. It makes available to the villagers, scientific information and also guidance in the application of such information in solving their problems. Villagers are educated to change their attitudes so as to raise their standard of living Meaning of Extension Education: The word Extension is derived from the Latin roots ‘Ex’ meaning ‘out’ and ‘tensio’ meaning ‘stretching’. Thus the term extension education means the type of education, which is stretched out into the villages and fields beyond the limits of schools and colleges to which formal type of education is normally confined. In other words the word ‘extension’ used in this context signifies an OUT OF SCHOOL system of education. The three links in the chain of rural development are research, teaching and extension

EXTENSION (Latin word) ‘EX’ (Out) ‘TENSIO’ (Stretching)

Definition: Extension education is the process of teaching rural people how to live better by learning ways that improve their farm, home and community institutions 8

INTERRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN RURAL SOCIOLOGY AND EXTENSION
S.No.

Rural Sociology It is a scientific study of the laws of the structure and development of rural society It is

Extension informal (actually non-formal)

1.

education for the rural people with a view to develop rural society on desirable lines It seeks to modify or change for the better, the attitudes and behavior of village people It helps rural people to discover their needs and problems and builds educational programs based on these needs and wants

2.

It studies the attitudes and behavior of rural people

3.

It studies the needs and interests of rural society

4.

It

analyses

rural or

social group

It fosters (develops) and utilizes village organizations and leadership and favorable social processes, to achieve its objectives of rural development

relationships,

organizations and leadership in rural areas, the social processes like cooperation, association, competition etc, among village people 5. It studies social situations and assembles society 6. It investigates the social, cultural, political, and religious problems of rural society social facts or rural

It makes use of such social data as a basis for building up its extension programs for rural areas It also studies these problems with

reference to their impact on extension work in villages

LECTURE NO.: 3. CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIAN RURAL SOCIETY, DIFFERENCES AND RELATIONSHIPS BETWEEN RURAL AND URBAN SOCIETIES Need for the Study of the Rural Society: 1. The study of rural society is essential for carrying out a programme of rural extension 2. It is important to know some of the characteristics of rural society as people have distinguishing features 3. A knowledge of fundamental characteristics of rural situation should contribute much to the understanding of the structure of rural society, the way it functions 4. Rural people are studied in terms of their personal and group relations and as members of groups, organizations and institutions 5. Rural society comprises of all persons residing in administrative unit of village as defined by the authorities

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Definition of Society: Society is defined as a group of people in more or less permanent association who are organized for their collective activities and who feel that they belong together Characteristics of Indian Rural Society: 1. Agriculture is main economic activity of rural people. It is based predominantly on Agriculture. Agriculture is the main source of livelihood. The land is distributed between certain families. The distribution of land is between a big land owner and rest of the community, possession of which (land) has prestige value 2. Caste is dominant institution of village. It is peculiar type of grouping found in rural India. The village is governed to a very great extent by traditional caste occupations, carpenters, cobblers, smiths, washer men, agricultural laborers etc all belonging to separate castes, caste relations are important characteristics of rural life 3. The religious and caste composition of village largely determines its character. Different castes exist in village due to social distance. The habitation of each caste is separated from others. The habitation area has usually a distinct name e.g. Harijanawada 4. Each village is independent. All villages have their own organizations, authority and sanctions. Every village has Panchayat which is village self government 5. Village settlements are governed by certain traditions. The layout of the village, construction of houses, the dress etc is allowed according to the prescribed patterns of the culture of the area. In different areas a certain degree of diversity (differences between villages in the above aspects of the village life) in village organizations is peculiar 6. The rural society is self-sufficient. The unit of production in rural society is the family, which tries to produce much of its required goods. Economic production is the basic activity of rural aggregates (rural groups) 7. As a territorial, social, economic and religious unit, the village is a separate and distinct entity 8. It is common to find out a sense of attachment towards own settlement site. In rural society people do not have widely diversified tasks in different parts of the community 9. Village is characterized by isolation 10. The chief characteristic of rural life is homogeneity, there are not many differences among people pertaining to income, status etc. 11. The other characteristics are less density of population, less social mobility, less education, simplicity, traditionalism, fatalism, believing superstitions etc DIFFERENCES BETWEEN RURAL AND URBAN COMMUNITIES Rural people are different from those living in urban areas. These differences are mainly due to the environment and its consequent impact on the lives of the people

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S.No.

Item of comparison

Rural community associated

Urban community with Remote from nature.

1.

General environment Closely and nature orientation

to nature. Direct effect of natural Predominance of manelements like rains, drought, made environment heat, etc, on their lives

2.

Occupation

Major occupation is farming. Most of the jobs are nonNon-agricultural occupations agricultural and specialized

are secondary in importance 3. Working conditions Being agriculture work in Work in closed Greater

open air

environment.

isolation from nature. Poor fresh air 4. Family Works as a unit. More unity or Work in different

integrity and more contacts occupations and contact is between members 5. Size of the community less between members

‘Agriculturalism’ and size of Large. Less land per person community are negatively

correlated. Community is small in size. Land to man ratio is higher 6. 7. 8. Density of population Material possession Homogeneity and heterogeneity Low density of population Less More homogeneous. Similarity in social and psychological characteristics in the population. Such as beliefs, language etc, 9. Social institutions Most of the institutions are a Numerous enacted natural outgrowth of rural institutions High density of population Different types and more More heterogeneous. Wide variety of interests, occupations, languages etc.

social life. Less of enacted (approved institutions 10. Social stratification and differentiation Less among groups and low Different types of groups degree of differentiation. Gap like between higher and professional, or created)

lower occupational etc, and high degree of differentiation.

classes is less

Gap between the higher and lower classes is more

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11.

Hierarchy

Less in number e.g. lower, More in number e.g. uppermiddle and upper classes upper, upper-middle, upperlower, middle upper and so on

12.

Social contacts and Less type

number,

social Large

number, is contacts

social wider. are

interaction is narrow. Primary interaction contacts predominant. relatively are Personal more Secondary and predominant. and

Impersonal, short-lived

durable

relations. casual

Man is interacted as a human

relations. Man is interacted as number and address

13.

Social mobility

Occupational mobility is

and less

territorial Occupational and territorial intensive. mobility is found Urbanity more and

Normally the migration current intensive.

carries more individuals from social mobility are positively countryside to the cities correlated. period of Only social in the

crises

migration is from cities to countryside 14. Social control Informal control i.e. more Formal control i.e. legally

related to the values and traditions of the society 15. Social change Rural life is relatively static and Urban social life is under stable 16. Social (unity) constant social change

solidarity Strong sense of belonging and Comparatively less sense unity due to common of belonging and unity due and to dissimilarities kinds and of

objectives,

similarities

personal relationships

impersonal relationships

17. 18. 19. 20.

Standard of living Educational facilities Economy Communication

Low standard of living, Less Subsistence

High standard of living More Cash transport facilities, roads,

Less transport facilities, bad Many roads etc better

communication etc 21. Society A simple, uni-group society A complex, multi-group

society 22. Culture Sacred Secular equal) (all religions are

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LECTURE NO.: 4. SOCIAL GROUP/S - CLASSIFICATION, FORMATION AND ORGANIZATION OF GROUPS, ROLE OF SOCIAL GROUPS IN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION Social structure is composed of groups. Organizations, institutions, community etc, are the forms of human associations. Society functions through different forms of human beings to fulfill needs and purposes. Man functions in society through different forms of groups. Man is born is a social group and his first association is with his mother. He associates with groups in some way or other. Individual nowhere lives in isolation. This tendency to unite in groups is one of the important characteristics of human beings. Social groups are the units out of which society is constructed. Study of group is of primary important in the study of society and also important as a part of the total structure of society. Group is a medium through which we learn culture. The process of socialization takes place in groups Definitions of Group: According to Chitambar a social group is a unit of two or more people in reciprocal (to and fro) interaction and in communication with each other Maclever defined social group as a collection of human beings who enter into distinctive social relationships with one another According to Sharif and Sharif, a social group is a collection of two or more individuals in which there are psychological interactions and reciprocal roles based upon durable contacts, shared norms, interests, distinctive pattern of collective behavior and structural organization of leadership and followership Elements of Social Group: 1. Social unit 2. Psychological interactions and reciprocal roles 3. Durable contacts 4. Distinctive pattern of collective behavior 5. Sharing of norms and interests 6. Pattern of leadership and follower ship Types or classification of Social Groups: Type of group/s Primary and Secondary groups Formal and Informal groups Voluntary and involuntary groups Horizontal and vertical groups In and out groups Locality groups Small and large groups Reference group Based on The type of relationship Mode of organization and functioning Structure and type of membership Social class Personal feelings Territory or locality Size

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Based on the type of relationship groups are dived in to primary and secondary groups: the details are as follows as given by Rogers 1960: Primary groups are relationship directed whereas secondary groups are goal oriented Primary Group Small in size, often less than 20 to 30 Large in size persons Personal and intimate relationships among Impersonal and aloof(distant) relationships members are there among members Secondary Group

Face to face association is there between Less face to face contact the members

Permanency is there and members are Temporary together over a long period of time

in

nature.

