Historical Research

CHAPTER 4
HISTORICAL RESEARCH

HISTORY-is the search for knowledge and the truth, a searching to find out. -is any integrated narrative or description of past events or facts written in a spirit of critical inquiry for the whole truth.

HISTORICAL RESEARCH/HISTORICAL METHOD OF RESEARCH -is a process of selecting the area or topic to write a history about, collecting data about events that occurred on it, collating the data, sifting the authentic from non-authentic, and then making an interpretative narrative about or critical inquiry into the whole truth of the events.

4 MAJOR ACTIVITIES IN HISTORICAL RESEARCH:

1. CHOOSING AND DEFINING THE PROBLEM

Things to consider in Choosing Historical Research Problem: * Resources Consideration * Data Availability * Time Constraint * Professional Competence

2. COLLECTION OF HISTORICAL DATA

A. WRITTEN SOURCES
a.1 Official and Public Documents * Legislative Acts (Constitutions, Laws, Resolutions, etc.) * Records of Proceedings and Orders * Records of Court trials, Deliberations, and Decisions. * Registration of Population, Births, and Deaths. * Contracts, Treaties, Executive agreement, and other Foreign relations Exchanges * School Records
a.2 Books and Master’s Theses and doctoral dissertations
a.3 Newspapers and Periodicals
a.4 Personal Materials * Autobiographies * Memoirs * Reminiscences * Biographies * Diaries * Letters * Genealogies * Notes a.5 Hand Written Materials * Papyri * Bricks bearing Cuneiform writing * Vellum or Parchment Manuscript * Modern Documents

B. ORALLY TRANSMITTED MATERIALS * Folklores * Legends * Ballads * Myths * Sagas * Epics * Tales * Anecdotes * Traditions

C. ARTISTIC PRODUCTION * Historical Paintings * Portraits * Scenic * Chiseled Stones * Coin types * Stamped Coins * Figures in Ancient coins * Woven tapestries * Vases * Sculptures

D. TAPE RECORDINGS * Radio * Television * Documentaries * Movies * Films * Pictorials * Slides * Microfilm * Transparencies

E. RELICS AND REMAINS

e.1 Physical * Historic Sites * Roads * Pyramids * Buildings * Furniture * Pottery * Tools * Weapons * Human remains * Clothing * Monuments * Fossils

e.2 Non-physical * Language * Literature * Manners * Customs * Ceremonies 3. CRITICALLY ANALYZING THE DATA -is to determine the authenticity or genuineness of the data in historical research, and to determine truth of statements therein. A. EXTERNAL CRITISM -is used to determine the authenticity or genuineness of a historical document. a.1 Use of auxiliary sciences * Epigraphy- is study of inscriptions and the art of deciphering them. * Diplomatics- is the science of charters and diplomas includes a knowledge of the practices of chanceries and of the forms used in them. * Paleography- is study of writing. * Philology- determining the date and authenticity. * Archeology, Anthropology, and Prehistory- is science of remains. * Chemistry- branch of science that deals with chemicals. a.2 Purposes of External Criticism a.2.1 Forgeries and Hoaxes * A forger removes the name of the originator of an important document. * The forger deletes the name of the person who accomplished the feat and places his name or some other’s name. * A forger copies an important document. * A person with a certain motive writes a document which he attributes to the important person by signing the name of the latter in the document. a.2.2 Authorship, time, and filiation of documents- the problem of determining authorship and time of a document usually occurs with persons who employ ghost writers. a.2.3 Incorrect borrowings * One copies an original work without acknowledging the originator. * Errors in copying the text of the original material. * One borrowing misinterprets the ideas being portrayed by the original material. a.2.4 Inventions and Distortions * A historian invents speeches or orations just to project his own philosophy or ideas. * Anecdotes are created to enhance the prestige of an adored hero. * Original works of great men are edited and corrected. B. INTERNAL CRITICISM -is the process of determining the true meaning and value of statements contained in a document. b.1 Principles of Internal Criticism * Do not read into earlier documents the conceptions of later times. * Do not judge an author ignorant of certain events, necessarily, because he fails to mention them. * Underestimating a source is no less an error than overestimating in the same degree. * A single true source may establish the existence of an idea but other direct competent witnesses are required to prove the reality of events or objective facts. * Identical errors prove the dependence of sources on each other. * If witnesses contradict each other on a certain point one or other may be true but both maybe in error. * Direct, competent, independent witnesses who report the same central fact and also many peripheral matters in a casual way may be accepted for the points of their agreement. * Official testimony, oral or written, must be compared with unofficial testimony whenever possible, for neither one nor the other is sufficient. * A document may provide competent and dependable evidence on certain points, yet carry no weight in respect to others it mentions. b.2 Specific problems of Internal Criticism * What did the author mean by this particular statement? * Was the statement made in good faith? * Was the statement accurate? * When it appears that the author was not the original observer? b.3 Test of truthfulness and honesty * What is the personal or vested interest of the author? * To what race, nation, party, region, sect, social level, economic group or profession does the observer belong which may introduce bias? * To what extent is the statement a conventional form where set formulas rather than true sentiments are expressed? * Is there evidence of vanity or boasting? * Does the author want to please some particular individual, group or even the general public? * Are exaggerations in the form of literary artifices and rhetorical flourishes employed to the desired effects?

