History of British Literature

1. Anglo-Saxon: Historical and social background (449-1966) Historical background The Anglo-Saxons tribes arrived in Great Britain at the beginning of the 5th century. There were Germanic invaders who had already settled in England as mercenaries. They crossed the North Sea and they killed many British inhabitants or pushed them towards Wales, Cornwall ans Scotland. Together with them a small group of Danes, called the Jutes, arrived in the south of Great Britain, together with the Anglo-Saxons, in the same period. When these Germanic tribes arrived in England, they destroyed many Roman cities (except London who became the most important commercial centre) and cancelled the Roman civilization and language. The Celtic civilization survived only in Wales, Scotland, Cornwall and Ireland. Although the Anglo-Saxons brought them pagan religion, Christianity continued to spread in England, thanks to Pope Gregory the Great, who sent St Augustine to Britain in 597. He become the first Archbishop of Canterbury and founded many monasteries. Judes, Anges and Saxons invented the Germanic Iceland. In Ireland his mission was continued by Patrick. The AngloSaxon imposed their language (they had a written alphabet called “runes” or “runic alphabet”, even if they had a very strong oral tradition), their culture, their political and judicial systems and they divided the country into seven kingdoms (Notrhumbria ad East Anglia, Kent, where the Jutes settled, Essex, Wessex, Sussex). During the 9th century we had a second brief invasion of the Danes, but King Alfred who was a Saxon king, defeated them and became the greatest English king of that time. He created a reign which embraced all south of England and he reintroduced the Latin culture and language. After his death, the Danes re-conquered the country until 1042 when another English king, Edward the Confessor, became the new King. He lived for many years in France and in Normandy and for that reason he introduced in England the French language and culture. He had no children and after his death Harold, a noble Saxon, took the throne and kept it until 1066. Social background After a period of destruction, the Anglo-Saxon invader, settled in Britain with their families. They were warriors, farmers or fishermen and they lived in log-huts .They loved freedom and preferred to live in small communities. The basis of their economy was agriculture, but they were also known as pirates. They liked gambling, fighting and drinking beer. Their sense of hospitality was renowned and they had respect for women. They also liked music and singing and they usually sat down around the tables listening to stories told by minstrels or “scoops”. These stories were about wars, hunting, fighting adventures and heroic legend of the past. It is this material which formed the bulk of the earliest English literature, better known as Anglo-Saxon Literature. 2. Old English Litterature.  POETRY: anonymous; non-anonymous. Collective work, someone invented, was written by people- its individual.  PROSE: not created on the British land, orally. It’s Germanic literature. Mostly anonymous literature (heroic), songs about heroes, fights, description of adventure, pagan customs, values. Songs they transmitted from month to month. Themes: fame, victory, brave, courage, wisdom, love for gold, position, love for lords. For aristocrats- heroic poem. The life was melancholic- tone melancholic. REPRESENTATIVE: Benedictine: Beowulf, Seafarer, the battle of maldon.

Cedman- wrote about pagans; Kinwolf- poem Elene, Ascension of Christian, Juliana, The fates of Apostles. After battles they celebrate in the MID- HALL, king places, had fists. Literature was practice there. They drink fruits, honey, and water- like holly drink. SCOP- a man who composed versus and gleeman sing these songs, recited, tone- elegic. In 597 Augustin come- pagan literature began to lose his pagan elements. Christianity brought writing. Religion is a teacher, education was performed. Writing was pagan with Christian characteristics. Theme- didactic (historical, religion). Tone- instructive. 3. Medieval Period. Historical and social context.