Members

spend

relatively little time together are not well acquainted and

Members are well acquainted and have a Members

strong sense of loyalty or ‘we’ feeling and anonymity prevails a strong amount of group pressure is present Informality is most common i.e. group does Formality prevails i.e. group often has a not have any name, officers etc name, officers and a regular meeting place

Group decisions are more traditional and Group decisions are more rational and the non rational emphasis is on efficiency

E.g. family, friendship group, play group E.g. political groups, labour unions, trade etc unions, employees associations etc Based on mode of organization and functioning groups are divided in to formal and informal groups: Formal Group Informal Group

These are formally organized and have These are not formally organized and lack prescribed structure i.e. constitution by-laws prescribed structure etc E.g. Labour union, village council, students E.g. family, friendship group, play group union etc etc

Based on structure and type of membership groups are divided in to voluntary, involuntary and delegate groups: Voluntary Group Involuntary Group

A person becomes member of the group Persons become members of the group based on his choice not according to their choice i.e. by birth, by residence, by location etc E.g. friendship group, play group etc E.g. family, neighbourhood, community etc.

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Delegate group: The members of this group are representative and chosen by groups. E.g. Gram Panchayat, U.N.O., etc. Based on social class groups are divided in the horizontal and vertical groups: Horizontal Group The members of this group are alike or similar The groups Vertical Group that are composed of

in status or position in the class system of the members from different social strata (social society status) and whose membership cuts

vertically across the horizontal groupings in the society E.g. caste E.g. race, nation etc

Based on personal feelings the groups have been divided in and out groups: In Group Out Group

Persons in this group feel that they belong to Persons in this group do not feel that they that group based on their attitudes of the belong to that group based on their members towards their own social groups E.g. my family, my class, my church etc. attitudes E.g. their family, their class, their church etc.

Based on the size of the groups the groups are divided in to small and large groups: Small Group The number of members is less than 30 E.g. family, play group etc. Locality Group: This classification considers locality as one bond for holding groups together or it is based on the territory or locality occupied by the members. E.g. neighbourhoods, communities or villages towns etc Reference Group: In this group the individual feels identified with the group but he may or may not be the member of the group, the group influences individual. He shares the objectives of this group, which he accepts. The reference group provides the standards that guide behavior even when the standards are contrary to earlier membership groups. To understand the behavior of human beings we must know their reference groups. A reference group may be any group for E.g. Primary group, horizontal group etc. Reference group like friendship group may influence a farmer to accept or reject the adoption of an improved farming practice. Reference group is the group which the individual refers for advises on different aspects. An individual may have different reference groups for different purposes. In rural society the individual belongs to a comparatively small number of groups (largely primary) and his behavior is largely determined by them Large Group The number of members is more E.g. political group, labour union etc.

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LECTURE NO.: 5. SOCIAL STRATIFICATION - MEANING, FORMS, CLASS SYSTEM AND CASTE SYSTEM Definitions: Social stratification is the division of population into two or more layers, each of which is relatively homogeneous and between which there are differences in privileges (opportunities), restrictions, rewards and obligations – Lundberg 1968. A pattern of superimposed categories of differential privilege is termed as social stratification – Cuber 1954. The moment of individuals or groups from one stratum of society to another is known as social mobility. Caste system and class system are two of the major types or forms of social stratification. Communities are socially stratified in various ways. Sex division is a major sociological difference, age groups and so on. Society is divided into layers, some of which occupy a higher position than others. These layers are generally accepted as social classes. So the principal type of social stratification is seen in the phenomenon of ‘class’. The term
CLASS

means a number of individuals in the same society whose status is

similar. Social status refers to positions of individual or group in relation to other. As a sociological concept, social status is the difference between higher and lower. According to Maciver a social class is any portion of a community marked off from the rest of social status. A social class has been defined as an abstract category of persons arranged on levels according to social status they posses. There are no firm lines dividing one category from another - Rogers 1960 The social class involves three features: a. Hierarchy of status (always graded order) b. Recognition of superiority and inferiority and c. Change and mobility is present Determinants of social class: In some societies occupation and income in other education and ownership of material possessions in some other family background may be important criteria. The basis of criteria among the farmers is the land ownership Caste: The term ‘Caste’ was derived from the Portuguese word ‘casta’ meaning lineage or race. Definitions: A caste is a social category whose members are assigned a permanent status within a given social hierarchy and whose contacts are restricted accordingly – Lundberg. Caste is a closed class. As compared to class, the caste is the most rigid, clearly graded type of social stratification. This has been often referred to as one of the extreme forms of closed class systems 16

Characteristics of rigid caste system: 1. The caste system is determined slowly by birth and there is no vertical social mobility 2. In other words, caste is a closed class system with clearly demarcated status and role of its members. One is borne into a caste, lives and dies in it 3. When a class is somewhat strictly heredity we may called it as caste – Cooley 4. An individual is borne into a caste of his parents and can rise no further. Status is determined by birth. Type of caste consciousness acts as a barrier to social progress 5. India is cited as the most perfect instance of closed but not open system which is extremely differentiated Determinants of caste: a. The family in to which the individual takes birth and its name b. The way of dressing c. The privileges, rewards and restrictions d. The way of performing religious rights etc Character Value definition of inferiority and superiority Relevancy in norm role definitions Self definitions Labels and awareness may be vague Change and expectation Material objects Provided for and expected Possession of valued objects increases as class position increases Justification of system (value definition) Status Pragmatic ‘ this worldly’ justification Achieved Ascribed Neither provided nor expected Possession of valued objects increases as caste position increases Strong religious endorsement Rigid labels and awareness Less than in caste systems More than in class systems Class pattern Applied to any characteristic Caste pattern Usually applied to biological

Social interaction: It is dynamic interplay of forces in which contacts between persons and groups results in a modification of the attitudes and behavior of the participants – Sutherland 1961 Social processes: Social interaction, which assumes a repetitive pattern in a specific direction, becomes a social process. Social processes refer to repetitive forms of behavior which are commonly found in social life. E.g. Cooperation, competition, accommodation and assimilation

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LECTURE NO.: 6. CULTURE, DIFFERENT CULTURAL CONCEPTS AND THEIR ROLE IN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION Culture: meaning, definitions and different orders of culture: The extension education brings about the changes in the behavior complex of the rural people. The behavior is in turn influenced by the cultural factors, extension workers, therefore should have knowledge of the culture of the rural people. Learned behavior, which has been organized into patterns and is shared and transmitted among the members of society, is known as culture. Sociologists have developed the concept of culture in order to explain the regularity in human actions. The sociological meaning of the term culture differs sharply from the literary (bookish) use. In conventional (usual) usage, the word culture is employed to designate only the behavior systems that are regarded as refinements such as paintings, music, art etc. But culture also includes all the activities that are characteristics of a given group of people In social science, culture refers to totality of what is learned by individuals as members of the society. Culture is a way of life, mode of thinking, acting and feeling. Culture refers to the distinct way of life of a group of people, a complete design of living. According to Tylor culture is the complex whole, which includes knowledge, belief, art, moral, law, customs and any other capability and habits acquired by them as members of society. Culture includes not only the way of making things and doing things, but the pattern of the relationships and attitudes, beliefs and ideas they have and even the feelings with which people respond. In other words culture includes everything the man learns or acquires as member of a particular society. All the members of group share culture. All human societies have culture but the contents differ, and all cultures have customs, language, major institutions, and some type of technology, which is shared by the members of the society According to Ralph Linton culture may be the thought in terms of three different orders: Two overt (which can be seen) orders of culture are: 1. Material products of industry, implements, tools etc 2. Overt behavioral patterns like customs, folkways etc One covert (which cannot be seen or hidden) order of culture is: 3. Psychological like attitudes, values etc. held by the individuals or groups The study of culture helps to understand the behavior of people in different parts of the world. The desired change cannot be successfully brought about without clear comprehension of the concept of culture. Extension worker should have knowledge of elements of culture that are important in relation to his work

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Role of culture in Extension: 1. Culture is dynamic and continuously changes because of internal as well as external forces of stimuli. Community development aims at bringing about the changes in the culture of rural people towards desired goals. Scientific understanding of the culture is therefore basic E.g. Improved pig raring in Muslim village is not possible 2. It is possible to record greater success when the improved practices introduced are in familiar terms i.e. something that is already present in the culture E.g. Improved plough with iron ploughshare 3. Change is more likely to occur in those aspects of culture where there is lack of adjustment or stress, then in those aspects, which are established and fixed. E.g. Introduction of improved practices in areas which are rehabilitated on account of floods or fire 4. Change in technology is usually more readily accounted than change in other aspects of culture E.g. Introducing of improved seed of a crop Ethnocentrism: Ethnocentrism refers to the preferential feeling we have for the way we do things in our culture. We presume that ours is the best of all cultures and the way we do things is the right way to do them. This is common characteristic we find among the people of all cultures. This influences the extension activities some times, which we have to understand and safeguard Customs: The sociologists have used various terms in order to classify various human acts of behavior. If these various types of human behavior are organized, they are called customs. Maclever defined customs as socially accorded (agreed) or accredited (given) ways of acting Customs are the accepted ways in which people do things together. Customs are socially prescribed forms of behavior transmitted by tradition and enforced by social disapproval of its violation (not doing). Customs may also be defined as a habitual form of meeting people. Training the young, supporting the aged etc are some of the customs of society. Our acting, our dressing, our worship are controlled to a great extent by customs. We agree most of the customs of the group to which we belong. Custom is usage (habit) it’s essential feature is that it is a generally observed code of conduct. Its’ sanction (punishment) is fear of public opinion. Human behavior is not individualized. It has some definite forms. It occurs in regular fashion. Customs are thought of as being well-established and difficult to change. Customs are generally a group action. Unconsciously we conform to the customs of our own society. Folkway if transmitted by tradition and followed generation after generation may become custom

