Illiad

Iliad
The Iliad (sometimes referred to as the Song of Ilion or Song of Ilium) is an epic poem in dactylic hexameters, traditionally attributed to Homer. Set during the Trojan War, the ten-year siege of the city of Troy (Ilium) by a coalition of Greek states, it tells of the battles and events during the weeks of a quarrel between King Agamemnon and the warrior Achilles. Although the story covers only a few weeks in the final year of the war, the Iliad mentions or alludes to many of the Greek legends about the siege, the earlier events, such as the gathering of warriors for the siege, the cause of the war and similar, tending to appear near the beginning, and the events prophesied for the future, such as Achilles' looming death and the sack of Troy, prefigured and alluded to more and more vividly approaching the end of the poem, making the poem tell a more or less complete tale of the Trojan War.
Along with the Odyssey, also attributed to Homer, the Iliad is among the oldest extant works of Western literature, and its written version is usually dated to around the eighth century BC.[1] The Iliad contains over 15,000 lines, and is written in Homeric Greek, a literary amalgam of Ionic Greek with other dialects.

Synopsis

(1) After an invocation to the Muses, the story launches in medias res towards the end of the Trojan War between the Trojans and the besieging Greeks. Chryses, a Trojan priest of Apollo, offers the Greeks wealth for the return of his daughter Chryseis, a captive of Agamemnon, the Greek leader. Although most of the Greek army is in favor of the offer, Agamemnon refuses. Chryses prays for Apollo's help, and Apollo causes a plague throughout the Greek army. After nine days of plague, Achilles, the leader of the Myrmidon contingent, calls an assembly to solve the plague problem. Under pressure, Agamemnon agrees to return Chryseis to her father, but also decides to take Achilles's captive, Briseis, as compensation. Angered, Achilles declares that he and his men will no longer fight for Agamemnon, but will go home. Odysseus takes a ship and brings Chryseis to her father, whereupon Apollo ends the plague. In the meantime, Agamemnon's messengers take Briseis away, and Achilles asks his mother, Thetis, to ask Zeus that the Greeks be brought to the breaking point by the Trojans, so Agamemnon will realize how much the Greeks need Achilles. Thetis does so, Zeus agrees, (2) and sends a dream to Agamemnon, urging him to attack the city. Agamemnon heeds the dream but decides to first test the morale of the Greek army by telling them to go home. The plan backfires, and only the intervention of Odysseus, inspired by Athena, stops the rout. Odysseus confronts and beats Thersites, a common soldier who voices discontent at fighting Agamemnon's war. After a meal, the Greeks deploy in companies upon the Trojan plain. The poet takes the opportunity to describe each Greek contingent. When news of the Greek deployment reaches king Priam, the Trojans too sortie upon the plain. In a similar list to that for the Greeks, the poet describes the Trojans and their allies. (3) The armies approach each other on the plain, but before they meet, Paris offers to end the war by fighting a duel with Menelaus, to the advice and will of his brother and head of the Trojan army, Hector. While Helen tells Priam about the Greek commanders from the walls of Troy, both sides swear a truce and promise to abide by the outcome of the duel. Paris is beaten, but Aphrodite rescues him and leads him to bed with Helen before Menelaus could kill him. (4) Pressured by Hera's hatred of Troy, Zeus arranges for the Trojan Pandaros to break the truce by wounding Menelaus with an arrow. Agamemnon rouses the Greeks, and battle is joined. (5) In the fighting, Diomedes kills many Trojans and defeats Aeneas, whom again Aphrodite rescues, but Diomedes attacks and wounds the goddess. Apollo faces Diomedes, and warns him against warring with gods. Many heroes and commanders join in, including Hector, and the gods supporting each side try to influence the battle. Emboldened by Athena, Diomedes wounds Ares and puts him out of action.
(6) Hector rallies the Trojans and stops a rout; the Greek Diomedes and the Trojan Glaukos find common ground and exchange unequal gifts. Hector enters the city, urges prayers and sacrifices, incites Paris to battle, bids his wife Andromache and son Astyanax farewell on the city walls, and rejoins the battle. (7) Hector duels with Ajax, but nightfall interrupts the fight and both sides retire. The Greeks agree to burn their dead and build a wall to protect their ships and camp, while the Trojans quarrel about returning Helen. Paris offers to return the treasure he took, and give further wealth as compensation, but without returning Helen, and the offer is refused. A day's truce is agreed for burning the dead, during which the Greeks also build their wall and trench. (8) The next morning, Zeus prohibits the gods from interfering, and fighting begins anew. The Trojans prevail and force the Greeks back to their wall while Hera and Athena are forbidden from helping. Night falls before the Trojans can assail the Greek wall. They camp in the field to attack at first light, and their