C. CAUSATIVE INTERPRETATION OF HISTORY c.1 General philosophies of history * The Greek and Roman historians viewed Fate as controlling human destiny. * The Christian philosophy of history was based on the dominant of ideas of divine concern for mankind. * According to Voltaires rationalistic theory, the events of history were attributable not to design but to chance or fortuity. * Hegel’s doctrine was that every epoch in history was inspired and dominated by some specific idea. * The Darwinian Theory of evolution, as applied to history means that in social institution acquired characteristics of society are passed on to succeeding generations. * The Marxian philosophy applied to history is that the mode of production in economic life primarily determines the general character of social processes of life. * Since the WW of 1914-1918 explains history as series of pulsation. c.2 Specific schools of historical interpretation * Personal/Biographical Theory * Spiritual Interpretation * Scientific Theory * Economic School of Historical Interpretation * Geographical Theory * Sociological Interpretation * Collective Psychological Theory

D. SYNTHESIZING HISTORICAL EVENTS d.1 Identification and definition of the problem- Since history writing involves identifying and defining the problem, problem must be delimited to a reasonable scope. d.2 Formulation of hypotheses- after defining the problem, hypotheses should be formulated to be the guide in the investigation. The hypothesis then, should state exactly what historical data have to be found. d.3 Inductive-deductive reasoning- generalization is given first before giving the particulars. d.4 Historical Perspective- there are two ways of evaluating historical events, evaluating in terms of contemporaneous events and in terms of present day events. d.5 Central Theme or principle of synthesis- this is important in writing history of events, institutions and regions. 4. GUIDELINES TO EFFECTIVE WRITING IN HISTORICAL RESEARCH 5.1 Mastery of Materials- this is not necessarily memorizing the facts but a full knowledge of the events using the authentic, genuine and adequate materials. 4.2 Working Outline- this is necessary as a guide to the selection and arrangement of notes. 4.3 Progression- Good history has progression because it moves forward even though it does not show any action, the original condition and results. 4.4 Emphasis of major elements- this is essential to accomplishments to such purpose and subordination of the details. 4.5 Art of Narration- while the purpose of history is not primarily to entertain or to please, there is no reason why good history should not possess this. 4.6 Dramatization, rhetoric and style- historical writing should possess the characteristic of a good story.

DEFICIENCES IN HISTORICAL RESEARCH * Research area is selected in which sufficient device is not available. * Excessive use of secondary sources of information. * Attempts to work on broad and poorly defined problem. * Historical data are poorly evaluated. * Personal bias tends to influence the research procedures. * The facts are not synthesized or integrated into meaningful generalizations.

CHARACTERISTICS OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH * Observations cannot be repeated in the same manner. * Researchers should have satisfaction in spending time in library. * A historical project is usually conducted by one person. * Hypotheses is not always necessary in research. * Writing style should be more flexible. * No two investigations would reach the same conclusion in a given instance.