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The classification of customs and their origin are as follows: Folkways: • • • • Folkways are expected forms of behavior but are not rigidly enforced Folkways are the customary ways of behaving in society, in which society exerts some force for conformity Folkways are recognized ways of behavior in a society The Folkways are socially acceptable ways of behavior. The customary norms of society that do not imply moral sanction (punishment). Folkways are otherwise called as Usages sometimes • The folkways are the right ways to do things because they are the expected ways. They do not have more sanctions associated with them. People who do not conform may be subject to criticism but would not be penalized Examples of folkways are: • • • • • Good manners Entering home only after removal of shoes Lady touching the feet of her mother-in-law Rajput wearing a turban Greeting others with folded hands

Thus folkways are accepted as appropriate but not insisted upon. Society cannot exercise pressure upon people to conform to regular pattern of behavior. Folkways help individuals in a group to order social life in a smooth and harmonious way. People who have similar needs began to satisfy these needs in a similar way in the same environment such actions give rise to folkways. Folkways usually arise without prior intention in the process of living. They are the results of frequent repetition of petty (little) actions often, by large number of people acting in the same way when faced with some needs. They arise from experience. Non-observance of folkways is not a vital matter, social sanction is relatively mild, but the disapproval is shown by lifted eyebrow expression of moderate surprise or smile Mores: Mores are the plural of Latin word ‘More’. The mores are the customs or patterns of behavior, which are regarded by members of social system as vital and essential to the welfare of the group. They show what is right for the welfare of group. Mores may be defined as those customs, which are held to be essential to ethical or moral values of people. Mores are the socially acceptable ways of behavior that do involve moral standards (regulations) and violation of more may result in severe social action or sanction, such as ostracism (exclusion of individual or family from the village or society). Religion provides foundation for mores of the society

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Examples of Mores: • • • • • • Inter-dining of high-cast Hindus with out-caste Hindus Honesty is one of the recognized mores of the society Saluting the National Flag Standing during the playing of National Anthem Monogamy (having one wife or husband) Women and children first in the event of crises

The term more is used for those things that are ought to be done. It is used for positive actions. Mores are insisted upon individuals. Society exerts pressure to conform the regular pattern and it not followed individual gets penalty from society. Mores are rigidly enforced Taboos: Generally the term ‘more’ is used for the positive action or things that ought to be done but the term ‘taboo’ is used for the negative action and for the things that one ought not to do. Taboo means forbid. It refers to the prohibitions of the types of behavior because of some magical, supernatural (God) or religious sanction Examples of taboo: Total abstinence (self denial) of eating beef in a Hindu village (eating beef in Hindu religion) and eating pork in Muslim religion Rituals: Ritual is prescribed form of behavior for certain occasions and certain actions are designated in prescribed manner. Ritual may be defined as a pattern of behavior or ceremony, which has become the customary way of dealing with certain situations. Generally it is discussed as an aspect of religion. Religion is found in all established form of activities. It may include prayers. Military organization and other formally organized groups have adhered to a prescribed form of behavior known as ritualism Examples of rituals: • • • Playing with crackers on ‘Diwali’ Celebration of Independence Day Celebration of Republic day

Conventions: These are customs regulating more significant social behavior. Parents generally do not care to leave such learning to chance. Parents instruct their children the conventions though often they (parents) cannot explain why the child must confirm

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Examples of Conventions: • • • • Being polite to others Wearing clothes in public Dating or courtship (found in western countries) and engagement practices Using knife, spoon or fork for eating etc.

Differences between mores and taboos: Mores Mores refer to positive action Taboos Taboos refer to negative action

Mores are the customs regarded by the They are the customs which are forbidden members of the society as vital or essential Things ought to be done E.g. Monogamy, honesty etc. Differences between mores and folkways: Mores These are socially acceptable ways of These are Folkways the customary ways of Things ought not to be done E.g. eating of beef in Hindu religion etc.

behavior that involve moral standards

behaving in society

These are rigidly enforced and if not followed Persons who do not conform may be by a person the individual gets severe penalty subjected to criticism or be considered form the society ‘strange’ penalized Patterns of behavior which are considered Expected form of behavior but not rigidly essential by the society enforced but would not necessarily

If violated the group or society may be If violated will not have severe effect on disturbed or divided E.g. Monogamy, honesty etc. society E.g. Good manners, greeting others etc.

Lecture No.: 7. Social values, Social control and attitudes - types and their role in agricultural extension Definitions: Values are relative importance or preferences we give to any object, idea or content of experience etc. Value is defined as anything desired or chosen by someone. Social values are relatively enduring (lasting or permanent) awareness plus emotion regarding an object, idea or person – Green 1964. Social values are abstract and often unconscious assumptions of what is right and important Young – 1959.

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Attitude: Definitions Attitude is a positive or negative feeling one has towards any psychological object. Attitudes are based up on values and attitudes influence our action positively or negatively. Hence they are covert and not overt Value system: The values in terms of attitudes taken together as a set form a system, which is called value system of society. E.g. prestige based on caste of individual, status based up on individual’s possession of land etc Role of value system in Extension: Society places different values on various items which form a part of village life e.g. villagers spend money on daughter’s marriage, building a house etc. Extension worker should understand the value system in a village and implement his programs in such a way that the programs are not going to interfere with the value system. Extension worker should think of changing the same (values) before introducing his programs Values and Norms Norms are closely associated with values but are clearly differentiated from them (values). Values are the attitudes, held by the individuals, groups or society as a whole, as to whether material or non-material objects are good, bad, desirable or undesirable. The rules that govern action directed towards achieving values are called norms. Norms are the accepted and approved forms of behavior that are based on and consistent with dominant social values in society. The values and norms go together

Opinion

Attitude

Norm/Social value

A set of social values will always have an accompanying set of social norms or rules that uphold and support values E.g. of value: Religious worship and respect to god usually is considered value E.g. of value system: Religion Examples of norms: Observance of religious festivals and performance of rituals and worship and other relevant activities are important norms of society towards the value system of religion Major values prevailing in rural society or Social values in Indian rural society: 1. Importance of ascribed (given by somebody) status: Status of individual is decided by the group to which he belongs. There is an established order of hierarchy of castes in the Indian society 2. Recognition of inequality: Caste is still a guiding factor. There are inequalities based on the concept of higher and lower castes which are manifested (brought out) in many ways 23

3. Patriarchal tendency: Father is the head of family. Eldest male member of family has supreme power and tends to act autocratically 4. Status of women: There is a tendency towards giving greater respect and recognition to women, but they are supposed to be inferior to men. As far as their sphere of work is concerned it is mostly restricted to home management 5. Greater male dominance: Boys receive greater attention than girls. E.g. it is general attitude of parents that daughter(s) need not be highly educated 6. Adherence to well regulated sex relations 7. Charity: There is religious significance and approval for the giving of alms (something or money or food item given freely to poor). A person with a charitable disposition is respected 8. Tendency of non-violence: Killing of animals expect for the purpose of food is considered to be immoral 9. Respect for old aged and elders: There are fixed norms which guide the behavior of individuals towards elders, superiors and old persons 10. Religious attitude: People in rural areas are religious. Performance of rituals and ceremonies are common in the traditional way Types of Values: 1. Ultimate values: Ultimate values are often referred as dominant values. These values express the general views of society towards matters such as the nature of the universe and man relation to it and to his fellowmen. These values are found most easily in social institutions such as religion, government or the family. E.g. The democratic proceedings expressed in the system of government (democracy). Ultimate values are abstract (not specific) and often not attainable 2. Intermediate values: These values are derived from ultimate values and are actually ultimate values that have been rephrased into more reasonable attainable categories. E.g. Freedom of speech, adult franchise (choice, religious freedom, free public education, non-discrimination, adequate housing etc.) 3. Specific values: The subdivisions of intermediate values are called specific values and are almost unlimited in number. Specific values must be in conformity with the total value system of which they form the smallest unit. E.g. To a farmer with intermediate value of adequate housing the related specific values can be a brick construction with a flat slab roof, wide verandah and large court and with provision to livestock housing. If public education is the intermediate value specific values can be the type of school, room and other facilities and content of courses or instructions etc. Social control: Definitions: Social control is the way in which social order coheres (joins together) and maintains itself, how it operates as a whole as a changing equilibrium (balance) – Maclever

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Social control is the sum of those methods by which a society tries to influence human behaviour to maintain a given order – Mannheim Meaning of social control: Social control is an influence exerted by the public or society for promoting the welfare of the group as a whole Means or types of social control Social control is classified in to two categories formal and informal Informal means of social control 1. 2. Belief: Belief in religion controls the behaviour to a great extent Social suggestions: we suggest the younger generations many ideas like giving the examples of great men, celebration of anniversaries of great people etc 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Ideologies: The communication of ideologies like Ghandhiism, capitalism, communism etc by which the social behaviour of the individuals is controlled Customs Folkways Mores Religion Art and literature: A purposeful classical dance as art and religious epics like bible, Ramayana etc 9. Humour and Satire: Cartoons, comics etc as a part of humour and satires as indirect criticism of actions harmful to help in maintaining the social values 10. Public opinion: In villages people know each other even otherwise the fear of public criticism and the need of recognition by individuals makes to control his behaviour Formal means of social control 1. Law: Law is a body of rules given by legally authorized bodies and enforced by authorized agencies like police, judiciary etc 2. 3. Education: Education prepares the child for social living by removing his wrong attitudes and learning discipline, honesty and what is right or wrong Coercion (force): Physical coercion like imprisonment or death penalty (through law) and non violent coercion like strike boycott or non cooperation (between individuals and groups) are means of social control Role of social control in society or Need of social control: 1. To maintain the old order: The old members of the family enforce their ideas on the children Marriages are settled by the elder members of the family and they influence the behaviour of other members of the family 2. To establish the social unity: Without social control the social unity is a dream. The families and society are united because social control regulates behaviour through established norms

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3.