Vikings assimilated France, they become French speaking. Normans were intelligent in skills. When Edward died William the Conquer become king 1066- 1087. An intelligent, energetic, he transform English society from Anglo Saxon into Anglo Norman, he change the English language, introducing French words. William occupied England under very strict terns: kills people, they were punished. Introduced Anglo- Saxon system. SHERIFS- were kings’ representatives. Norman people introduced the feodal system. System of vassals, of reciprocal loyalty. After William ruled monarchy. 1295 by Edward I parliament become an official part of government. FACTORS THAT LED TO DECLINE FEODALISM: people work for agriculture, they moved to the towns to get more there, producing of wool stimulated growing of towns. SOCIAL CLASSES:  Middle class- trade people, accouters people who connected to the wool industry. Middle class organize domestic meals, produces wool- new class, prosperous, rich  The lower and slaves  Nobility- free man  Serfs- worked for lord, like a serves, they cultivated lands and gives a part of culture to lords. Serves’ lived badly. Merchants and trade people unite into ungs- organization of working class people. TOWNS: centers of economical development, center of culture and education, artistic activity. ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH was the most powerful institution. William impose of studing roman church. Church influences, people were taught what to do. People were punished if they didn’t confess., they feared. Church was in gothic style (interiors become important, windows, painting); Romantic style ( small window, exterior was important). A SERIES OF CRUSADES- intention for crusades were opening of new avenues of trade, new ideas, new trades. 4. Medieval Litterature, forms, representatives, characteristics. The Middle Ages saw the beginnings of a rebirth in literature. Early medieval books were painstakingly hand-copied and illustrated by monks. Paper was a rarity, with vellum, made from calf's skin, and parchment, made from lamb's skin, were the media of choice for writing The cult of chivalry came into being, fed by the great Crusades. The tales of King Arthur and his Round Table were a result of this movement. Education flourished, and the first universities, Oxford and Cambridge, were founded in the 12th century. During these 300 years there was little literature in the changing English language. The few

lyrics and other works have a small interest. The Middle English period also marked the beginning of a native English drama, which was at first closely associated with the churchOther dramatic additions were made to the sacred offices, and soon dialogue between individual members of the choir was added in celebrations of certain feast days. Finally, miniature dramas developed. In time these little plays (or tropes), becoming more secular, were moved outdoors. The early cycles of miracle and mystery plays possibly began as celebrations of traditional religious feasts and fasts. In any case, by the end of the 14th century the observances of certain festivals—for example, Corpus Christi—regularly involved pageants. These plays were staged in larger towns, such as York, Wakefield, and Chester, on wagons that were moved from place to place in a procession, perhaps chronological, of events. In addition to mystery and miracle plays, morality plays were also popular at the end of the Middle English period. They usually personified such abstractions as Health, Death, or the Seven Deadly Sins and offered practical instruction in morality. LITTERATURE: 3 languages- French (ruling class); Latin (clergy, scholars); English (servants) LITTERARY FORMS: Ballads- most popular form of literature, a narrative song. Ballads told common folks of characters and events from legends. Medieval traditions were oral (people origin) and dramatic (pagan origin) Courtly traditions were written in French- they were about nature, nor heroic, not for warrior audience. CHIVALRY-knights- obeyed their king; Forms- love songs for their dames, romance of fantastic, adventure of knights. TALES OF KING ARTUR- Latin language; chronicle “History of Regime Britannia”, Thomas Malory “tales Morte d’Artur”. RELIGIOUS LITTERATURE: drama, appeared in dramatic form: 1-st type- mystery plays (based on stories from bible); 2-nd type- miracle plays (portrayed the life of saints); 3rd type- mercy plays (sermons in dramatic form, about style of a good Christian) Representatives: Geoffrey Chooser- demonstrated the potential of English language as literary language; William Caxton- opened printing business “Canterbury tales” 5. Renaissance period. Historical & social background. "Renaissance," French for "rebirth," perfectly describes the intellectual and economic changes that occurred in Europe from the fourteenth through the sixteenth centuries. During the era known by this name, Europe emerged from the economic stagnation of the Middle Ages and experienced a time of financial growth. Also the Renaissance was an age in which artistic, social, scientific, and political thought turned in new directions Like other great changes in history, the Renaissance did not replace the Middle Ages overnight. Nor did the change take place at the same time everywhere in Europe. The Renaissance began in Italy around 1300. Later, its new styles of art, writing, and thought spread northward to the Netherlands, France, Germany, and England. It is important to remember that early writers and artists of the Renaissance were creating their masterpieces in Italy while France and England were still locked in the Hundred Years' War. The bustling cities of northern Italy seem to be in a different world from the feudal villages of northern Europe, but both existed at the same time.