IMPORTANCE OF HISTORICAL RESEARCH * Study of past makes people understand the present better. * Historical Information serves as a preliminary to reform. * People become more open to change. * People are motivated to respect contributions of other people.

WHEN TO USE HISTORICAL RESEARCH * On any geographical area or place for what matter. * On any institutions ex: school, club, custom, etc. * On important historical events.

QUESTIONS: 1. What is meant by historical research? 2. How is the problem or topic chosen for historical research? 3. From where are data gathered? What are the resources? 4. How are data analyzed by external criticism? By internal criticism? 5. Why is it necessary to utilize external criticism? By internal criticism? 6. What auxiliary science is useful in determining authentication of documents? How are they used? 7. Discuss the general philosophies of history as the causative factors. 8. Explain the theories of specific schools of historical interpretation. 9. Give the guidelines to effective writing of historical research. 10. What are the characteristics of historical research? 11. What could be good objects or topics for historical research?

CHAPTER 5 DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH

DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH- involves the description, recording, analysis, and interpretation of the present nature, composition or process of phenomena.

CHARACTERISTICS OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH 1. Ascertains prevailing conditions or facts in a group or case under study. 2. Give a qualitative or quantitative description of the general characteristics of the group or case under study. 3. What caused the prevailing conditions is not emphasized. 4. Study of conditions at different periods of time may be made. 5. Comparisons of the characteristics of two cases may be made. 6. Variables studied in descriptive research are not usually controlled. 7. Descriptive studies are generally cross-sectional. 8. Studies on prevailing conditions may be repeated.

VALUE, IMPORTANCE, AND ADVANTAGES OF DESCRIPTIVE RESEARCH 1. Contributes much to the formulation of principles and generalizations in behavioral sciences. 2. Contributes much to the establishments of standard norms, conduct, behavior, or performance. 3. Reveals problems or abnormal conditions so that remedial measures may be instituted. 4. Makes possible the prediction of the future on the basis of findings on prevailing conditions, correlations, and on the basis of reactions of people toward certain issues. 5. Gives a better and deeper understanding of a phenomenon on the basis of an in-depth study of the phenomenon. 6. Provides a basis for decision-making. 7. Helps fashion many of tools with which we do research.

TECHNIQUES UNDER THE DESCRIPTIVE METHOD RESEARCH 1. Survey- is a fact-finding study with adequate and accurate interpretation. 2. Case Study- is a comprehensive, complete, detailed, and in-depth study and analysis of an individual, institution, group, or community.

ADVANTAGES OF THE SURVEY APPROACH 1. Survey reveals what is typical, average, or normal against which the behavior of an individual can be judged. 2. The results may be used for prediction. 3. Makes possible the formulation of generalizations. 4. Reveals problems for which timely remedial measures may be instituted. 5. It is easy to get respondents for a survey. 6. Instruments for gathering data are easy to determine.

DISADVANTAGE OF THE SURVEY APPROACH OR TECHNIQUE 1. Lack of manipulation over independent variables. 2. One cannot progressively investigate one aspect after another. 3. Statistical devices are not always able to separate the effects of several independent variables. 4. Survey approach yields a low degree of control or there is no control at all over extraneous variables. 5. Instrument for gathering data may lack validity, reliability, or adequacy.

TYPES OF SURVEY TECHNIQUE OR APPROACH 1. Total Population Survey- entire population is involved. 2. Sample Survey- only a sample or portion of the population is involved. 3. Social Survey- investigator researches on the attitudes and behaviors of different groups of people. 4. School Survey- used to gather data for and about schools and to assess educational achievement and education itself. 5. Public opinion survey- used to gauge the reactions of people towards certain issues or persons. 6. Poll survey- the respondents are asked if they are voting for a certain candidate in an election. 7. Market survey- is aimed at finding out what kinds of people purchase which products and prices. 8. Evaluation survey- researcher looks back to see what has been accomplished. 9. Comparative survey- the results from two different groups, techniques, or procedures are compared. 10. Short-term survey- data are collected over a period of less than five years. 11. Long-term survey- conducted for more than five years. 12. Longitudinal survey- is almost the same as the long-term survey. 13. Cross-sectional survey- several groups in various stages of envolvement are studied simultaneously. 14. Job analysis survey- provides information on the general duties and responsibilities. 15. Community survey- provides information on the various aspects of the community. 16. Correlation study- is a study that shows the relationship between two or more variables and how it varies to each other.