To regulate or control individual behaviour: No two persons are alike and even the children of same parents are not having same attitudes. If an individual is left free to behave in the society it would be reduced to a jungle. Social control protects the social interests by regulating the individuals’ behaviour To provide social sanction: Social control provides social sanction through customs, folkways, mores etc To check cultural mal adjustment: Society is subject to change and individual tries to adjust to the changing society during this process he or she is likely to develop some habits which may not be right or he may become slave of passions e.g. visiting bars, night clubs etc. Social control helps to stop this mal adjustment

4.

5.

LECTURE NO.: 8. LEADERSHIP - MEANING, CLASSIFICATION OF LEADERS, ROLES OF A LEADER AND DIFFERENT METHODS IN SELECTION OF A LEADER Definitions of leader: Leader is a person who exerts an influence over a number of people Leader is one who leads by initiation of social behavior, by directing, organizing or controlling the efforts of others, by prestige or power or position Leader is a person who is spontaneously considered or chosen as influential in a given situation. In every society certain individuals operate within groups to guide and influence members to action. These individuals are referred as leaders Leadership is defined as an activity in which effort is made to influence people to cooperate in achieving a goal viewed by the group as desirable – Rogers and Olmsted Leadership is defined as the role and status of one or more individuals in the structure and functioning of group organizations, which enable these groups to meet a need or purpose that can be achieved only through the co-operation of the members of the group Hepple Classification of leadership or Types of leaders: There are several classifications of leaders. For example the leaders may be classified in terms of the types of groups they work with such as political, military, business, religious, recreational leaders etc. Whyte has classified leaders in to 4 categories as follows, 1. Operational leaders: those persons who actually initiate action within the group, regardless of whether or not they hold an elected office 2. Popularity leaders: means in a group a popular person will be elected to a position of leadership because the members like him. Sometimes such an individual may or may 26

not be the actual leader of the group. Such persons holding elective positions do very little about initiating action for the group and are mere figureheads or ornamental leaders. They are also called nominal leaders 3. Assumed representative type: refers to a person selected to work with a committee or other leaders because the latter (Group B) have assumed that he represents another group (Group A) they desire to work with; he may or may not be a leader of the group (Group A)

Group A

Group B

ARL 4. Prominent talent: e.g. artists and musicians who have exhibited an outstanding ability and accomplishment in their respective fields. It may include the experts and intellectual leaders

Another classification divides leaders in to 2 categories: 1. Professional leaders: the professional leader is one who has received specific specialized training in the field. He works full time as an occupation and is paid for his work. E. G. Extension Officer, Gram Sevak, Agricultural Officer etc. 2. Lay leaders: the lay leader may or may not have received special training, is not paid for his work and usually works part time e.g. youth club president, Gram Sahayak etc. Lay leaders also called as Volunteer leaders, or local leaders or natural leaders. These local leaders may be either formal leaders or informal leaders, depending on whether they are regular office bearers of organized groups or not Perhaps the most significant classification form the viewpoint of modern research as well as practical application of the results of research is the one designating them into the following three types 1. Autocratic leader: Autocratic leader is also known as authoritarian leader. He operates as if he cannot trust people. He thinks his subordinates are never doing what they should do; that the employee is paid to work and therefore must work. If he is a benevolent (kind) autocrat he may tend to view employees as children and encourage them to come to him with all their problems, no matter what is the nature or magnitude of the problem. The results of his leadership are a. Most employees develop a sense of frustration, and finally feel insecure in their job b. Work slows down or stops completely when the supervisor is away 27

c. The employee’s needs for a feeling of importance and satisfaction are not met d. Employees are kept dependent on the supervisor; thus they have no opportunity to show initiative e. Employees frequently either become aggressive or alternatively identify closely with supervisor (submissive yes-men) 2. Democratic leader: He shares with the group members the decision making and planning of activities. The participation of all members is encouraged. He works to develop a feeling of responsibility on the part of every member of the group. He attempts to understand the position and feelings of the employee. If he criticizes, he does so in terms of results expected, rather than on the basis of personalities. The results of his leadership are a. Employees produce a larger quantity and higher quality of work b. Individual and group morale are high c. Employee’s basic needs to participate and feel important are met d. Employees feel secure e. Employees seldom become aggressive f. The supervisor finds that less supervision is necessary 3. Laissez-faire leader: He believes that if you leave workers alone, the work will be done. He seems to have no confidence in himself. If at all possible he puts off decision-making. He tends to withdraw from the work group. He is often a rationalizer. The results of his leadership are

a. Low morale and low productivity within the work group b. Employees are restless and lack incentive of ‘team work’ c. Another leader often an informal leader arises d. Problems of administration supervision, and coordination are multiplied and symptoms of disorder ‘anarchy’ are seen Roles of leader in a Group: Groups are dependent on leaders. A leader is not only a member of group and also is the focal point of activity of his group. He plays an important role in group 's activity. The important roles of the leader are as follows: 1. Group initiator: the most important role of leader is that he should take initiative to get the group in to action 2. Group spokesman: if the group is to have outside relations it must be able to speak as a unit and leader is its voice. Leader has the responsibility of speaking for the group and representing the interests of the group 3. Group harmonizer: in all groups uniformities and differences are formed. A leader should be able to resolve differences peacefully. The role of the group harmonizer is to promote harmony in the group in line with basic purpose of the group 28

4. Group planner: generally it is assumed that the person chosen for leadership know a little bit more about the problems which the group is facing and the possible solutions. So the leader has to plan the way by which the group can satisfy its needs. The leader has to plan for the group and with the group 5. Group executive: the leader is one who takes important role in conducting business of the group and he is responsible for seeing that the business of the organization is carried on according to democratic principles. It is the job of the leader that individuals of group accept responsibility of their part of activities in any plan of action adopted by the group 6. Group educator or teacher: in most of the groups the leader will have more training and experience. So the leader can teach according to the level of understanding of the members of the group so that they can understand his views. In this capacity his chief function is to develop and train other leaders so that group is not dependent completely on him 7. Group symbol or symbol of group ideas: all social groups have implicit (internal) or explicit (external) norms or ideals. As a rule persons accepted as leaders are those who have adopted these norms or ideals and live by them. The leader must make the members feel that they need ideals and depend upon them for accomplishing what they desire to do, the leader should be not be self interested 8. Group supervisor: the leader also acts as supervisor. A good leader supervises the work of his peers and subordinates. Professional leaders such as Extension Officers, in addition to serving as leaders of social groups also devote a portion of their time to working with lay leaders and group organizations like youth clubs, cooperatives etc. Different methods of selection of both professional and lay leaders: Selection of Professional Leaders: A. Interview: professional leadership. It is based primarily upon an interview and an evaluation of past academic and occupational records of the individual. A large amount of information concerning a person can be acquired through an interview 2. The chief difficulty with the interview is that one can observe and evaluate the applicant only as he answers questions during a brief period of time 3. In industry and management there has been an attempt o supplement the interview by subjecting applicants to a battery of tests 4. These tests measure ability, aptitudes, attitudes and interests and both the academic training and practical experience 5. The use of a battery of tests along with an interview provides a better basis for selection than using the interview alone 1. The time-honored and most widely used method of selecting persons for position of

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B.

Performance Tests:

1. These have been used in certain situations as a part of the basis for selection of professional leaders 2. One type of these is the ‘Leaderless group tests’ in which seven or eight persons are given a common task to perform and it is left up to the persons involved to determine which person have become the leader 3. Another type of test is to appoint an individual as a leader and then observe how well he directs the activities of the members of the group 4. The big advantage of these performance tests is that one can observe the potential leader in a real life situation in which he is functioning as the leader of a group Selection of lay leaders: A. Sociometry: 1. Sociometry is concerned primarily with obtaining choices in inter-personal relations, such as with whom one would like to work, play etc. or to whom one would go for advice on farming or other problems 2. It attempts to describe social phenomena in quantitative terms 3. It may be used in selecting professional leaders also, but of greater use in selection of lay leaders 4. It is necessary that all the persons involved in a sociometric test know one another. These tests are not designed to measure vague factor called popularity, but it is popularity of acceptance in terms of specific activities 5. Sociograms for the same individuals will manifest (bring out) differences when the choices are in relation to different activities. This method is very useful to the extension worker in finding out the natural or local or informal leaders in the villages 6. An extension worker goes into a given area and asks the farmers to indicate whom; they ordinarily consult for advice on farming, which the extension worker wants to introduce. Usually after a few interviews, it becomes apparent (clear) which farmer is the influential person on natural leader. The figure below illustrates the Sociometry test

A H G C F E D B

SOCIOGRAM

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7. When farmer H is interviewed he may indicate that generally he goes to B for advice on farming, farmers G, F, D may also say that they take advice from farmer B on farming. The farmers A, E and C are depending on farmers H, F and D respectively. Then B is the operational or potential natural leader for these farmers and therefore if extension worker induces farmer B for the adoption of new improved practices it is quiet likely that the other farmers will be influenced by his behavior and adopt the same practices B. Election: group electing a leader through voting or any other method 2. The extension worker can guide or assist the local people in electing the right person for the right job by explaining to the group, the functions of leader in relation to particular problem and outlining the qualifications of a good leader for the given purpose. Election can also be used for selecting persons to receive leadership training who later become the actual leaders C. The Discussion Method:

1. Another method widely used in selecting leaders, consists simply of the members of the

1. Through discussions (on any subject) the person with sound knowledge and ability is soon recognized and a mere talker easily spotted 2. Discussion gives encouragement and assurance to the potential leader to express himself, and over a period of time may make him more confident in accepting some position of leadership and he emerges as a valuable leader D. The Workshop Method:

1. In this method a large group is broken in to smaller groups and the responsibility of the program and decision-making rests upon the smaller units 2. Leadership emerges in each small group. Over a period of time, the extension worker can spot certain leaders who come to the fore (front) in taking responsibilities 3. The extension worker or professional leader in the workshop has the position of consultant, observer, discussion group leader etc. E. The Group Observer: 1. The extension worker should watch (observe) a community or group in action and then he will be able to spot potential leaders 2. He may observe the community in any type of situation. For obtaining the best results, the group should not be aware of that the extension worker is observing them Rogers who designated the local leaders as opinion leaders mentions the following two methods to locate these leaders in mass public

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F. Key informants: 1. In a community key informants or persons with important information about their community like teachers, VLWs etc may be asked by the extension worker to indicate opinion leaders in that area based on their indications he will select the leader. 2. Key informant method is cost saving and time saving when compared to the sociometric method and other methods G. Self-designating technique: This consists of asking a respondent a series of questions to determine the degree to which he perceives himself to be an opinion leader based on the analysis of the answers obtained, the extension workers selects a leader Lay leaders are otherwise called as local leaders or informal leaders or volunteer leaders. Professional leaders are otherwise called as formal leaders LECTURE NO.: 9. TRAINING OF LEADERS – LAY AND PROFESSIONAL LEADERS, ADVANTAGES AND LIMITATIONS IN USING LOCAL LEADERS IN AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION Training of Leaders: Meaning of training: The term ‘training’ is used to those activities aimed at improving the ability of a person to do his job including acquainting (to know) information, developing abilities, attitudes that will result in greater professional competency. The potential leaders who are selected by various methods, lack some of the essential traits of leadership, the qualities can be developed by training objectives as follows: Objectives of training of leaders: 1. The objective of training is to develop the essentials of good leadership in the selected leaders 2. To give them a perfect understanding of the people, to enable them to understand group behavior 3. Develop competence in group processes i.e. teaching them the methods of identifying problems develop cooperative thinking, exchange and analysis of ideas 4. To acquire technical skills necessary to carry out a job, how to identify problems and plan appropriate procedures. To obtain attitudes, knowledge and skills of dealing with people. To develop in them latest capacities of leadership Methods of training of Professional leaders: 1. Background courses in college or an institution: Giving training on general college education in a college or an institution in psychology or sociology

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2. Induction training: apprenticeship experience under the direction of a trained and experienced leader in the field will enable the new professional leader to develop his abilities for successful leadership 3. In-service training: This is training is given to the professional leaders for constantly improving their efficiency by focusing attention upon the problems they have faced in the field and the ways to solve them. In-service training has become increasingly important in view of the fast changing technology in agriculture in recent times Methods of training of Lay leaders: The different methods of training lay leaders are classified in to two types one is formal and the other is informal as given below

Methods of Training of Lay leaders

Formal 1. Lecture 2. Discussion 3. Symposium 4. Workshop 5. Forum 6. Panel 7. Field trip 8. Apprenticeship 9. Training camps 10. Direct assistance from experts 11. Buzz groups 12. Giving responsibility to local leaders 13. Audio-visuals 1. 2. 3.

Informal Observations Reading Talking

Formal methods of training of lay leaders: 1. Lecture: This is probably most common method. Through this method local leaders under training are given enough material for thought, but little opportunity for self-

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expression. The lecture method is effective in certain situations, but usually is supplemented by other methods, depending on the objectives to be attained 2. Discussion: Discussion usually occurs in a face to face or co-acting situation in which people involved, exchange the useful information by speaking with each other 3. Workshop: It is essentially a long-term meeting form one day to several weeks, involving all the delegates (participants) in which problems are discussed by delegates in small private groups. The workshop as the name indicates must produce something in the end a report, a publication, a visual or any other material object 4. Forum: it is assemble (group of people) for discussion of matters of interest and usually follows the other extension teaching methods. In the forum the audience clear their doubts and raise questions for additional information 5. Panel: it is informal conversation for the benefit of the audience by a small group of speakers, usually from 2 to 8 in number 6. Symposium: this is short series of lectures in which 3 or 4 speakers explain the different parts of a particular subject 7. Field trip: in this method a group people go to see and gain firsthand knowledge of improved practices in their natural setting 8. Apprenticeship: in this the local leaders or the potential leaders see someone operating with a view to learn some of the activities and ways of handling the problems in the field of leadership 9. Training camps: Training is imparted by organizing camps in which several local leaders are involved in the training sessions at the same time 10. Direct assistance from experts: this may come in the form of advice from an expert in the field of leadership 11. Buzz groups: in this a large group is divided into smaller units for a short period called buzz session. It is also called as huddle system or Phillips 66 in which group of 6 to 8 persons get together after receiving instructions to discuss about a specific issue assigned 12. Giving responsibility to local leaders: giving everyone a job by which self confidence may be attained by achievement in activities useful to the group is essential for development of leadership 13. Audio-visuals: These include role playing, socio-drama, demonstration, movies etc Informal methods of training lay leaders: 1. Observation: Noticing how others have performed through observation 2. Reading: Studying printed material often found in the form of leader hand-books, newsletters, circulars, bulletins etc. 3. Talking: Speaking with other leaders in the same or related fields of interest and also with members to determine consensus (common opinion)

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Advantages of using local leaders in extension: 1. Local leaders act as extension teachers and this helps in increasing the adoption of improved practices 2. Cost of extension is reduced as local leaders are not paid for their work 3. Local leaders themselves become better taught, because of the experience they gain in teaching and influencing others 4. People accept new idea more readily form a local person who has practically tried it, while they may resist if the ideas were to come from an extension worker 5. The frequent contacts of extension workers with local leaders raises his prestige thereby making him more effective in his work Limitations of using local leaders in extension: 1. Person selected as leader may not have the expected following among neighbours or may not be willing to devote required time to work, or may be a poor teacher 2. Considerable time is required to locate and train local leaders 3. Local leader may try to use prestige connected with position of personal advantage 4. The most difficult task of arousing interest on the part of those not interested in extension is too often left to the in experienced local leader 5. Public recognition and publicity given to informal local leaders may sometimes jeopardize (spoil) their position and adversely affect their influence LECTURE NO.: 10. PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY- MEANING, SCOPE AND IMPORTANCE Father of Psychology is Sigmund Freud. Although human behavior seems to follow certain general trends, individuals respond differently to elements in specific situations. An individual’s behavior consists not only of his observable acts but also of his reactions to inner states and different factors of influence. The factors that influence and individual’s behavior include his education, personal factors, situational factors and environmental factors such as persons around him, objects he confronts with situations and conditions in which he lives. So psychologists who are interested in studying human behavior will not only study different aspects of behavior but also what are the similarities and differences among human reactions and what causes such behavior. Psychology has its origin from two Greek words psyche (soul) and logos (a rational course or a study) Definitions of Psychology: Psychology is the scientific study of the behavior of an individual – Daniel Psychology is the science of mental activity of an organism – Guilford Psychology is a science of human behavior Psychology is the science that studies the responses which living individuals make to their environment – Murthy Psychology is the science of behavior and adjustment

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Scope of Psychology: (Scope of Psychology in Agril. Extension) The application of psychology has a very wider area in the study of human behavior as follows: 1. To identify the nature and characteristics of learner 2. The nature of learning process 3. The principles of teaching and learning process 4. The human growth and development 5. The techniques employed in teaching 6. Identification of personality traits 7. Development and adjustment of psychological traits 8. Scientific measurement and evaluation of psychological traits Importance of Psychology: (Importance of Psychology in Agril. Extension) The study of psychology as the science of human behavior helps in identifying 1. The abilities of individual 2. The needs of individual and techniques to be employed to motivate them 3. The hereditary and environmental factors the affect the behavior 4. The levels of achievement motivation of the individuals 5. The factors that result in individual, intellectual differences and reasons for people becoming problem men 6. The factors that lead to differential perceptions 7. The causes of retarded learning 8. The causes of emotions and frustration in human beings 9. The causes of forgetting and how to improve memory 10. The levels of knowledge, attitudes possessed by the individuals 11. The different psychological traits possessed by individuals. By the application of different tests and help in evaluation of the behavior of the individual Introduction to the science of Educational Psychology: When we say that education plays a vital role in human behavior it is imperative (essential) to study the mode of such role the education plays. The desirable changes in behavior that represent basic features of education are: Knowledge: it is the intimate acquaintance with fact Skill: The ability to do a particular thing Attitude: the positive or negative feeling one has towards any psychological object Definitions of Educational Psychology: Educational Psychology is the branch of psychology that describes and explains the learning experiences of an individual and the progress in his educational development from birth to old age – Crow and Crow Educational psychology is the study of the psychological aspects of educational situation Trow 36