New values shaped the Renaissance. Celebration of the individual - Artists in the Middle Ages did their work skillfully. In general, however, they did not win fame as individuals. The glassmakers, stonecutters, and wood-carvers of the great cathedrals worked for the glory of God, not for personal glory. By the 1300's, however artists and writers in northern Italy were eager to be known and remembered as individuals. From this time on, we know the names of people who created works of art. Fame was the final reward for superior talent Love of classical learning - Renaissance scholars despised the art and literature of the Middle Ages and loved the writings of ancient Greece and Rome. Scholars who studied classical texts were called humanists, from the Latin word humanitas. Under the influence of the humanists, all painting, sculpture, and architecture carried on the traditions of ancient Greece and Rome Enjoyment of worldly pleasures - In contrast to the Middle Ages where devoutly religious people proved their piety by wearing poor, rough clothing and living on the plainest foods, Renaissance humanists suggested that a person might love and enjoy life without offending God  The beginning of the Renaissance period is marked by The War of Roses  The Renaissance brought with it a renewed interest in Classical Learning  Explosion in literacy occurred do to the invention of the Printing Press  The language of the common people was Modern English  The Protestant Reformation began in 1517 when Martin Luther nailed his 95 Theses to the door of the Wittenberg Church.  The Church of England was formed when Henry VIII could not obtain an annulment from the pope  Religious persecution occurred between Catholics, Protestants, and Jews  The notorious catholic queen was Bloody Mary  In 1492, Columbus sailed the ocean blue.  The British obtained dominance of the seas and economic supremacy in the world after the defeat of The Spanish Armada in 1588.  The monarch who was a great patron of the arts, especially of poetry and drama Queen Elizabeth  The suppression of the Puritans under King James resulted in Migration to America  Petrarchan and Shakespearean are the two types of sonnets  King James commissioned a new translation of the Bible by 52 Anglican and Puritan scholars 6. Renaissance literature. Lit. forms.

Renaissance lit. was full of influences from classical models. English lit. developed alone it own lines. Italian renaissance lit. Influences very much the English one. People traveled, saw their works, especially works of Petrarch, he established language of love., introducing the elements of erotic, based on the veneration of lady as a symbol of purity, a kind of Nobel love, that goes beyond their beauty. 2 Litterary forms: DRAMMA & POETRY (Elizabeth poetry- the most popular and poetry of 17 th c.)

 Petrarchan and Shakespearean are the two types of sonnets  The Petrarchan includes an OCTET presenting a problem and a Sestet resolving the problem.  The Shakespearean includes three quatrains presenting a problem and one Couplet resolving the problem.  Shakespearean type of sonnet is more dramatic  William Shakespeare wrote 37 plays during this period  The four types of plays are: 1. Tragedies 2. Comedies 3. Histories 4. Tragic Comedies  Histories type of play was the most popular during the Renaissance period  Poetry about shepherding life Pastoral  In Sonnet 130, Shakespeare is challenging the idea that, If he loves me, he will think that I am the most beautiful woman in the world.  Humanism is the study of man and his potential to be perfect. New philosophy, new radical thinking.it is the study of classical writings and to strive for humanism.2 represents of Humanism: Thomas moore- lit. chritics; Desederous of arousmus.  The three great poetic geniuses of Elizabethan times were Christopher Marlowe, Edmund Spenser, and William Shakespeare. All were typical Renaissance men, trained in the classics, fond of fine living, full of restless energy and a zest for ideas. Writing was a social fashion of this time, a pastime enjoyed by the nobles as well as by men of lower stations. Henry Howard, earl of Surrey, and Sir Thomas Wyatt are two striking instances of a talent for poetry existing in men of affairs. A third nobleman with a talent for writing was Sir Philip Sidney. He wrote a beautiful sonnet series, Astrophel and Stella (1591), and produced a tremendously long and somewhat tedious novel called Arcadia (1590). These men wrote only for amusement, but they also gave money and encouragement to poor, struggling writers. 7. The renaissance literature, Elizabeth and the 17 c. poetry. Forms. Themes. The English poetry of Renaissance developed under the influence of Chaucer’s traditions, folk songs and Italian verse forms. Two common themes in 16-th century poetry were the relationship between men and women, and the treachery and hypocrisy of courtly life. Many imitators of Chaucer appeared after his death in 1400, but few are of great interest. More than a century had to pass before any further important English poetry was written. Queen Elizabeth ruled from 1558 to 1603, but the great Elizabethan literary age is not considered as beginning until 1579. Before that year two poets wrote works of value. Elizabeth organize competitions- who recite best poetry , get money, honor. FORMS OF ELIZABETH POETRY: o Sonet- William shaekespeare. The sonnet, a poem of fourteen ten-syllable lines, came from the Italian of Petrarch. The first examples in English were written by Sir Thomas Wyatt, and the form was then developed by Henry Howard, Earl of Surrey there are many differences in their work. Both wrote sonnets, which they learned to do from the Italians; but it was Wyatt who first brought the sonnet to England.  Pastoral-arcadian- from Greece.Theme:love relationships, love for country. Edmund spencer- dedicated his poetry to Queen Elizabeth.

