Gender Roles

The role of gender is a fundamental issue due to the fact that important aspects of people’s lives, such as their capabilities, perceptions, social interactions, and occupational pursuits are based highly upon the guidelines established by societal gender-typing. Gender development is one of the primary basis’s upon which people establish different expectations for the effects on their daily lives. “Gender roles, need for achievement, and moral judgment are among the major arenas of social behavioral differences studied by cross-cultural psychologists and anthropologists. While gender identities tend to be relatively stable through a wide variety of cultures, there are cultural differences that are strong enough to show that these identities
are not purely biological” (Chantham, 2004). A set of social and behavioral norms that, within a specific culture, that are considered to be socially appropriate for individuals of a specific sex is the embodiment of a gender role. The differences in cultures impose the different expectations upon the men and women who live in those cultures. “Stereotypes are not simply labels, but are assumptions about traits and behaviors that people in the labeled categories are thought to possess” (Praeger, 2008, pg.208).
Culture is most certainly seen in the implication of gender roles and socialization in that culture is a contributor to the development of an individual person. Culture predicates the desired reaction of boys and girls to a specific situation or circumstance while programming them on how to feel and respond to that situation. Gender is predetermined and separates boys and girls upon that birth, and societal expectations of gender stereotyping follow in suit. I have chosen to focus my attention on the female gender aspect of social development and gender beliefs in the cultures of the Dominican Republic and Turkey. I have recently returned from the Middle East and am interested to learn more about that area of the world, my girlfriend’s family is from the Dominican Republic so it seemed an opportunity to understand her a little better.
Families in the Dominican Republic often hold a great deal of importance; they are loyal and extended with close knit family ties to the other members of their family and to their community. It is common for a grandparent or extended family member to live with their children, or vice versa, in which case they provide a very pivotal role. “The family unit is of primary importance. Relationships among people are more important than schedules and being late for appointments, and people often spend time socializing rather than working. Dominicans are warm, friendly, outgoing, and gregarious” (Dominican, 2012). Often times the grandparent will live inside the home in order to assist in the responsibility of raising the children. This level of family involvement will establish a support structure for a child growing up in this environment and make them able to identify with members of the family. “Within the extended family, grandparents play meaningful roles in guiding younger generations; adults who face employment, marital, or child-rearing difficulties receive assistance and emotional support; and care giving is enhanced for children (Berk, 2010, pg 66). “Public education is provided through the high-school level at no cost except for the school uniform and books.
Attendance is mandatory to sixth grade, although many children, particularly girls, drop out before then” (Dominican, 2012). This will result in a differing development in the children of this culture and it will deny them many of the developmental opportunities that education and public interaction has to offer. “Evaluative self-descriptions result from school-age children’s frequent social comparisons, or judgments of their appearance, abilities, and behavior in relation to those of others” (Berk, 2010, pg. 330). Given the extensive family interdependency it is likely, especially for females, for them to fall back on that support structure and progress from within the family by getting married and having their own children. According to Berk (2010), gender-stereotyped expectations also affect self-esteem and when each culture is compared to the retrospective expectation, females may exceed boys in matters of self-esteem but be
negatively. Personal appearance is important to Dominicans and they do their best to look neat and clean. “Most women ride sidesaddle while on the backs of motorcycles, because sitting with the legs apart is considered unladylike. Personal space is limited, touching is normal, and crowding, particularly on public transportation, is common” (Domican, 2012). “For a child, culture encompasses the environment in which a child is reared, the beliefs and goals of parents, and the means by which parents attempt to attain these goals” (Chantham, 2004). The standards and expectations put forth by parents are interpreted through their actions and forces of habit, these elements will be what shape the perceptions of their children. “Cultures shape family interaction and community settings” (Berk, 2010, pg 66). Dominicans are animated and often make gestures and use body language, this could result in a highly interactive society that is not as constricted with boundaries as we are here in the United States. “Men shake hands firmly when they greet and close friends embrace. Most women kiss each other on both cheeks and a man who trusts a woman will also kiss her” (Dominican, 2012).These reflections of trust and endearment will pass on to their children and establish the basis upon which their child interacts with their environment and those inside it. According to Berk (2010), parenting practices will reflect the gender typing expectations that parents have for their children and lay the foundation for what a boy or girl is supposed to do in order to correspond with their gender role (274).
