General Psychology Worksheet

GENERAL PSYCHOLOGY CONCEPTS LIST
Chapter 1 Introducing Psychology

1. How do we presently define psychology? the science of behavior and mental processes
2. What are operational definitions? defines the variable in terms of how it is to be measured, manipulated, or changed in a study Why are they important? because many of the concepts that psychologist investigate-such as memory, happiness, or stress- can be measured in more than one way Give an operational definition for: Hungry- food deprived for time frame(24 hrs) Intelligent- IQ test Immature- age Aggressive- number of aggressive behavior in an hour Angry- yelling outburst in a given amount of time
3. How and why are research studies replicated? studies are
replicated by using the same exact steps the original psychologist reported in their study, studies are replicated to determine the level of scientific confidence
4. What is a correlational study? a research strategy that allows the precise calculation of how strongly related two factors are to each other What is a correlation coefficient? a numerical indication of the magnitude and direction of the relationship (the correlation) between two variables What does it mean that factors are correlated? a very strong association, meaning that the two factors almost always occur together
5. What is meant by “cause and effect”? changes in one variable and the effect that is produced on another variable Why is it said that only experiments can determine cause and effect? an experiment involves deliberately varying one factor (independent variable) then measures the changes that are produced in a second factor (dependent variable)
6. What is meant by the terms: Independent variable- the purposely manipulated factor thought to produce change in an experiment; also called the treatment of interest Dependent variable- the factor that is observed and measured for change in an experiment; thought to be influenced by the independent variable Placebo- is an inert substance or a treatment that has no known effects Control group- the group of participants who are exposed to all experimental conditions, except the independent variable or treatment of interest; the group against which changes in the experimental group are compared Be able to determine each of these in a given experiment.

Chapter 5 Learning
1. How is the term “learning” defined? as a process that produces a relatively enduring change in behavior or knowledge as a result of an individual’s experience That is, what changes when learning occurs, and what is the cause of the change? you acquire new behaviors or modify old behaviors so as to better cope with your surroundings
2. What are the fundamental assumptions of behaviorism? that one should only limit themselves to study thing that can be observed- behavior, outwardly observable, what the organism does or says.
3. Classical conditioning. A. How does classical conditioning occur? repeatedly pairing a neutral stimulus with a response-producing stimulus until the neutral stimulus elicits the same response B. What is meant by: Unconditioned stimulus- the natural stimulus that reflexively elicits a response without the need for prior learning Unconditioned response- the learned, reflexive response that is elicited by an unconditioned stimulus Conditioned stimulus- a formerly neutral stimulus that acquires the capacity to elicit a reflexive response Conditioned response- the learned, reflexive response to a conditioned stimulus

Which one or ones would most likely be reflex? unconditioned stimulus and unconditioned response C. How does the timing of the stimulus presentations affect the strength of the conditioned response? Conditioning is most effective when the conditioned stimulus was presented immediately before the unconditioned stimulus, 1\2 is best timing D. Describe what happened when Little Albert’s fear of a white rat “generalized:. he began to have a fear of furry animals, furry objects and white furry animals and objects What is meant by “stimulus generalization?” the occurrence of a learned response not only to the original stimulus but to other, similar stimuli as well E. What is “extinction” in classical conditioning? the gradual weakening and apparent disappearance of conditioned behavior Describe how it occurs. when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus
4. Operant conditioning. A. How do positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement differ? positive reinforcement is equivalent of a plus sign (+) meaning something is added, negative reinforcement is equivalent of a minus sign (-) meaning something is subtracted or removed

Do they increase or do they decrease the likelihood of a behavior recurring? reinforcement whether positive or negative always increase the likelihood of a behavior repeating B. What is meant by “punishment”? is a process in which a behavior is followed by an aversive consequence that decreases the likelihood of the behavior’s being repeated 1. How do we know that punishment is being used, rather than positive or negative reinforcement? punishment always decreases the future performance of an operant 2. What are some drawbacks to using punishment? punishment may decrease a specific response, but it doesn’t necessarily teach or promote a more appropriate response to take its place & punishment that is intense may produce undesirable results, such as complete passivity, fear, anxiety or hostility & effects are likely to be temporary C. What is meant by “shaping” and why is it used? the operant conditioning procedure of selectively reinforcing successively closer approximations of a goal behavior until the goal behavior is displayed D. Describe extinction in operant conditioning. the gradual weakening and disappearance of conditioned behavior. In operant conditioning, extinction occurs when an emitted behavior is no longer followed by a reinforcer What are the results of extinction? the likelihood of the behavior’s being repeated gradually declines