o Blank verse- no rhyme but with a specific stress. Surrey’s work is also important because he wrote the first blank verse in English. Surrey’s blank verse is fairly good; he keeps it alive by changing the positions of the main beats in the lines.  Allegory

8. Renaissance theatre, drama. Forms Elizabeth Drama was a genre that emerged from 3 sources: the medieval miracle, mystery and morality plays; 2-nd source- entertainment provided by jugglers, acrobats and actors; 3rs source rosin and freak dramas. REPRESENTATIVES: Christopher Marlowe “Tamburlaine the Great” Dr. Faustus “The Jew of Malta”; Sir John Lyly, inventor of Elizabeth Love Comedy; W. Shakespeare, Ben Johnson, creator of witty comedy of manners. Elizabeth Theatre. Poetry was one of sources of Shakespeare’s Drama; important new work had also been underway in the theatre. The great noble families had private theatres, the actors and writers were like their servants, only men actors, true love was only b-en nobles. ; 1-st public theatre was build b-en1570 and 1600, outside the city of London, the places appeal to people of right education and those of non at all. Representatives: Thomas Kyd, manage the plays with his very popular Spanish tragedy, a romantic, melodramatic piece of dialogue with love betrayal, revenue, madness and very many murders. 9 Shakespeare. Works, sonnets, tragedies.
COMEDIES All's Well That Ends Well As You Like It Comedy of Errors Love's Labour's Lost Measure for Measure Merchant of Venice Midsummer Night's Dream HISTORIES Henry IV, Part I Henry IV, Part II Henry VIII King John Pericles Richard II Richard III TRAGEDIES Antony and Cleopatra Hamlet Julius Caesar King Lear Macbeth Othello

The great genius of the Elizabethan Age was William Shakespeare. He wrote more than 35 plays as well as 154 sonnets and 2 narrative poems (Venus and Adonis, 1593; The Rape of Lucrece, 1594). Like Chaucer, Shakespeare had a genius for telling a story. Although he generally took over stories already told by others, his adaptations of these narratives made them into something new and wonderful. Shakespeare surpassed even Chaucer in creating character. Noble and disturbed Hamlet, pathetic Ophelia, wise Portia, ambitious Macbeth, witty Rosalind, villainous Iago, dainty Ariel—these are a few of the characters Shakespeare made immortal. In addition to his ability to tell a story and to create character, Shakespeare was able to use words brilliantly. Phrases and whole lines from his works have become part of daily speech—for example, “the milk of human kindness” or “the play's the thing.” Entire speeches are universally familiar—“To be or not to be,” from Hamlet; “All the world's a stage,” from As You Like It; “The quality of mercy is not strained,” from The Merchant of Venice. No one in all history has had a greater command of the right word, the unforgettable phrase, or the sentence that strikes straight to the heart of the truth.