Definition of Psychological trait: It is a mode of behavior or a collection of certain related modes of behavior e.g. intelligence Lecture No.: 11. Intelligence - Meaning, types, factors and importance in Agricultural Extension INTELLIGENCE Introduction: Among the millions of species that exist on the earth, the human being is said to be superior and exclusive (separate) because of its reasoning of distinguishing between right and wrong. The ability to adopt to the environment with and to master situations, understanding, ability to command and capacity to carry on difficult tasks by learning and putting the past experience to the most beneficent use. This quality, which we describe as intelligence is found in different degrees in different human beings Definitions: Intelligence is the ability of an individual to make profitable use of past experience – Thorndike Intelligence is the ability demanded in the solution of problems, which require the comprehension, and the use of symbols – Grprett Intelligence is the ability of an individual to adjust himself to the conditions that arise in his environment – Brown Intelligence is the ability to adopt oneself to judge well, understand well, reason (think) well and act well – Binet Intelligence is the organization of abilities to learn a group of facts with alertness and accuracy to exercise mental control and display flexibility in seeking the solution of problem – Skinner Three types of intelligence: According to Thorndike intelligence is of three types Abstract intelligence or cognitive ability: 1. Abstract means which is not physically existing e.g. alphabets, numbers etc. 2. It is the ability to understand and deal with verbal and mathematical symbols 3. Of the three abilities abstract intelligence is one that receives greatest weight and almost pronounced as a correct test of intelligence 4. It is also the ability of manipulating ideas and relationships and more concerned with understanding abstract things 5. Philosophers and Professional people are high in abstract intelligence e.g. vocabulary, language, relational concepts etc Concrete intelligence or mechanical intelligence or motor ability: 1. Concrete means which is physically existing e.g. implement, object etc 37

2. It is the ability to understand and deal with things or objects etc., and more concerned with the physical skills of individuals 3. Industrial and building traders are high in mechanical intelligence e.g. problem solving skill and manual skills Social intelligence or social ability: 1. It is the ability to understand and deal with persons 2. It is the ability to understand and apply psychological principles of human relationships 3. Salesmen, politicians, leaders possess this intelligence e.g. association with people and empathy (understanding people by taking their conditions mentally) An ideal person is one who has all the three types of intelligence Intelligence is the product of heredity and environment. Opportunities to learn vary widely, yet the inherited capacity (capacity taken by birth) as modified (changed or increased) by maturation (development) accounts for a greater part of the individual variability (differences in the intelligence of the individuals). The totality of biologically transmitted factors that influence the structure of body is referred as heredity Factors affecting Intelligence: G.Brown a psychologist pointed out that, there are numerous factors which directly or indirectly affect the intelligence or abilities of the individual and which makeup the behaviour pattern of the individual. Important factors that affect the Intelligence: 1. Heredity and environment: heredity provides the physical body to be developed with certain inherent capabilities while environment provides maturation and training of the organism. Newman concludes that the variations in I.Q. or intelligence were determined about 68 % by heredity and 32 % by environment. It means that 68 % of intelligence of the individual comes through heredity and 32 % by environment 2. Age: The intelligence is maximum at 20 years and remains relatively stable if health and other factors do not interfere, until around 70 years when it rapidly decreases due to decline in physical efficiency 3. Health and physical development: Health and physical development are directly related to mental activity. Physical and physiological defects result in sub-normal intelligence or less intelligence 4. Race: As it is race has no influence over the intelligence but certain races which are socio-economically and culturally week show marginal effect on intelligence 5. Sex: Not much difference is noticed as per the sex of the individual. According to Crow and Crow males are slightly superior than females in questions that involve mathematical material and scientific concepts or in performance of certain scientific

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tasks (work related to science) and girls excel that deal more directly with the humanities (languages, literature, philosophy, fine arts, history etc.) 6. Social and economic conditions: if these conditions are good then physical development and mental development will also be fairly good and intelligence will be better 7. Intelligence Quotient: I.Q. rates the levels of intelligence of a person I.Q. =

Mental age of an individual (MA) Chronological age of an Individual (CA) I.Q.Level Below 20 20 to below 70 70 to 90 90 to 110 110 to 120 120 to 140 140 to 200 Above 200 Idiot Feeble minded Dull Character

X 100

Average or Normal Superior Very superior Genius Supreme genius

Importance of Intelligence in Extension work: 1. Intelligence does not follow a set of stereo (similar) types of pattern but depends largely on the complexity of demand of their environment and the kind of training they receive 2. Intelligence remain constant when the conditions remain constant i.e. health, types of education and situation 3. In all, the differences in intelligence can be treated to either heredity or environment since individual is a product of both 4. Gifted persons with higher intelligence can be better utilized by offering broader opportunities and with programmes for their accelerated growth 5. It is easy to identify the mentally retarded people or people with less intelligence and problem men (persons with less intelligence due to physiological defects) in rural society and such people should be given special attention while training them in agricultural technologies 6. An extension worker can increase his effectiveness by using appropriate techniques for teaching farmers with different levels of intelligence and thereby smooth introduction of the programs of change

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Lecture No.: 12. Personality - Meaning, types, factors and importance in Agricultural Extension Meaning: The word Personality originated from the Latin word Personare which used to mean the voice of an actor speaking through a mask. Later it came to be applied to the actors themselves Definitions of Personality: Several psychologists tried to define the term personality earlier, but failed to indicate what personality means. It was only during early 20th century, when several psychologists explained the concept of personality. Some of the definitions are as follows

By personality it is now generally meant that it is the organization and integration of a large number of human traits Personality is the result of what we start with and what we have lived through. It is the reaction mass as a whole – J. B.Watson 1919 A man’s personality is the total picture of his organized behavior, especially as it can be characterized by his fellow men in a consistent way – Dennell 1937 Personality is the sum total of an individual’s behavior in social situations. Behavior include not only overt acts but inward feelings produced by social situation – Trainer 1957 Personality is the total configuration of individual characteristics and modes of behaviors that shape one’s adjustment to his environment, especially traits that influence his getting along with others and himself – Hilgard 1962 The definition given by Hilgard is most comprehensive and explains different dimensions of personality in terms of traits and the adjustment of individual to his environment Types of Personality: There are three types of personality – C.J.Jung a. Extrovert b. Introvert and c. Ambivert

Extrovert and Introvert Personalities (Differences):
S.No.

Extrovert Personality

Introvert Personality

1.

Extrovert type are socially adaptable They are socially shy and remain (adjust to any situation) and interested in interested in their own feelings and people, they go to the extent of scarifying reactions themselves for others

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2.

They make quick decisions and execute Slow the plan of action rapidly They are fluent in speech Free from worries Not easily embarrassed Usually conservative (do not change) Interested in athletics Friendly Like to work with others Neglectful belongings of aliments and

in

taking

decisions

and

executing the plan of action Not fluent in speech Not like that Easily embarrassed Not conservative Not interested Not friendly Don’t like to work with others personal Not like that Better at writing than speaking Enjoy being alone They have independent judgment Different functions from public or social

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

11. 12. 13. 14.

Better at speaking than writing Enjoy to be with others Take decisions with the help of others Attend public or social functions

15. 16. 17. 18.

Usually not like that Not reserved Not fond of books Flexible

Strong of ideals Reserved Fond of books Not flexible

Ambivert Personality: 1. These are place between extroverts and introverts. Their behavior is balanced. Their psychic (internal) energy is partly directed inwards and partly outwards 2. They are interested in their own thoughts, emotions and also in other persons and their actions 3. Most of the people in the society belong to ambivert personality

This classification of extrovert, introvert and ambivert is based on the Temperament (natural disposition of mind or natural state of mind) of the individual Importance or role of Personality in Agricultural Extension: 1. The extension worker should get into deep study of knowing the capacities, types and traits of the personalities of his clients (farmers) with whom he has to work in order to plan and educate them. This also helps the extension worker to select a suitable farmer for a certain purpose 2. The study of personality of the people enables extension worker to judge and follow the method of guiding, by selecting suitable teaching method. This enables the extension worker to properly plan the programmes to advise the farmers for desirable changes in rural communities

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Lecture No.: 13. Perception, Emotions, Frustration - Meaning, types, factors and importance in Agricultural Extension Introduction Meanings: Perception is usually described as a response to stimulus Perception is an active process, whereby sensory reactions are related to relevant past experiences of an individual when confronted with stimulus and more structured and meaningful picture is printed in the mind, which is finally perceived as the object. Our reaction to any situation is determined by the way we perceive it. Two different individuals may perceive the same object in two different ways. Therefore perception is very personal thing. Definitions of perception: Perception is the process of organizing and interpretation of sensory data in terms of one’s previous experience and present needs – Ruch Perception is the process by which impressions, opinions and feelings about an object is formed by means of a sensory operation – Kuppu Swamy Perception is the process of assimilating experiences and relating them to previous experiences, attaching meaning or value to them and ordering them in to organized patterns of knowledge and feeling – Mc David Stages in Perception: The different stages involved in perception are: 1. Sensation: It is meaningful awareness of object 2. Attention: perceptual readiness (the process of focusing upon certain phases or elements of experience and neglecting others) 3. Understanding: the meaning of object and what the object is 4. Relating to past experience: Relating the object to past experience and present needs for comprehensive usefulness of the object to give meaning 5. Cognition: Interpreting and perceiving the object Perception can be regarded as a meaningful sensation Factors affecting Perception: I A B C D E Characteristics of Stimulus Nearness Likeness Inclusiveness Closure Context II A B C D Characteristics of the Perceiver Previous experience Physical conditions Social factors Levels of knowledge

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Characteristics of Stimulus: 1. Nearness: The physical nearness or proximity of objects to each other makes for their perception as parts of pattern. Objects nearer to each other are grouped together E.g. A group of persons at a place or in a hall may be perceived together 2. Similarity: Similar objects found to be perceived as belonging together. In the figure below, it is usually perceived that there are three rows of minus signs and two rows of plus signs because of their similarity. But perceiving five columns is generally rare. − + − + − − + − + − − + − + − − + − + − − + − + −

3. Inclusiveness: When all the parts of the objects are included can be perceived better 4. Closure: When parts of object are close and maintained equidistance the perception is clear. For example in the figure given below there is one dog not twenty black blotches.

