History

Advanced Higher History
Course notes

* The Revolution from below. * The Ebert-Groener telephone pact. (2011) * The Spartacist revolt and its suppression. (2012) * The Preparation and Adoption of the Weimar Constitution. (2009)

* Impact of hyperinflation in German life. * The Political Consequences of the crisis. (2008) * The Dawes Plan.(2010)

* Stresemann’s motives and political development. (2008) * Political and Economical stabilisation. * Stresemann’s foreign policy: fulfilment. * Hindenburg’s election as President. * Evaluation of Stresemann’s significance.

* Emergence of the Nazis as a mass movement and major political force. * The Nazi opponents: there mistakes and weaknesses. * Hitler and the politics of intrigue: Hitler’s appointment as Chancellor. (2009)

* The Reichstag Fire. (2012, 2008) * Ministry of Propaganda. 8 * The Significane of the Enabling Act. 8 * The Night of the Long Knives. (2010) * Gleichshaltung. * Gestapo/role of the SS. * Volksgemeinshcaft.

Volksgemeinshcaft (racial community)

* The Volksgemeinshcaft was the Nazi attempt to unite all people in a racially pure classless society. * The status of Germans would be determined by racial purity and ideological commitment to the state. * They believed in a person doing something for the community or the state rather than for their own personal gain. E.g. Relations between husband and wife were considered less important than the demands of the state. * Women were viewed as having a crucial role in the Volksgemeinshcaft- they were to be housewives/baby makers. Women were to produce pure bred Aryan babies. * The Nazis also wanted the support of the workers. For this reason, the Labour unions were destroyed and replaced with the Nazis Labour Front (DAF). * They also sought to indoctrinate the Young. Youth organisations were set up and became compulsory for boys and girls- Hitler Youth and League of German Girls. * They used education to indoctrinate children- Teachers were ’co-ordinated’ and the curriculum was revised to make sure that all subjects were organised around racial ideology. * The aim was that members of the Volksgemeinshcaft would be Aryan, genetically healthy, socially useful and politically committed to the regime. The ideal German was seen as the traditional peasant, working closely to the German soil.

Women Aims:-

* To have children (purely bred) * To do everything possible to strengthen the health and racial purity of the German nation. * Sacrifice self for the national good. * Idolise the Fuhrer.

Methods:- * They had a clear view of women taking the traditional role of house worker and mother. They used propaganda to encourage divorce In non-prosperous marriages. * Higher taxes for women with fewer children. * Blood protection laws- marriages to a Black, Jew or Gypsy was forbidden.

Effectiveness:- * Birth rate rose between 1933-39 and then slowly declined. * Marriage increased but so did divorce. * It is argued that the increased birth rate was due to the economic recovery rather than Nazi policy. * Nazi eugenic policies reduced the population.

Youth

* The Nazis hoped that the influence of the Youth Organisations would be stronger than traditional and possibly hostile influences like the churches and parents. * In the curriculum, greater stress was put on physical activities and Nazi ideology was incorporated into subjects.

Churches

* Hitler wanted to replace Christianity, religion reflecting the values of an inferior race, with a new assertive Aryan race. * The Church were an obstacle in his reordering of the German people into committed followers of his regime. * He aimed to gain some control of the church and then gradually reduce their influence. * The German faith movement wanted to Nazify Christianity.

The Nazis also pursued racial policies designed to rid Germany of all people deemed to be ‘racially’ unfit.

* Unhealthy genes weakened the race and the outsiders were classified in three main groups;

* Ideological- those threatening the political unity of the nation e.g. communists. * Biological- those whose genes posed a threat to a healthy, pure German race e.g. Jews. * Social- those whose behaviour conflicted with the norms of the national community such as the unemployed.

Examples of outsiders; the mentally ill, ASOCIALS, homosexuals, members of religious seats, gypsies.

The Stresemann Era

His aims:

1) Appeasement of Allies.
2) Revision of the Versailles Treaty.

Who/What?

* He became the Foreign Minister in 1925 * He did a lot to improve the economic situation of Germany.

1922 Rapallo- agreement between the Soviets and Germans to co-operate economically.
1924 Dawes Plan- loans from the USA.
1925 Locarno- Germany accepts the Western borders but cannot guarantee the Eastern borders.
1926 Berlin- agreement between soviets reaffirming Rapallo and agreeing to co-operate on military terms.
1926 League of nations- Germany joined to meet Versailles terms.
1928 Kellogg-Briand reaffirming world peace.
1929- Young Plan.

Failures: Reparations.

* By 1929 much of the terms of the Versailles Treaty remained intact. * Repayments were rescheduled not ended. * Withdrawal of the Rhineland did not occur until after Stresemann’s death.

Territory

* Restoration of German minorities to the Fatherland.

Military

* Army continued to stay at 100,000 men.

However, there is a Consensus amongst historians that Stresemann’s diplomacy achieved a great deal.

Why?