10Age of reason. Historical bachground. The peacefulness which dominated the Eliza-bethan Era was interrupted in 1642 by a Civil War which lasted seven years and resulted in the king be-ing executed. On one side the King and his followers supported the established church and the aristoc-racy, on the other side the Puritans supported Par-liament, a reformed church and a ‘sinful’ way of life. However, England became a republic or ‘Common-wealth’ for twelve years after the war had ended, but eventually monarchy was restored. During this cen-tury the power of the aristocracy had been broken forever by the growth of trade and the emergence of a stronger middle class. The nation, shaken by the convulsions and passions of the 17th century met the 18th century de-termined to lead peaceful, orderly and moderate lives. Property, decorum, correctness, gentility and common sense were what the English strived for. Any expression of feelings was ridiculed. It was a time of elegant formality, when the values of the An-cient Greeks and Romans were held in high repute. This period is often known as the Augustan Age due to the Roman Emperor Augustus who stabilized and expanded the Roman Empire. Scientific development greatly strengthened the popularity of law and of reason. Isaac Newton had discovered many laws of the universe and man believed that, by using reason, the laws of society could also be distinguished and its progress be predicted. Satire became the dominant form in literature, for when men think of society as a reasonable opera-tion, but find that it is just as irrational and crude as ever, they naturally rely on satirical writing. During the 18th century men were also peace-fully divided on political, religious and personal ideas therefore they never resorted to violence to settle their differences. Writers of satire were useful in at-tacking and defending different persons and different ideas. The writers of this century considered them-selves the “guardians ocivilization”. They were anx-ious to expose anyone, especially those who did not meet the high intellectual and social standards of the ‘Coffee Houses’ wherein the writers met and dis-cussed their ideas. The country was practically ruled by the so called new middle class. Nevertheless, they had not worked out a social code of behavior to substitute the old aristocratic ideal of chivalry or courtliness. The new educated and rich middle-classes intermingled with the nobility in ‘Coffee Houses’ creating a new code of behavior known as ‘gentility’. The American colonies declared independence from England during this period and inherited the manners and principles of the 18th Century. Thus the American political and social concepts derive from a specific group of English philosophers. It was from 18th century England that the three popular forms of literature in America today originated. 11Age of Reason, science, art philosophy. Philosophy during the Age of Reason was not as intertwined with religion or even academics. Free will and the relationship between the mind and body are two of the most prominent philosophical topics of the time. Philosopher Denis Diderot edited and contributed to "L'Encyclopédie" to make the work provide a broader amount of information. Its purpose was to offer philosophers, such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Voltaire and Étienne Bonnot de

Condillac, a platform to express their opinions on various subjects. Rousseau's 1762 book, "The Social Contract," covers political philosophy through starting governing bodies while taking into consideration the problems of society at large. The most striking quality of the 18th century was its optimism. It was a time that celebrated the excellence of the human mind. All creation was believed open to scrutiny. Even the descriptive historical titles of the period express the spirit of improvement and progress. Many people of the time thought they were passing through a golden period similar to that of the Roman emperor Augustus. For this reason the name “Augustan” was given to the early 18th century. The century has also been called the Age of Enlightenment. Many writers of the era used ancient Greek and Roman authors as models of style. Hence the period in literature is often described as neoclassic. Merchants and tradesmen achieved tremendous economic power at this time. Scientific discoveries were encouraged. Many important inventions—for example, the spinning jenny, the power loom, and the steam engine—brought about an industrial society. Cities grew in size, and London began to assume its present position as a great industrial and commercial center. In addition to a comfortable life, the members of the middle class demanded a respectable, moralistic art that was controlled by common sense. They reacted in protest to the aristocratic immoralities in much of the Restoration literature.Eighteenth-century in painting is difficult to separate from some works in the era of Louis XIV. Both Charles Le Brun and Nicolas Poussin . 12. The Litterature in the age of reason. Classification, representatives Writers of that period believed that writers of Greece and Rome were discovered the rules information about life and literature. They took these rules and elaborate a new type of literature. They choose public themes, speculation and expression of personal feelings. CLASSIFICATION: Restoration age- John Dryden Augustine Age- age of pope Age of Johnson- Samuel Johnson During the restoration age drama flourished again, influenced by the French comedy of manners. Players were characterized by the clever poets and witty repeater. There were very fashionable the heroic drama, tragedies and tragic comedies. Representative: John Bunyan wrote “Pilgrims” where exports Christian virtues of towns, hope and charity. The Augustine age was so named because writers wanted to imitate Latin literature; they compared London with Rome, Augustine with English King. This period represent the zenith of neoclassicism. Writing was formal, balanced, realistic and moral; the satire was in verse and prose. Representatives: Augustine age- al. Pope- master of satire verse. Joseph Edison- master of satire prose, Richard Steele, Jonathan Swift. Writers who wrote novels during the Augustine age: Denial Defoe- Robinson Cruse; Samuel Richardsonsentimental novels; Tobias Smollet- rollick kind comedies; Laurence Stern- amusing narrative genre; Henry Herding, Tom Jones- indifferent to morality. The age of Johnson was a period of transition from neoclassicism to romanticism. At the end of the ct. gothic novel with mysterious tale become more attractive. Also 18 ct. is characterized by reality that is present in the nonfiction works, biographies, and short stories. Representatives: Edward Gibbon “The decline and fall of Roman Empire”, Edmund Burkepoetry is very simple, is based on subjects close to human hearts; William Blake, Robert Burns, Thomas Gray, John Smith.