5. Context: The way the object as whole is perceived will influence the meaning of the part. For example the word ‘mass’ give different meanings when used in sociology and physics Characteristics of the Perceiver: 1. Previous experience: If the perceiver is already exposed to the object than it is easy to perceive clearly 2. Physical conditions of the individual: some defects of the body interfere with the perception 3. Social factors: Cultural opportunities, social taboos, values, beliefs effect the individuals perception of an object 4. Levels of knowledge: Sometimes lack of full knowledge will also lead to poor perception

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Importance of Perception in extension work: 1. Faulty perception: If it occurs with farmers about an object, that will have serious implication in field. For example if a farmer think that both insecticides and fungicides are chemicals and can be used vice versa it is a faulty perception 2. Differential perception: If meaning of an object is not conceived properly it may lead to faulty adoption by the farmers. 3. When messages are distorted (not clear) (perceived either too much or too less than normal or improperly understood) than the implementation or adoption will also be faulty 4. If the farmers are to perceive the objects or messages properly and accurately the extension worker has to understand the qualities of stimulus and perceiver and then communicate the innovation 5. Perception of the individual mostly depends on his need to the message. Hence the extension worker should communicate only needy messages FRUSTRATION Meaning, types, factors and importance in Agricultural Extension Every human being is born with inner drives or needs that are dynamic forces. Some of such needs are physiological, safety, security, achievement, recognition or approval etc. When needs or goals are equally important or have both positive and negative (advantages and limitations) features then individual is in conflict to choose one out of them and to leave others. Some times when needs are not fulfilled or there is some obstruction in attainment of need, the resultant factor is frustration Meaning: Frustration is a psychological and physiological response, which occurs with the individual due to some obstacle in his goal directed behaviour Definitions: Frustration is a condition where in the goal directed behaviour of an individual is blocked or thwarted. It is the endless obstacles that block individual complex motion, which produce frustration. When individual’s satisfaction of active or progress to a chosen goal is obstructed, thwarted or interfered it develops certain psychological and physiological responses, which are termed as frustration Types of Frustrations: 1. Environmental: The environment around the individual is full of obstacles that impede his progress. E.g. famine, drought, flood etc. 2. Personal: Due to personal limitations the individual is prevented from realization of the goal, such limitations may be physical or physiological e.g. a blind man cannot see the face of his newly born baby 3. Conflict: When an individual is confronted with choose one goal out of two equally important, exiting goals he develops frustration e.g. a farmers wants to purchase land and to perform daughter’s marriage but the finances (money) are limited to achieve only one goal

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Factors that lead to Frustration: 1. Failure to achieve goals: Some time failure to achieve goals may lead to frustration. The failure may be because of high aspirations or inferiority feeling or no opportunities of attainment of need 2. Moral lapses: Moral values of individual clash with society which do not approve as such the net result is frustration 3. Family: The internal demands, jealousies among the members of the family will result in conflicting situations and there by frustration develops 4. Love and affection: The love, attachment, affection or association when lacks and lead to conflicts frustration develops Importance of frustration in extension work: 1. One of the important reasons for development of frustration is unrealistic aspiration. Train the people to have realistic aspiration to achieve the needs and avoid frustration 2. Frustrations are blocks of progress of individual. Try to create a situation where in frustration do not crop in 3. Negative emotions lead to frustration. Therefore the extension worker should develop positive emotions in people 4. Once frustration develops farmers become inactive and uninterested in any progressive activity 5. Have greater interest for creating favourable attitudes, moral values in people, these are also sources of frustration 6. Do not allow to develop inferiority feeling in farmers, which is a good source of frustration EMOTIONS Meaning: The word Emotion is originated from the Latin word ‘emovere’ in which ‘e’ means out and movere means to move. When we talk about emotion we mean psychological phenomena like fear, anger, grief, love, affection, pleasure etc. Emotion is a stirred up state of feeling that is the way it appears to the individual himself. Emotion is a disturbed muscular and glandular condition. That is the way it appears to the observer Definitions: Emotion is a state of being moved and stirred up in one way or other – Ruch Emotion is an effective experience that accompanies generalized inner adjustments and mental and psychologically stirred up states in individual that shows itself in his overt behaviour – Crow and Crow

45

Emotion is a complex state of an individual in which certain ideas and feelings and usually motor experiences continues to produce a condition recognizable as stirred up state Wood worth Types of Emotions: Broadly emotions can be classified in to two types as Positive emotions and negative emotions Positive Emotions: These are aroused by situations, which help and promote the satisfaction of needs and realization of goals. E.g. joy, happiness, affection, love etc. Negative Emotions: These are aroused by situations, which prevent the achievement of needs and realization of goals. E.g. anger, jealousness, fear, anxiety etc. Effects of Emotions on Individual behaviour: A. Psychological changes: 1. Excessive secretion of hormones from glands 2. Reddening of the skin due to excessive pumping of blood into tissues 3. Either dilation (widening) or contraction (narrowing) of eye pupils 4. Narrowing or widening of nostrils 5. A great variety of responses can be produced by mouth, such as narrowing, widening, wide-open, tight lipped, twisted lips etc. 6. Changes in pitch, raise or loudness of voice is also noticed B. Effects on Behavior: 1. Sudden fear causes speech defects 2. Prolonged emotions cause stammering 3. They interfere with effective perception 4. They affect learning 5. Prolonged fear in children results in delinquency (carelessness), timidity (nervousness) and stubbornness (inflexibility) 6. Negative emotions will interfere with physiological functions of body Importance of Emotions in Extension work: 1. The extension worker as a teacher can achieve greater success in his work by arousing positive emotions of the learner. These emotions aid in good learning 2. When individuals are emotionally excited (positively) they can do extraordinary things. The extension worker should utilize this fact in extension work 3. Pleasant emotions help in accelerating good health 4. Strong emotions may help to break some other crude and undesirable emotions 5. Development of positive emotions aid in increasing creative abilities of learner

46

6. Emotions are strong motivating forces of action. The extension worker should arouse right type of positive emotions for preparing the farmers for action Lecture No.: 14. Motivation- meaning, types of motives, theories of motivation, importance of motivation in agricultural extension MOTIVATION Motivation is the process of initiating a conscious and purposeful action Motive means an urge (drive or force) or combination of urges, to induce conscious or purposeful action. Motivation is a goal directed and need satisfying behavior. It explains why people do the things they do. It influences a person to do a thing in a certain way. Motive is something (a need or desire) that causes a person to act. Definitions: Motivation may be defined as goal seeking or goal directed behavior or activity. Behavior is a function of the person, which is interaction within a situation Motivation is also defined as a stage of the organism in which bodily energy is mobilized and selectively directed towards parts of the environment

This definition breaks in to two parts: 1. Mobilization of bodily energy or drive and 2. Direction Factors for the Motivation or motivated behavior are: 1. Environmental conditions 2. Internal urge 3. Incentive awards Classification of Motives or Basic Needs: THEORIES OF MOTIVATION MASLOW’S’ CLASSIFICATION OF NEEDS: According to the famous psychologist Abraham Maslow (1954), the needs in order of importance to individuals i.e. the fulfillment of needs starts from the first order and if first order needs are fulfilled the individual thinks of second order and so on as given below 1. Physiological needs: These are called first order needs. These needs are necessary for survival of the individual e.g. food, clothing, shelter etc. these are most important, if these needs are fulfilled then only the individual steps in to second order needs 2. Safety needs: These are second order needs. These needs are for the security of the individual from physical, physiological, economic and social viewpoints e.g. protection from danger, threatening etc 3. Social needs: These are third order needs. Man is a social animal and has an inherent desire to be with others in some form e.g. friendship, company etc. These are also called response needs. 47

4. Esteem needs: These are fourth order needs. The individual likes to get appreciation and recognition from others in the society e.g. power, status, prestige etc 5. Self-actualization: These are called last order or fifth order or highest order needs. It is self-realization and knowing self or the ultimate purpose of human being e.g. what is human being, how he should live, what is his purpose of living etc.

Maslow’s Classification of Needs According to order of importance or hierarchy

The motivations or needs that are more relevant for the rural people are presented as follows Importance of motivation in agricultural extension: 1. Society composes of individuals. Everyone is different from the other and the degree of difference is based on the relative importance each one of us assigns to the different motivating forces and to the various interests we have, which impel us to act as we do 2. The job of the extension worker is to understand the basic wants or incentives of the people with whom he is working 3. He should show the leaner how to satisfy these basic wants by learning new things (i.e. by adopting new methods or practices) 4. The extension worker should find the personal goals of the learner and tie with his teaching goals 5. When people are shown how learning a subject will enable them to gratify (satisfy) a desire or realize a need, they are being motivated to learn 6. A great impetus (momentum or speed) is given to learning when the learner can see that what he learns will be of immediate value to him in making his own life more satisfying 7. A desire or a want therefore, is the most definite and dynamic of motives, from the educational point of view 8. It is possible for extension workers to motivate people to satisfy the four categories of basic needs of security, new experience, response and recognition through the increase of income, provision of new knowledge, skills etc, encouraging farmers to work in groups and awarding prizes, certificates etc to the winners in crop competitions respectively

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Lecture No.: 15. Teaching, learning, Learning experience, learning situation Meaning and Definition, Elements of Learning Situation and its characteristics

As long as I live, so long do I learn – Sri Ramakrishna Paramahamsa

Definition of Teaching and Amplification: Teaching is the process of providing situations in which learning takes place; in other words, arranging situations in which the things to be learnt are brought the attention of the learners, their interest is developed, desire aroused, conviction created, action promoted and satisfaction ensured. Amplification: 1. The ultimate purpose of teaching is not merely to inform people but to transform them to bring about the desired changes in their behavior 2. If the learner has not learnt, the teacher has not taught 3. Teaching is not filling a bucket; it is lighting a lamp 4. Teaching is an intentional purposeful process, not a bit or miss undertaking 5. Effective teaching is done according to design not drift; it is done by plan, not by trial and error 6. Good teaching, therefore, requires careful planning of content procedures, methods and techniques 7. Good teaching is essentially a good communication and good communication requires sympathetic sharing and clear explaining

Definition of Learning and Amplification: Learning is a process by which a person becomes changed in his behavior through selfactivity. Learning is a process of progressive behavior adaptation Amplification: 1. Learning is something that take place within the learner 2. It takes place within the individual when he feels a need, strives for fulfilling it and experiences satisfaction with the fruits of his labour 3. Learning is the goal of teaching

We must avoid any artificial separation, since teaching and learning are really one process; they are, so to say, the obverse and the reverse of the same coin. We can symbolize this interaction as Teaching Learning

Definition of Learning Experience: It is the mental and /or physical reaction one makes through seeing, hearing or doing the things to be learned, through which one gains meanings and understandings of the material to be learned. 49

Learning is an active process on the part of the learner. Hence a learning experience is not attained by mere physical presence in a learning situation.