E. How does partial reinforcement differ from continuous reinforcement? partial reinforcement is when a response is only sometimes followed by a reinforcer & continuous reinforcement is when every occurrence of a particular response is reinforced Which one is more difficult to extinguish, and why?
partial reinforcement is more difficult to extinguish because there is still that one chance that the occurrence could get a reinforcement What would be an example of each? partial reinforcement - gamblers Continuous reinforcement - pushing the button on a water fountain
5. How does observational learning (social learning theory) differ from operant and classical conditioning? learning takes place through observing the actions of others Describe Bandura’s study of observational learning, including the results. 4 yr old children watched a video that showed an adult playing aggressively with a bobo doll with different endings. Some children saw the adult get rewarded for her behavior, others saw the adult get punished and spanked by another adult and the last group saw that nothing happened to the adult. After the film the children were allowed to play alone in a room full of toys and a bobo doll. The children’s reactions and interactions with the doll were based on which film they watched. Those that saw the adult get punished stayed away from the doll and those that saw rewards for being aggressive towards the doll did the same. All the children when asked to imitate what they saw the adult do for stickers and candy were able to imitate the adult
exactly.

Chapter 6 Memory
1.
How long do visual and auditory sensory memories last? visual sensory memory typically holds an image from your environment for about 1\25 to 1\2 a second before it is replaced, auditory sensory memory holds sound information for about 3 to 4 seconds What is the function of these memories? so that we perceive the world around us in a continuous, rather than as a series of disconnected visual images or disjointed sounds
2. Short-term memory A. What is its duration? 20 seconds B. What is maintenance rehearsal and what purpose does it serve? Give an example. the mental or verbal repetition of information in order to maintain it beyond the usual 20 seconds duration of short-term memory-- ex. Remembering a phone number C. What is meant by the term “seven plus or minus two”? that the capacity of short-term memory is limited to about 7 items or bits of information, at one time D. What is chunking? Give an example. grouping of related items together into a single unit to increase the amount of information that can be held in short-term memory

3. Long-term memory A. Explain each of the following terms: 1. Elaborative rehearsal- rehearsal that involves focusing on the meaning of information to help encode and transfer it to long-term
memory 2. Procedural information- category of long-term memory that includes memories of different skills, operations, and actions 3. Episodic information- category of long-term memory that includes memories of particular events 4. Semantic information- category of long-term memory that includes memories of general knowledge of facts, names, and concepts 5. The serial position effect- the tendency to remember items at the beginning and end of a list better than items in the middle B. The role of neurons 1. Define and describe the functions of the following (refer to Chapter 2 of your text): 1. Neuron- highly specialized cell that communicates information in electrical and chemical form; a nerve cell 2. Neurotransmitter- chemical messengers manufactured by a neuron 3. Synapse- the point of communication between two neurons 4. Receptor sites- located on the end of the dendrites, chemical messengers attach 5. Dendrites- multiple short fibers that extend from the neuron’s cell body and receive information from other neurons or from sensory receptor cells 6. Axons- the long, fluid-filled tube that carries a neuron’s messages to other body areas 7. Axon terminals- branches at the end of the axon that contain tiny pouches, or sacs, called synaptic vesicles 2. Concerning long-term potentiation, what changes occur in neurons, neurotransmitters, and synapses when a new memory is acquired? the function on the neuron is altered, there is an increase in the amount of the neurotransmitters produced by the neuron. The number of interconnecting branches between the neurons increases, as does the number of synapses on each branch. Which gives to a long-lasting increase in synaptic strength C. What roles do the hippocampus, amygdala, prefrontal cortex, and cerebellum play in memory? (See also Chapter 2 for a full explanation of these terms.) hippocampus- encodes and transfers new explicit memories to long-term memory Amygdala- encodes emotional aspects of memories Prefrontal cortex- memory involving the sequence of events, but not the events themselves Cerebellum- memories involving movement D. What is meant by distributed practice and massed practice? Which of these ways of practicing results in better learning and memory?