13. Romantic period, historical background.(1798- 1832) R. period goes from Gerge 3 to queen Victoria. The most important historical events are French Revolution with the 3 ideals of equality, fraternity and liberty. There is also indusrial revolution with the fight b-en employers and the workers, in fact there is lack of work because of the introducing of new machines in place of human work. Connected to this, there is the Agricultural Revolution. So the workers grouped together in working class. 6 main lit. Concepts of Romanticism: 1. Concept of poetry and the poet 2. concept of Poetic spontaneity and freedom 3. Concept of nature poetry and poet an observer. 4. The Glorification of the common place 5. The supernatural and strangeness in Beauty 6. Individualism, infinite, striving and nonconformity. 14. Romantic literature. 2 literary forms: poetry & novel 3 kinds of poetry: Poetry of nature (came from the poetry of Elizabeth period, main concept love for nature); Graveyard school (main concept were introspection and sorrow for life after death, coffins and corpses); Gothic Poetry (medievalism- an interest for the past and for supernatural events, past is more attractive. Gothic novel- is a particular in his setting and characters. In fact the setting is composed of ancient ruins in wild scenery. The main features of the Gothic novel are: terror, suspense, supernatural, black magic, mystery. The best exponents are mary Shelley, jane Austin, Sir walter scott. Novel of Mary Shelley, Frankenshtein was published without her name because in that period it was impossible for woman to be a writer. 1-st generation of romantic poets: William Blake, William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge. The most important concept is nature, the poet looks for isolation in nature, because this cause intence emotion. Very often nature was compared to God, so there is pantheism. Life in the countryside is the best for its simplicity and humble way of living. Another important concept is – sublime, means freedom in expressing feelings, there is also spontaneity in expressing feelings, feelings come from the contact of the poet with the beauty of nature, and there is introspection. Introspection is a way to reveal the inner feelings and thoughts of the poet, so reality and thoughts are subjective. The structure of the poem is called 1-st person lyric, to express better the personality and the experiences of the poet. 2-nd generation of Poets: George Gordon Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelly. John Keats. All of them died tragically then they were still young. There is the creation of the romantic stereotype, where the poets are considered 3 myths. These poets are against the society because of its injustices. This created sorrow and sufferance. That’s why they tried to escape from society, travelling all around the word. They refused the real word and often created their own one , sometimes using drugs.

15. VICTORIAN AGE (1832-1900): HISTORICAL, SOCIAL AND CULTURAL CONTEXT Great Britain reached the height of its power during this period, from 1837 to 1901. Trade and commerce expanded, and the science and technology maderapid advances. The Industrial Revolution, which had begun in the 1700's, brought increased wealth to the middle classes. But Victorian Age is an age of contradditions and tension: 1)on the one hand, life had became easier thank to a lot of smalls improvments in the small things of life:gas and oil were gradually sostituited by elettricity, there was more clothing , food and forniture. london had became the world-center of finance. 2) On the other hand industrial revolution also brougth with it many several problems: workers and their families were forced to live in crowed and unhelty condition, in the slums of larges cities. There had always been problems like overcrowding or expoitation of child in industry, but now the industrial revolution brought these evil to public attention. One of the cause of this gap betwen social classes was the doctrin of utilitarism, expounded by Jeremy Bentham: The state have not to interf with market and his laws of profict, costs and return. In other words, with this theories , that influenced john mill’s “ liberalism”: men must be free to follow their own goals , their objet so they would achive the best result to the society. Many utilitarians bealived that Dawrins theories of evolution ( wich was based on the concept of the survival of the fittest species) was in according with Mill’s point of view. But Charles Darwin was relutant to apply his theories on Human Society. Victorian society This period marked the triumph of the industrial middle classes, with their confidence in progress , their belief in the theory of laissez-faire in economics and utilitarianism in philosophy, their generic philanthropist and sentimentalism, their conventional religious faith and their morality observant of exterior forms and conventions characterized by a prudery that often bordered on the ridiculous. This is what has been called Victorian compromise that is the utilitarian compromise of a large section of English society that saw industrial development only as a source of prosperity and progress, while it tended to ignore the many social conflicts and problems raised by it. But not all the Victorians accepted the current optimistic interpretation of the new industrial civilization; indeed, many of them attacked its contradictions. They realised that it left unsolved the problem of the distribution of wealth, a problem that increased social injustice. The lower classes continued to suffer poverty. Two major Victorian poets, Lord Tennyson and Robert Browning, became the spokesmen for their age. The most importan Victorian novelist was Charles Dickens. He helped make the novel the most popular literary form for the middle classes.