Turkey, known officially as the Republic of Turkey, is a Eurasian country located in Western Asia and in the East Thrace in Southeastern Europe. Turkey is one of the six independent Turkic states and the vast majority of the populations are Muslims. “Turkish law guarantees equal pay for equal work and has opened practically all educational programs and occupations to women” (Turkey, 2012). “In general, men dominate the high-status occupations in business, the military, government, the professions, and academia. According to traditional values, women should do domestic work and not work in the public arena or with unrelated men” (Turkey, 2012). Although I was unable to make it to Turkey on my trip overseas, I do have a Turkish female friend, who in my observations was always very family oriented and focused on the man that she was with. However, she was well educated, independent, and completely self sufficient, especially for having come from a Muslim culture this struck me as surprising.
In Turkey women are very protective of their children often breast-feeding them for a year or more and having them sleep in a hammock or crib near them. Boys are socialized to be courageous, assertive, proud, and respectful of elders. They undergo a painful circumcision ceremony between ages 9 and 12, they are told to be as brave as lions. Girls are socialized to be modest, compliant, supportive of males, virtuous, and skilled in domestic tasks. With this socialization you can see a great difference between the culture of Turkey and the culture of the United States, were we are on more of an equal mentality between genders, although you can still see remnants of this here. Fathers are authoritarian disciplinarians while mothers are generally loving and nurturing. According to Berk (2010), authoritarian parenting is a cold, rejecting, and often degrading style of parenting that requires direct control of the child. The children are often anxious, unhappy, and low in self esteem and self-reliance (pg. 279). This type of child rearing is shown to produce defiant children, especially in the male population, but with the gender differences that preexist in Turkey it is reasonable to understand that women could become withdrawn and underappreciated by members of the opposite sex. “Every woman rejoices when giving birth to a son, because that event increases her status in the eyes of her husband, in-laws, and community. She usually pampers her son, who remains close to her until age 10 or 11, after which he spends most of his time with other males and identifies more closely with men” (Turkey, 2012).
Both the culture of the Dominican Republic and the culture of Turkey are more collectivist societies as opposed to individualistic.
According to Berk (2010), collectivist societies define themselves as part of a group and stress group goals over individual ones. This form of society creates an interdependent population that emphasizes social harmony, obligations, and responsibilities to others (pg. 67). “Formal etiquette is central to Turkish culture, governing most social interactions and the use of space. Turkish culture has an exact verbal formula for practically every occasion” (Turkey, 2012). The cross cultural differences between Turkey, the Dominican Republic, or even our own culture are both minimal in some cases and vast in others. Gender plays a serious role in the expectations set forth by any culture and therefore directly affects the developing child.

References
Berk, L. E. (2010). Development through the lifespan. Boston, MA: Pearson Education
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Berscheid, E. (1993). Forward. In A. E. Beall & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), The psychology of gender (viixvii). New York: Guilford Press
Chatham, M. L. (2004) Child development across cultures. Encyclopedia of Applied
Developmental Science. Retrieved from the Walden Library using SAGE Reference Online: http://www.sageereference.com.ezp.waldenulibrary.org/applieddevscience/Article_n90.html entrepreneurs.
Denmark, F., & Paludi, M. (2008). Psychology of Women : Handbook of Issues
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Theories. Praeger. Retrieved from the Walden Library using EBSCOhost Online: http://web.ebscohost.com.ezp.waldenulibrary.org/ehost/detail?sid=a5cf9f3b-60a6- 4cadbe71ee7d17af2b59%40sessionmgr14&vid=1&hid=13&bdata=JnNpdGU9Z
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Dominican Republic (2012). Culture of Dominican Republic. Retrieved April 12,2012 from http://www.everyculture.com/Cr-Ga/Dominican-Republic.html
Turkey (2012). Culture of Turkey. Retrieved April 12,2012 from
http://www.everyculture.com/To-Z/Turkey.html#ixzz1sMLFDlre