* USA underpinned German economy through loans. * Locarno ensured that France would not invade Germany (appeasement). * Treaty of Berlin threatened France. * Germanys reputation was enhanced by the League of nations, the Kellogg Briand Pact and the Nobel Prize. * Locarno was arguably Stresemann’s greatest achievement because it gave France a greater sense of security. By the acceptance of the Western borders Germany was able to concentrate on revision of the East. * The League of Nations formally acknowledged Germanys status as a great power. On the other hand, Stresemann’s policies were fundamentally flawed because they lacked the power and force to insist on revision. * If he had abandoned either his method or his aim he would have achieved more. * He failed to strengthen the Weimar regime, his policies failed to win over the German population. * Many Germans especially the right wings were against Stresemann’s policies of fulfilment. They failed to see any German benefits of the Locarno treaty and wanted nothing to do with the League of nations as it had connections with Versailles. * Stresemann aimed to end Germanys diplomatic isolation. * Co-operation with the treaty was pushed in an attempt to get the allies to view Germanys sympathetically and get the terms of the treaty diluted. * Stresemann signed the Treaty of Berlin in order to put pressure on the allies to improve their relations with Germany rather than see Germany move too close to the USSR.

The Dawes Plan

Advantages:-

* The Dawes plan helped to restore Germanys sense of national pride and honour. * The Dawes plan brought Germanys isolation in Europe to an end. * The Dawes plan represented a new sense of freedom for Germans because they were able to take part in negotiations which they were not permitted to do at the Treaty of Versailles. * The Dawes plan meant that Germany was able to invest and expand there industries. Huge investments were put into public works schemes as a result. * This provided jobs for the unemployed and created a wealthy cycle which was encouraged by Keynesian economics. * Although the Dawes plan did not reduce the size of the reparations, the length of time for reparations to be paid was extended. * Following the Dawes plan, Germany received more money than it actually paid out in reparations.

Disadvantages:-

* The Americans received interest payments on their loans. * Reparations were still a permanent loss to Germany and loans had to be paid back. * Germany became over dependent on American loans and so when the Wall Street crash occurred Germany was hit hard. The Dawes plan was a short term success but did nothing to stabilise Germany in the long run. Economic recovery was superficial rather than substantial. * The Dawes plan provided further fuel for right-wing nationalist attacks on the Republic and Democracy and did nothing in the long term to heal the deep rifts in German politics. * Nationalist opponents hated the Dawes plan and said that it did nothing to free them from the Treaty of Versailles- the hated ‘diktat’.

Stephen Lee, “recovery was based far too heavily on externally generated credit.”

The Preparation & Adoption of the Weimar Constitution.

* The Constitution was formally drafted in 1919. * The Constitution outlined numerous checks and balances in order to stop no one person from gaining ultimate power (a dictator) whilst allowing freedoms which were progressive for its time. * Mechanisms to restore order were put In place in case of a state emergency this included article 48. * The writers of the Constitution aimed to sustain law and order In Germany. * The Writers of the Constitution wanted to give people and equal fair human rights- yet if democracy was threatened in Germany the Reich President would have the chance to temporarily suspend these rights. * Article 48 meant that the President could suspend Constitutional rights and rule the way he wished. * The writers of the Constitution believed in fundamental human rights and these were only to be suspended in a state emergency. * The Constitution was very heavily based on the Constitutions of France, USA and Britain and was said to be one of the most democratic of its time. * It was even one of first to give women suffrage! * Elections were held every 7 years to ensure a strong democracy and the voting system was PR which meant that everyone’s vote counted.
On the other hand… * The Constitution actually allowed too many people to be provided with too much power. * PR meant that extremist parties were able to creep into power and it also created a system of ineffective coalitions. Although these coalitions could agree on Foreign policy they failed to agree on anything to do with Domestic policy and so policies were rarely passed. * Article 48 allowed the Reichstag President to use it to his advantages and it was often abused instead of being used In order to protect democracy. * A. Nicholls describes the Constitution as, “a brave statement of liberal and democratic principles.” This illustrates how advanced the Constitution was for its time. * However, the Constitution was rushed during the chaos of the defeat in WW1 and s it could be argued that it was perhaps ‘a little too brave.’ * The Constitution was written in the wake of WW1, the ‘German revolution’ and the signing of the Treaty of Versailles.

The Ebert-Groener Telephone Pact

What happened?

* Ebert believed that the majority of Germans wanted an end to the war and were for moderate change. * Ebert was determined to defend the new democratic constitution from what he saw as the horrors of Bolshevism (communism). Ebert believed that the new regime needed the support of the traditional elite and was prepared to co-operate with them (they were also terrified by Communism). * On the 10th November Groener (army) telephoned Ebert and made a secret deal. In the return for the government promising to maintain the authority of existing officers, the army would defend the new government. * In 1919 a Communist uprising occurred in which the Spartacists League tried to take over. The government ordered the army to suppress the Spartacists revolt. The army was supported by the Friekorps who absolutely crushed the Spartacists over 100 workers were killed.