Chapter 7 Thinking, Language, and Intelligence
1. What is the difference between achievement tests and aptitude tests? achievement test measure level of knowledge Aptitude test measure ones capacity for further education
2. What is meant by the following terms and how does each of them relate to test construction? A. Standardization- the administration of a test to a large, representative sample of people under uniform conditions for the purpose of establishing norms B. Reliability- the ability of a test to produce consistent results when administered on repeated occasions under similar conditions C. Validity- the ability of a test to measure what it is intended to measure
Chapter 8 Motivation and Emotion
1. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs A. What are the five needs proposed by Maslow? physiological needs, safety needs, belongingness and love needs, esteem needs, self-actualization B. What is meant by “hierarchy of needs”? Maslow’s hierarchical division of motivation into levels that progress from basic physical needs to psychological need to self-fulfillment needs C. Describe the characteristics of “self-actualization” as presented in your textbook. achieving one’s full potential, including creative activities, also described as the full use and exploitation of talents, capacities, potentialities, etc.

Chapter 10 Personality
1. How does your textbook define “personality”? as an individual’s unique and relatively consistent patterns of thinking, feeling, and behaving
2. The psychoanalytic approach A. What are the three levels of consciousness proposed by Freud? conscious: information in your immediate awareness Preconscious: information that can easily be made conscious Unconscious: thoughts, feelings, urges, and wishes that are difficult to bring to conscious awareness B. What are the three structures of personality as Freud saw them? ego: rational, planful, mediating dimension of personality Superego: moralistic, judgmental, perfectionist dimension of personality Id: irrational, illogical, impulsive dimension of personality Which one would be strongest in a newborn child? id Which one would be weakest in a person who has little sense of shame and guilt? superego C. What is the purpose of defense mechanisms? maintain an integrated sense of self while searching for a more acceptable and realistic solution to a conflict Give an example of how we use of to the following defense mechanisms: Sublimation: a person who does not get a desired promotion spends more time pursuing hobbies Repression: only remember vague details of a horrific accident Displacement: your boss picks on you so you come home and yell at your spouse Rationalization: after not getting into the college of choice makes excuses about not wanting to go there Projection: a woman attracted to a coworker accuses him of flirting with her Denial: drinking excessively every night but tells others that he doesn’t have a drinking problem Regression: after her parents divorce a child starts to wet the bed

Chapter 12 Stress, Health, and Coping
1. Stress A. What is it? a negative emotional state occurring in response to events that are perceived as taxing or exceeding a person’s resources or ability to cope B. What is “cognitive appraisal” and why is it important? a person’s perception or appraisal of events in the experience of stress; its important because it allows us to handle stress, either in a good way or bad depending on how we perceive stress C. What are some sources of stress? feeling of burden, anger, over whelmed, anxiety, pressure, depression, sickness

2. Flight-or-fight response (See also Chapter 2) A. What is it? a rapidly occurring chain of internal physical reactions that prepare people either to fight or take flight from an immediate threat B. Describe how the endocrine system is involved. with prolonged stress it activates the endocrine system with the release of corticosteroids and the effect can be longer and more harmful to health C. Describe how the divisions of the nervous system are involved. the hypothalamus and lower brain structures activate the sympathetic nervous system when the perception of threat
3. General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) A. What is it? Selye’s term for the tree-stage progression of physical changes that occur when an organism is exposed to intense and prolonged stress. The three stages are alarm, resistance, and exhaustion B. Describe what happens in each stage. alarm stage- intense arousal occurs as the body mobilizes internal physical resources to meet the demands of the stress-producing event Resistance stage- the body actively tries to resist or adjust to the continuing stressful situation Exhaustion stage- the symptoms of the alarm stage reappear, only now irreversibly; the body’s energy reserves become depleted, adaptation beings to break down leading to exhaustion, physical disorders and potentially death C. Describe how the endocrine system is involved. (See also Chapter 2) prolonged stress activates a second endocrine pathway that involves the hypothalamus that signals the pituitary gland that secrets adrenocorticotropic hormone that stimulates the adrenal cortex to release corticosteroids
4. The immune system A. What is it? body system that produces specialized white blood cells that protect the body from viruses, bacteria, and tumor cells B. What are lymphocytes and how do they interrelate with neurotransmitters and hormones? (See also Chapter 2) lymphocytes are specialized white cells that are responsible for immune defenses; the contain receptor sites for neurotransmitters and hormones and they produce neurotransmitters and hormones themselves that influence the nervous and endocrine systems
5. Factors involved in responding to stress personal control, explanatory style, chronic negative emotions, type a behavior and hostility, social support A. What is the impact of personal control? having a sense of control over a stressful situation reduces the impact of stressors and decreases feelings of anxiety and depression B. Type A personality 1. Explain the characteristics. an exaggerated sense of time urgency, general sense of hostility, frequently displaying anger and irritation, and intense ambition and competitiveness