16. Victorian Literature. There are 3 literary forms: NOVEL< DRAMMA< POETRY The novel- Victorian era was great age of English Novel- realistic, thickly plotted, crowded with characters, long, describe contemporary life and entertain middle class. REPRESENTATIVES: Charles dickens, William Makepeace, Samuel Bulter, Charlotte Bronte, George Eliot, George Meredith, Thomas hardy. Poetry- as a literary form displays its general inadaptability within the new cultural realities of the Victorian age. REPRESENTATIVES: 3-d Lord Tennyson, Robert Browning; 4-th Arnold Christina Rosetti, William Moris, Charles Swinburne, manly Hopkuns. Buildings roman- is a genre of the novel which focuses on the psychological and moral growth of the protagonist from youth to adulthood. MALE WRITERS: Charles dickens, Thomas Carlyle, Charles Kinsley, William Makepeace, Anthony Trollope, Thomas Hardy. FEMALE WRITERS: Elizabeth Gaskell, Charlotte Bronte, Emily Bronte, George Eliot (Mary Ann) 17. Modern Period (1939- 1960) Historical background. -the rising political significance of the laboring class - The decline of the wealth and influence of the upper class - repeated economic crises - lessening prosperity due to aging industries - Increasing competition in the world marketplace - The disintegration of the great British empire - Hallmark of the age, 2 great wars Edward the 7/ George 3/ 1 world war/ catastrophe/ 2 world war/ post war period. Scientific discoveries: Einstein- law of relativity; Darwin- evolution of species by the work of paleontologists; Sigmund Freud study- human mind striving to control the moral unconscious, which untamed aggressiveness and selfish drive predominate. Roots of radicalism: during the 1950 people saw no hope for redemption, under socialism, capitalism or communism. They fight for freedom and liberty. Radicals- people who lost their hope, thus implies change beginning at a system’s root. Radical aims were liberty and electoral reform in G.B, also political extremism, of both left and right. 1 world war- July 28, 1914, Austria-Hungary declared war for Serbia. Central powers: Austria- Hungary, Germany, Turkey. Allies: Serbia, Russia, France, Belgium, Britain, Usa Britain after war: economy was rebuild to support military; life-style of Britain was a kind of stability at the end of the era; New industries- new jobs, people worked in shops, cinema industry; the barer b-en classes still remain, smell. 2 world war: September 1939, Germany, under Chaucellor Adolf invaded Poland. Central powers: Germany, Italy, japan. Allies: G.B, USA. Soviet Union, France, Poland etc. Britain after war: socialization and nationalization set the direction of British society; Coronation of Queen Elizabeth 1953 recalled englands tradition of greatness and seemed to symbolize new hope; Food rationing was ended, industries prosper; strikes, competitions, fuel shortage have limited British Economic grouth relative to other industrialized nations.

18. Modern Litterature.  Modern Poetry IMITISTS: poetry based on war, government told people that war like a picnic. Representatives: Wilfred Owen, Siegfried Sassoon, Julian Grenfell etc. SYMBOLISTS: poetry based on French revolution. Representatives: T.S.Eliot, William Butler Geats.  Modern Drama: Representatives: Oscar Wild, Bernard Shaw, John Galsworthy, And John Osborn.  Absurd Theatre: Samuel Beckett  Modern Novel: novel must tell what is natural or reality. Representatives: Joseph Conrad, James Joyce, D.H. Laurence, Virginia Wolf, E.M.Forster.  Stream of consciousness: narrative technique in nondramatic fiction intended to render the flow of myriad impressions- visual, auditory, physical, associative, and subliminal- that impinge on a consciousness of a individual and form part of his awareness along with the trend of his rational thoughts.  3 major things in the attitude and techniques of modern age:  No agreement b-en writer and audience new view of life; new notions of human consciousness.