Were Ebert’s decisions justified?

* Ebert’s first priority was to restore law and order. * He was worried about the impact of a Bolshevik-style revolution as had occurred in Russia- he feared the disorder that a revolution could create. * Ebert realised that Germany needed order if it was to return to a stable economy. * He also thought they needed order because of the demobilation of the army. The huge numbers men returning would need jobs and the state would have to help provide them. * Ebert had good reason to fear disorder. Strikes in the towns and cities and the mutinies at Kiel in the first week of November, desertions from the army and the rapid spread of Soviets persuaded him that a Bolshevik-style revolution was a possibility. * It was not just Ebert’s decision, the SPD government did not want to see the triumph of the extreme Left or Right. * Ebert new that he would need to support of the army if he was to stop any future uprisings. * Ebert could not afford to do without the army because the new army because the new Republic had no army of its own. * The number of Spartacists may have been small, but they had charismatic leaders and may have succeeded with a revolution in Germany had it not been for the army and the Friekorps. * Ebert and the SPD wanted to make sure that they had as much support as possible and could not afford to align themselves with the radical left. * Ebert’s hope that the army would be loyal to the Republic was mistaken.

Eberhard Kolb: “The threat from the Left provoked a strong defensive reaction.”

The Night of the Long Knives.

* The night of the long knives occurred on the 29th of June 1924. * The main victims were the leaders of the SA, Hitler’s own storm troopers. * The scheming Schleicher, Gregory Strasser and Hitler’s old enemy Gustav Von Kahr as well as Rohm were killed. * Hitler took full responsibility saying that he was defending Germany against a plot by Rohm and the degenerate homosexuals around him. * The night of the long knives succeeded in strengthening Hitler’s regime. * Rohm had talked of merging his 3 million strong SA with the army. But Hitler had other ideas. He needed the SA far less than the support of the elite. * There was another reason for the coup- some Conservatives, centred around vice-Chancellor Papen were increasingly worried about the growing lawlessness of the regime and the power of the SA . They realised that Hitler was not conforming. Hitler would be in trouble if these groups gained the support of Hindenburg or the army. So, by acting against the SA, Hitler had reassured his Conservative supporters but he had also intimidated his conservative critics.

Significance of the Night of the long knives.

* Hitler had triumphed over both the Left and the Right. He had tamed his radicals In the SA and won the support of the elite, most crucially the army. * Hitler had gained the acceptance of the legalised murder of opponents. This served to intimidate future opponents and to embolden him. * Most of the German people accepted that as Fuhrer Hitler would act only for the good of the nation. * The night of the long knives showed that the new state was to be ruled supremely by one man.

Hitler and the Powers of Political Intrigue.

* Many historians argue that Hitler became Chancellor because he was the result of sordid political intrigue. * Hitlers political parties failed to resist Hitler and so instead, they decided to come to terms with him. * Hitler took advantage of the political situation in Germany at the time. * The economic crisis led to a collapse of coalition governments from 1930. * From 1930 onwards, successive Chancellors governed through the emergency decrees allowed to the President through Article 48 of the Constitution. * This allowed the President and through him the Chancellor, to govern Germany without the necessity of having the agreement of the elected assembly. * The use of Article 48 concentrated power in the hands of a small number of men. * Elites had written off the Weimar Republic. * Papen was prepared to give Hitler a minor role to lend his own government the appearance of mass support.

Against

* The majority of elites did not support Hitler until after 30 January 1933. * Does not take into account the support of the German people.

Why did Hitler become Chancellor?

1) Nazism was a logical continuation of German history.

For

* They were hostile to democracy. * They accepted his leadership principle. * Hitler appealed to all the worst people in German character: to anti-Semitism and racism and for all things military and authoritarian. * Germany developed along different lines to other countries in the West. This was a result of the fact that it did not have a long-standing tradition of democratic governments. This interpretation is problematic in that it reads history backwards and is heavily influenced by hindsight.

* Hitler and Nazism were a natural product of Germanys authoritarian history and the Germans worship of power. The Germans failed to develop a democratic tradition, preferring instead a strong state led by a powerful individual. Hitler was the natural, even inevitable culmination of this trend.

Hitler was just bad luck.

* Hitler came to power due to chance events that might well not have happened. If only Bruning had not called elections in 1930 or if Papen had not intrigued against Schleicher of Hindenburg had not been persuaded to appoint Hitler, the German history would have been very different!

Hitler was the saviour of the German people.

* Hitler provided a way out of depression and crisis for German people. * Germans believed that they were in crisis because of economic upheavals. * Historians argue that Hitler was an emotional response to the economic crisis. * Disorientated Germans, hit by an economic and political crisis sought firm leadership and were emotionally attached to a strong, charismatic leader.

The collapse and deep hatred of the Weimar Republic.

* Such resentment throughout the entire population was increasingly targeted towards the Republic for having signed the Treaty, for having made the German people suffer during the years of Hyperinflation and once again after the Wall Street crash.