CASE STUDY AND CASE WORK * CASE STUDY-is an extensive and intensive investigation of a unit represented. * CASE WORK- refers especially to the developmental, adjustment, remedial or corrective procedures that appropriately follow diagnosis of the cause of maladjustments or of favorable development. * CASE METHOD-has been employed to describe a plan of organizing and presenting instructional materials. * CASE HISTORY-is a biography obtained by interview and other means. * CLINICAL METHOD-is defined as a process by which we collect available evidence.

KINDS OF INFORMATION NEEDED IN CASE STUDIES 1. Identifying data: Name, Sex, Date of Birth, Age, Place of Birth, and Telephone Number if any. 2. Identification and statement of the problem- any symptoms of complaints. 3. Health and developmental history- details of birth. 4. Family History- abnormalities among ancestors, parents, and siblings. 5. Educational History- cannot read, cannot do simple mathematical computations, low grades, etc. 6. Social History- church membership, attendance, and involvement. 7. Economic History- economic status. 8. Psychological History- personality traits.

DATA-GATHERING INSTRUMENTS * Observation * Questionnaire * Psychological Test * Anecdotal records * Autobiographies

CHARACTERISTICS OF A SATISFACTORY CASE STUDY 1. Continuity- desirable continuity of information. 2. Completeness of data- range of information. 3. Validity of Data. 4. Confidential Recording-respect to the confidential nature of professional records. 5. Scientific synthesis-is an interpretation of the evidence.

SOCIAL SKILLS OF CASE WORK * Social insight- a complex concept of great importance in meeting administrative, supervisory, teaching, and organizational problems in welfare agencies and social services. * Empathy- social understanding as to how other people feel. * Sociality- positive behavior of deftness and spontaneity in friendly relations with others. * Communication- the process by which we transmit experience or share a common experience. * Participation- social interaction within a group directed to some end, or sharing a common experience. * Organization- the process of systematically uniting in a group the persons who participate in working toward a common end. * Social Counseling- assisting the client to formulate and analyze his problem. * Guidance for creative achievement- to liberate the powers of individuals for their own and for contributions of social value.

THE CYCLE OF CASE STUDY AND CASE WORK 1. Recognition and determination of the status of the phenomenon. 2. Collection of data relating to the factors or circumstances associated with the given phenomenon. 3. Diagnosis of casual factors as a basis for remedial treatment. 4. Application of remedial measures. 5. Subsequent follow-ups to determine the effectiveness of the corrective measures applied.

CONTENT ANALYSIS- is a research technique for the objective, systematic, and quantitative description of the manifest content of communication.

CHARACTERISTICS OF CONTENT ANALYSIS 1. It is objective- should be no bias involved in the selection and classification of content to be analyzed. 2. It is systematic- must follow the steps of the scientific method. 3. It is quantitative- content analysis of documentary materials is quantitative because interpretations and conclusions from the findings have to depend to its range.

STEPS IN CONTENT ANALYSIS 1. Recognizing the problem- 2. Forming the hypotheses 3. Doing library search 4. Designing the study 5. Developing the instrument 6. Collecting the data 7. Analyzing the data 8. Making conclusions 9. Making recommendations

APPLICATIONS OF CONTENT ANALYSIS OF DOCUMENTARY MATERIALS 1. Analyzing to determine the educational, political, sociological, philosophical, psychological and other ideas of great authors and thinkers. 2. Analyzing the contents of textbooks and other instructional materials. 3. Analyzing the achievements of students. 4. Analyzing the different writings of students. 5. Analyzing school records. 6. Analyzing the objectives and practices of different schools and school systems.