watchfires light the plain like stars. (9) Meanwhile, the Greeks are desperate. Agamemnon admits his error, and sends an embassy composed of Odysseus, Ajax, Phoenix, and two heralds to offer Briseis and extensive gifts to Achilles, who has been camped next to his ships throughout, if only he would return to the fighting. Achilles and his companion Patroclus receive the embassy well, but Achilles angrily refuses Agamemnon's offer, and declares that he would only return to battle if the Trojans reach his ships and threaten them with fire. The embassy returns empty-handed. (10) Later that night, Odysseus and Diomedes venture out to the Trojan lines, kill the Trojan Dolon, and wreak havoc in the camps of some Thracian allies of Troy. (11) In the morning, the fighting is fierce and Agamemnon, Diomedes, and Odysseus are all wounded. Achilles sends Patroclus from his camp to inquire about the Greek casualties, and while there Patroclus is moved to pity by a speech of Nestor. (12) The Trojans assault the Greek wall on foot. Hector, ignoring an omen, leads the terrible fighting. The Greeks are overwhelmed in rout, the wall's gate is broken, and Hector charges in. (13) Many fall on both sides. The Trojan seer Polydamas urges Hector to fall back and warns him about Achilles, but is ignored. (14) Hera seduces Zeus and lures him to sleep, allowing Poseidon to help the Greeks, and the Trojans are driven back onto the plain. (15) Zeus awakes and is enraged by Poseidon's intervention. Against the mounting discontent of the Greek-supporting gods, Zeus sends Apollo to aid the Trojans, who once again breach the wall, and the battle reaches the ships.
(16) Patroclus can stand to watch no longer, and begs Achilles to be allowed to defend the ships. Achilles relents, and lends Patroclus his armor, but sends him off with a stern admonition to not pursue the Trojans, lest he take Achilles's glory. Patroclus leads the Myrmidons to battle and arrives as the Trojans set fire to the first ships. The Trojans are routed by the sudden onslaught. Patroclus, ignoring Achilles's command, pursues and reaches the gates of Troy, where Apollo himself stops him. Patroclus is set upon by Apollo and Euphorbos, and is finally killed by Hector. (17) Hector takes Achilles's armor from the fallen Patroclus, but fighting develops around Patroclus' body. (18) Achilles is mad with grief when he hears of Patroclus's death, and vows to take vengeance on Hector; his mother Thetis grieves, too, knowing that Achilles is fated to die if he kills Hector. Achilles is urged to help retrieve Patroclus' body, but has no armour. Made brilliant by Athena, Achilles stands next to the Greek wall and roars in rage. The Trojans are dismayed by his appearance and the Greeks manage to bear Patroclus' body away. Again Polydamas urges Hector to withdraw into the city, again Hector refuses, and the Trojans camp in the plain at nightfall. Patroclus is mourned, and meanwhile, at Thetis' request, Hephaistos fashions a new set of armor for Achilles, among which is a magnificently wrought shield. (19) In the morning, Agamemnon gives Achilles all the promised gifts, including Briseis, but he is indifferent to them. Achilles fasts while the Greeks take their meal, and straps on his new armor, and heaves his great spear. His horse Xanthos prophesies to Achilles his death. Achilles drives his chariot into battle.
(20) Zeus lifts the ban on the gods' interference, and the gods freely intervene on both sides. The onslaught of Achilles, burning with rage and grief, is terrible, and he slays many. (21) Driving the Trojans before him, Achilles cuts off half in the river Skamandros and proceeds to slaughter them and fills the river with the dead. The river, angry at the killing, confronts Achilles, but is beaten back by Hephaistos' firestorm. The gods fight among themselves. The great gates of the city are opened to receive the fleeing Trojans, and Apollo leads Achilles away from the city by pretending to be a Trojan. (22) When Apollo reveals himself to Achilles, the Trojans had retreated into the city, all except for Hector, who, having twice ignored the counsels of Polydamas, feels the shame of rout and resolves to face Achilles, in spite of the pleas of Priam and Hecuba, his parents. When Achilles approaches, Hector's will fails him, and he is chased around the city by Achilles. Finally, Athena tricks him to stop running, and he turns to face his opponent. After a brief duel, Achilles stabs Hector through the neck. Before dying, Hector reminds Achilles that he is fated to die in the war as well. Achilles takes Hector's body and dishonors it. (23) The ghost of Patroclus comes to Achilles in a dream and urges the burial of his body. The Greeks hold a day of funeral games, and Achilles gives out the prizes. (24) Dismayed by Achilles's continued abuse of Hector's body, Zeus decides that it must be returned to Priam. Led by Hermes, Priam takes a wagon out of Troy, across the plains, and enters the Greek camp unnoticed. He grasps Achilles by the knees and begs to have his son's body. Achilles is moved to tears, and the two lament their losses in the war. After a meal, Priam carries Hector's body back into Troy. Hector is buried, and the city mourns.