The participant must give undivided attention to the instructor and deep thought to getting the facts understanding their meaning and to seeing their application to his needs and problems Definition of Learning Situation: It is a condition or environment in which all the elements necessary for promoting learning are present namely 1. Instructor 2. Learner 3. Subject matter 4. Teaching materials and equipments and 5. Physical facilities

The following diagram is a symbolic representation of the reaction the learner makes to the other four elements and the way these five elements react to each other. INSTRUCTOR SUBJECT MATTER

LEARNER

TEACHING EQUIPMENT

PHYSICAL FACILITIES

THE 5 ELEMENTS OF A LEARNING SITUATION Criteria for effective learning situation or Characteristics of the elements of Learning situation: To have an effective learning situation these five major elements should satisfy the following conditions or characteristics 1. Instructor should: a. Have clear objective b. Know the subject matter and have it well organized c. Be enthusiastic and interested in the subject d. Be able to communicate with learners e. Be democratic in his leadership f. Allow student participation, ask for it g. Be prepared, be prompt, be friendly, be courteous h. Use teaching plan i. Speak so that all can hear j. Set a good example of a good leader and teacher k. Be skillful in the use of teaching materials and equipment 50

2. Learner should: a. Have need for information b. Be interested c. Be capable of learning d. Use the information gained 3. Subject matter or content: a. Pertinent (related) to learner’s needs b. Applicable to real life situations c. Taught at intellectual level of learners d. Well organized – logically presented e. Presented clearly f. Challenging, satisfying and significant to the learners g. Fits into overall objectives 4. Physical Facilities: a. Free from outside distractions b. Temperature as comfortable as possible c. Well lighted d. Adequate space for the group e. Furniture comfortable and well arranged 5. Teaching Equipment and Supplies: a. Meet the needs effectively b. Readily available c. Each item used skillfully Lecture No.: 16. Principles of learning and their implications in teaching. Steps in Extension teaching Principle Principle of Association Particulars Implications for teaching Learning is growth like and continuous 1. Learning is the result of 1. Begin at the level our experiences of the learner must be

2. Experiences that occur 2. New together tend to recur together 3. Previous learning always sets the stage of

related to old 3. Adjust the pace to the learner’s

capacity, one idea at a time 4. Bring the idea to the attention of the learner repeatedly and over a period of time

subsequent learning

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Principle of Clarity

Learning is purposeful

1. Learning

varies

directly 1. Learning

must

with the meaningfulness of the material presented 2. Learning is

make sense to the learner

increased 2. Progress must be constantly appraised redirected 3. Purpose must be kept in sharp focus and

when the learner sees the end sought by the practice

Principle of self Learning activity results through self activity

1. It is an active process on 1. Activities the part of the learner 2. Teachers can only set up the learning situation and stimulate a person to learn appropriate to the specific learning

situation must be used activities engage number

3. The door to learning is 2. Learning locked on the inside and unless the learner opens the door himself, learning cannot take place 4. Learning involves should maximum of aids.

audio-visual

appropriate activities that engage maximum number of senses

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Principle of Readiness (Motivation) Principle of Rewards (Satisfaction)

Learning must be challenging and satisfying

1. Readiness includes social 1. Teacher motivation and intellectual maturity 2. When not ready to act, learner will be annoyed if made to act 3. A favourable of the student is essential in making learning challenging attitude 2. Standards demanded of the learners should be suitable learning to their more

accelerates learning and a bad learning 4. Consequently depends attitude retards

ability or capacity and

primarily

upon 3. Appropriate timely

satisfaction of wants or needs, in other words, upon success 5. Rewards strengthen process Principle of Practice (or Law of Exercise) maintain the and

recognition

should be given to student achievement

learning

Learning must result in functional

1. Memorization is temporary 1. Course unless reviewed or put to use in a practical situation leads to should organized

content be into

understanding 2. Practice perfection

meaningful units 2. Theory should be related to practice 3. Provide activities

that simulate actual use situation Principle of Disassociation

Learning is affected by emotions

1. The intensity of emotional 1. Strive to increase feeling affects in learning different pleasant emotions and decrease

differently individuals

unpleasant emotions students of in

2. The most effective way of eliminating an undesirable response is to set up a desirable substitute

connection with the learning process 2. Train expression emotions in the of the

right direction

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Principle of Timing

--

1. Learning takes place more 1. Select readily when the facts or skills are given at the time of just before the time they are to be used in a serviceable way appropriate

the time,

depending on the learning activity

(neither too early, nor too late).

Principle of Environment

Learning is affected by the physical and social environment

--

1. The physical

general

environment should be suitable to the kind of learning

taking place 2. Specific factors meeting physical of the place

should be suitable to the activities

selected for use in the situation 3. The teacher should recognize and learning

utilize the effects of the environment learning. social of

STEPS IN EXTENSION TEACHING Based on the four psychological foundations of teaching in motivation the six steps in extension teaching have been derived. The conscious attention to organization of teaching activities in a sequence greatly increases the efficiency of learning. The extension worker, therefore, plans and arranges situations and activities whereby the things to be learned are called to the attention of the prospective learner, his interest is developed, desire aroused, conviction created, action promoted and satisfaction ensured.

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SATISFACTION

ACTION CONVICTION DESIRE INTEREST ATTENTION Steps in Extension Teaching (AIDCAS) Step – 1: Getting the attention of the learner 1. Farmers are not always aware of the improvements of scientific research and successful experiences of other farmers. So the first task of the extension teacher is to direct the attention of the farmers to the new or better idea 2. Until the individual’s attention is focused upon the change that is considered desirable, there is no recognition of a problem to be solved or a want to be satisfied 3. Attention is the starting point to the arousing of interest. The extension worker creates a desire for information for of those who are indifferent to improvements in agriculture Step – 2: Stimulating the learner’s interest 1. The fundamental difference between the awareness and interest stages is that in awareness stage the exposure to an innovation may be accidental or non purposive, where as the behavior of an individual at latter stage is purposive 2. Once attention has been captured it becomes possible for the teacher to appeal to the basic needs of the individual and arouse his interest 3. The teacher in easy stages reveals to the learner how the new practice will contribute to the learner’s welfare 4. The teacher’s message should be presented attractively and in a manner that requires little mental effort on the part of the learner. The presenting of one idea at a time that is definite and specific is another important factor in building interest Step – 3: Arousing the learner’s desire for information 1. The teacher is concerned with continuous stimulation of learner’s interest in the new idea until that interest becomes a desire or motivating force sufficiently strong to compel action

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2. The teacher explains to the learner that the information applies directly to the learner’s situation, that the doing of the thing will satisfy a significant want or need of the learner Step – 4: Convincing the learner that he should act 1. Action follows when desire, conviction and the prospect of satisfaction make it easier for the person to act than not to act 2. The extension worker sees that the learner knows what action is necessary and how to take the action 3. He also makes sure that the learner visualizes the action in terms of his own peculiar situation and has acquired confidence in his own ability to do the thing Step – 5: Getting action by the learner 1. Unless the conviction is converted into action, the teaching effort is fruitless. 2. The extension worker should make the action easy to the learner by removing the blocks and annoyances that prevent the action 3. If a serious pest is controlled by the use of a new chemical it will not be adopted by the farmers unless that chemical is readily available at a fair price at reasonable distance 4. If action does not follow soon after the desire and conviction have been created the new desire soon fades away and people continue as before 5. This phase of extension work is often neglected Step – 6: Making certain that the learner obtains satisfaction from his action 1. The end product of the extension teaching effort is satisfaction that comes to the farmer as a result of change in behavior i.e. learning a new skill, new knowledge etc. 2. The extension teacher helps the learner in evaluating the progress made and builds the learner’s confidence in his ability to continue action with increasing satisfaction 3. Satisfaction is the motivating force for further learning and the goals of the learning should be simple. The extension teacher should break down the difficult job in to smaller ones that are easier to accomplish 4. ‘A satisfied customer is the best advertisement’ applies to the extension worker as much as to the retail merchant It must be understood that the above six steps in extension teaching often blend (mix) with each other and lose their clear-cut identity. There is similar overlapping in the extension methods used to advance each of the different steps. All methods are not equally effective for different stages in this process. Nevertheless, one method may, under certain condition, contribute to several steps e.g. mass media.

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