QUESTIONS: 1. Explain the meaning of descriptive research. 2. Characterize descriptive research. 3. What are the values or advantages of descriptive research? 4. What techniques of research are used under descriptive research? Explain each. 5. Differentiate between normative survey and case study. 6. What are the disadvantages of the survey over case study? Its disadvantages? 7. What are the survey technique types? Explain each and in what situation can one be used. 8. Be able to define case work, case method, and clinical method. 9. Who should be subjected to case studies? Why? 10. What are the kinds of information needed in case studies? Why are such kinds of information needed in case studies? 11. What instruments are used in gathering information about case studies? 12. Characterize a satisfactory case study. 13. What social skills are needed in a case work? 14. Explain the cycle of case study and case work. 15. Define content analysis. What are its characteristics? 16. Explain how to conduct content analysis. 17. What are the uses or applications of content analysis?

CHAPTER 6 EXPERIMENTAL RESEARCH

EXPERIMENTAL METHOD OF RESEARCH- is a method or procedure involving the control or manipulation of conditions for the purpose of studying the relative effects of various treatments applied to members of a sample.

CONCEPTS ON CAUSATION 1. One-to-One Relationship- for every particular cause there is a corresponding particular event. 2. Two-variable Relationship-this involves two variables causing an effect upon one variable. 3. Complex Relationship- is a case where two or more variables cause a single effect.

GENERAL DISTINGUISHING FEATURES OF EXPERIMENTS 1. Experimentation lends itself to easier manipulation because of quantitative entities. 2. Observations are done under controlled conditions. 3. Gathering of valid facts is rigorous. 4. Experimentation can be conducted in the laboratory, in the classroom, or in the field. 5. Laboratory experiments are extensive and exacting. 6. Most often experiments are limited to a small number of cases. 7. There is more thorough analysis of variable factors.

EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS A. SINGLE FACTOR EXPERIMENTAL DESIGNS 1. SINGLE GROUP WITH ONLY A POST TEST DESIGN- involves a thing, person, or group subjected or exposed to a certain experimental factor for a certain period of time. 2. SINGLE GROUP WITH A PRE-TEST AND A POST-TEST DESIGN- The group is exposed to a certain experimental factor. 3. MATCHED GROUPS DESIGN- Two groups are matched in age sex, grade level, mental ability, etc. 4. RANDOMIZED MULTIGROUP WITH A POST-TEST DESIGN- there are two or more experimental variables to be tested. 5. RANDOMIZED MULTIGROUP WITH A PRE-TEST AND A POST-TEST DESIGN- this is the same with number 4, the only difference is there is a pre-test. B. TWO FACTOR EXPERIMENT Factorial Design- is a two factor experiment in which there are two experimental factors involved.

THE EXPERIMENTAL PLAN 1. Determining the experimental problem or topic. 2. Surveying related literature and studies. 3. Formulating the hypothesis or hypotheses. 4. Identifying the experimental variables. 5. Select the appropriate experimental design. 6. Selecting the sample. 7. Selecting or constructing appropriate instruments to measure the results of the experiment. 8. Conducting the experiment. * History- specific events between the first and second measurement. * Maturation-biological or psychological processes. * Testing- effects of taking a test upon the scores of a second test. * Biases in the selection of respondents in the comparison groups. * Experimental Mortality- loss of respondents from the comparison groups. * Interaction effects- represent effects of the experimental factor. 9. Measuring the results and applying statistical procedures. 10. Writing the report of the experiment.

QUESTIONS: 1. Explain the process of experimental research. 2. Differentiate between independent and dependent variables. What are their functions in experimental research? 3. Explain the different concept on causation. 4. Give the general distinguishing features of experiments. 5. Explain how the following experimental designs are conducted: a. Single group with only a post-test design. b. Single group with a pre-test and a post-test design. c. Matched group design. d. Randomized multi-group with a post-test design. e. Randomized multi-group with a pre-test and a post-test design. f. Two factor experiment 6. Describe fully the activities in each step of the experimental plan: a. Determining the experimental problem. b. Surveying related literature and studies. c. Formulating the hypotheses. d. Identifying the experimental variables. e. Selecting the appropriate experimental design. f. Selecting the sample. g. Selecting or constructing the measuring instrument. h. Conducting the experiment. i. Measuring the results and applying statistical procedures. j. Writing the experiment report.