The major characters

Achaeans

• The Achaeans (Ἀχαιοί) — aka the Hellenes (Greeks), Danaans (Δαναοί), and Argives (Ἀργεĩοι). o Agamemnon — King of Mycenae, leader of the Greeks. o Achilles — Leader of the Myrmidons, half-divine war hero. o Odysseus — King of Ithaca, the wiliest Greek commander and hero of the Odyssey. o Aias (Ajax the Greater) — son of Telamon, with Diomedes, he is second to Achilles in martial prowess. o Menelaus — King of Sparta, husband of Helen and brother of Agamemnon. o Diomedes — son of Tydeus, King of Argos. o Aias (Ajax the Lesser) — son of Oileus, often partner of Ajax the Greater. o Patroclus - Achilles’ closest companion. o Nestor - King of Pylos.

Achilles and Patroclus.

Much debate has surrounded the nature of the relationship of Achilles and Patroclus, as to whether it can be described as a homoerotic one or not. Classical and Hellenistic Athenian scholars perceived it as pederastic,[2] while others perceived it as a platonic warrior-bond.[3]

Trojans

• The Trojan men o Hector — son of King Priam and the foremost Trojan warrior. o Aeneas — son of Anchises and Aphrodite. o Deiphobus — brother of Hector and Paris. o Paris — Helen’s lover-abductor. o Priam — the aged King of Troy. o Polydamas — a prudent commander whose advice is ignored; he is Hector’s foil. o Agenor — a Trojan warrior who attempts to fight Achilles (Book XXI). o Sarpedon, son of Zeus — killed by Patroclus. Was friend of Glaucus and co-leader of the Lycians (fought for the Trojans). o Glaucus, son of Hippolochus — friend of Sarpedon and co-leader of the Lycians (fought for the Trojans). o Euphorbus — first Trojan warrior to wound Patroclus. o Dolon (Δόλων) — a spy upon the Greek camp (Book X). o Antenor — King Priam’s advisor, who argues for returning Helen to end the war. Paris refuses. o Polydorus — son of Priam and Laothoe. o Pandarus — famous archer and son of Lycaon.

The Trojan women o Hecuba (Ἑκάβη) — Priam’s wife, mother of Hector, Cassandra, Paris, and others. o Helen (Ἑλένη) — Menelaus’s wife; espoused first to Paris, then to Deiphobus; her abduction by Paris precipitated the war. o Andromache (Ἀνδρομάχη) — Hector’s wife, mother of Astyanax (Ἀστυάναξ). o Cassandra (Κασσάνδρα) — Priam’s daughter; courted by Apollo, who bestows the gift of prophecy to her; upon her rejection, he curses her, and her warnings of Trojan doom go unheeded. o Briseis — a Trojan woman captured by the Greeks; she was Achilles' prize of the Trojan war.

Gods

In the literary Trojan War of the Iliad, the Olympic gods, goddesses, and demigods fight and play great roles in human warfare. Unlike practical Greek religious observance, Homer’s portrayals of them suited his narrative purpose, being very different from the polytheistic ideals Greek society used. To wit, the Classical-era historian Herodotus says that Homer, and his contemporary, the poet Hesiod, were the first artists to name and describe their appearance and characters.[4]
In Greek Gods, Human Lives: What We Can Learn From Myths, Mary Lefkowitz discusses the relevance of divine action in the Iliad, attempting to answer the question of whether or not divine intervention is a discrete occurrence (for its own sake), or if such godly behaviors are mere human character metaphors. The intellectual interest of Classic-era authors, such as Thucydides and Plato, was limited to their utility as “a way of talking about human life rather than a description or a truth”, because, if the gods remain religious figures, rather than human metaphors, their “existence” — without the foundation of either dogma or a bible of faiths — then allowed Greek culture the intellectual breadth and freedom to conjure gods fitting any religious function they required as a people.[5][6]
In The Origin of Consciousness in the Breakdown of the Bicameral Mind, psychologist Julian Jaynes uses the Iliad as a major supporting evidence for his theory of Bicameralism, which posits that until about the time described in the Iliad, humans had a much different mentality than present day humans, essentially lacking in what we call consciousness. He suggests that humans heard and obeyed commands from what they identified as gods, until the change in human mentality that incorporated the motivating force into the conscious self. He points out that almost every action in the Iliad is directed, caused, or influenced by a god, and that earlier translations show an astonishing lack of words suggesting thought, planning, or introspection. Those that do appear, he argues, are misinterpretations made by translators imposing a modern mentality on the characters.[7] • The major deities: o Zeus o Hera o Artemis o Apollo o Hades o Aphrodite o Ares o Athena o Hermes o Poseidon o Hephaestus • The minor deities: o Eris o Iris o Thetis o Proteus o Scamander o Phobos o Deimos