2. Which characteristic has been identified as increasing one’s risk of heart disease, and why? hostility, because hostile people tend to react more intensely to a stressor, experience greater increase in blood pressure, heart rate, and the production of stress-related hormones C. What is the impact of social support? socially isolated people have poorer health and higher death rates than people who have many social contacts or relationships
6. Coping A. Describe the coping process. refers to the way in which we try to change circumstances, or our interpretation of circumstances, to make them more favorable and less threatening B. Explain problem-focused coping and give and example. coping efforts primarily aimed at directly changing or managing a threatening or harmful stressor; making a plan to and identifying possible solutions C. Explain emotion-focused coping and give an example. coping efforts primarily aimed at relieving or regulating the emotional impact of a stressful situation; shift your attention away from the stressor and toward other activities
Chapter 13 Psychological Disorders
1. How is “psychological disorder” defined? a pattern of behavioral and psychological symptoms that causes significant personal distress, impairs the ability to function in one or more important areas of daily life, or both
2. What is the DSM-IV-TR? Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 4th edition Text Revision
3. Anxiety disorder A. How is anxiety defined? an unpleasant emotional state characterized by physical arousal and feelings of tension, apprehension and worry B. What three features distinguish normal anxiety from pathological anxiety? pathological anxiety is irrational, uncontrollable, and disruptive C. How does generalized anxiety disorder differ from panic disorder? generalized anxiety disorder people are constantly tense and anxious, and their anxiety is pervasive; panic disorder people have panic attacks that occur frequently and unexpectedly D. What is a phobia? a strong or irrational fear of something, usually a specific object or situation, that does not necessarily interfere with the ability to function in daily life How do learning theories explain phobias? classical conditioning- may well be involved in some form of phobia that can be traced back to some traumatic event Operant conditioning- involved in the avoidance behavior that characterizes phobias Observational learning- development of phobias by watching others that have a fear

E. What are the symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder? frequently recalls the even Avoids stimuli or situations that tend to trigger the memory Increased physical arousal associated with anxiety F. What are obsessions and compulsions? obsessions- repeated, intrusive, and uncontrollable irrational thoughts or mental images that cause extreme anxiety and distress Compulsions- repetitive behaviors or mental acts that are performed to prevent or reduce anxiety What role does serotonin seem to play in this disorder? people with OCD tend to have a deficiency in the neurotransmitter serotonin
4. Bipolar disorder A. What is it? What are the symptoms? bipolar disorder- a mood disorder in which episodes of depression typically occur during the fall and winter and subside during the spring and summer; symptoms- abnormal moods at both ends of the emotional spectrum, episodes of incapacitating depression alternate with shorter periods of extreme euphoria B. What evidence exists that suggests it is strongly influenced by genetic factors? major depression and bipolar disorder tend to run in families, shared genetics not shared environmental experiences
5. Schizophrenia A. What is it? What are the symptoms? schizophrenia- a psychological disorder in which the ability to function is impaired by severely distorted beliefs, perceptions, and thought processes; symptoms- delusions, hallucinations, severely disorganized thought processes, speech and behavior also an absence or reduction of normal functions, such as greatly reduced motivation, emotional expressiveness or speech B. What are hallucinations and delusions? Give an example of each. hallucination- a false or distorted perception that seems vividly real to the person experiencing it; hearing voices in ones head Delusions- a falsely held belied that persists in spite of compelling contradictory evidence; secret agents are poisoning his food C. What explanations does your textbook give concerning the possible causes of schizophrenia? genetic factors, paternal age, environmental factors and abnormal brain structures, chemistry and psychological factors