List of Iliad characters

• Achilles (Ἀχιλλεύς), the leader of the Myrmidons (Μυρμιδόνες) and the principal Greek champion whose anger is one of the main elements of the story. • Aeneas (Αἰνείας), cousin of Hector, his principal lieutenant, son of Aphrodite, the only major Trojan figure to survive the war. Held by later tradition to be the forefather of the founders of Rome. See the Aeneid. • Agamemnon (Ἀγαμέμνων), King of Mycenae, supreme commander of the Achaean armies whose actions provoke the feud with Achilles; brother of King Menelaus. • Agenor, a Trojan warrior who attempts to fight Achilles in Book 21. • Ajax or Aias, also known as Telamonian Ajax (he was the son of Telamon) and Greater Ajax, was the tallest and strongest warrior to fight for the Achaeans. • Ajax the Lesser, an Achaean commander, son of Oileus often fights alongside Great Ajax; the two together are sometimes called the “Aeantes.” • Andromache (Ἀνδρομάχη), Hector's wife and mother of their infant son, Astyanax (Ἀστυάναξ). • Antenor, a Trojan nobleman who argues that Helen should be returned to Menelaus in order to end the war. • Antilochus, Achaean, son of Nestor. • Aphrodite, goddess of love, beauty, and sexual pleasure. Daughter of Cronus, wife of Hephaestus, and lover of Ares. • Asius, Trojan warrior and charioteer who tries to breach the Greek walls. • Asteropaeus, Trojan warrior who is killed by Achilles. • Astyanax, son of Hector and Andromache. • Athena, goddess of wisdom. • Automedon, Achilles' charioteer.
Briseis, mistress and love interest of Achilles, a woman captured in the sack of Lyrnessos, a small town in the territory of Troy, and awarded to Achilles as a prize; Agamemnon takes her from Achilles in Book 1 and Achilles withdraws from battle as a result.

• Calchas (Κάλχας), a powerful Greek prophet and omen reader, who guided the Greeks through the war with his predictions. • Cassandra, daughter of Priam, prophetess, first courted and then cursed by Apollo. As her punishment for offending him, she accurately foresees the fate of Troy, including her own death and the deaths of her entire family, but is not believed, she had been cursed. • Cebriones, son of Priam and half brother and chariot driver of Hector. • Chryseis, Chryses’ daughter, taken as a war prize by Agamemnon. • Chryses, a priest of Apollo in a Trojan-allied town. • Deiphobus, Trojan warrior, son of Priam and brother of Hector. • Diomede, also known as Deïdameia, was the mistress of Achilles and mother of Neoptolemus. • Diomedes (also called "Tydides") - the youngest of the Achaean commanders, famous for wounding two gods, Aphrodite and Ares. • Dolon, a Trojan spy. Sent to the Achaean camp in Book 10. • Eudoros, Myrmidon commander. • Euphorbus, Trojan warrior who wounds Patroclus. • Eurybates, Greek herald. • Eurypylus, Achaean leader from Thessaly. • Glaucus, co-leader of the Lycian forces allied to the Trojan cause with Sarpedon. • Gorgythion, a son of Priam killed in battle by Teucer's arrow aimed at Hector. • Hector (Ἕκτωρ), firstborn son of King Priam, leader of the Trojan and allied armies and heir apparent to the throne of Troy. • Hecamede, daughter of Arsinous, captured and given as captive to King Nestor. • Hecuba (Ἑκάβη), Queen of Troy, wife of Priam, mother of Hector, Cassandra, Paris, and numerous other Trojan figures. • Helen (Ἑλένη), former Queen of Sparta and wife of Menelaus, now espoused to Paris. • Helenus, son of Priam and Hecuba, seer of the Trojans. • Hera, queen of the gods. • Hermes, messenger of the gods, leads Priam into Achilles' camp in book 24. • Idomeneus, King of Crete and Achaean commander. Leads a charge against the Trojans in Book 13. • Imbrius, son-in-law to Priam who is killed by Teucer in Book 13. • Iris, messenger of Hera. • Laertes, father of Odysseus, mentioned only in passing. • Laomedon, father of Priam, his predecessor as king of Troy. • Laocoon, Trojan prophet and son of Priam. • Laothoe, wife of Priam. • Machaon, an Achaean healer, wounded by Paris in Book 11. • Menelaus (Μενέλαος), Helen's abandoned husband, younger brother of Agamemnon, King of Sparta. • Menestheus, King of Athens, noted for his cowardice in war. • Mentes, is King of the Cicones. • Meriones, Achaean captain from Crete. • Neoptolemus, son of Achilles and Deïdameia, also known as Diomede. He was taken to Troy in the last year of the war by Odysseus, because of Helenus' declaration that Troy could not be captured without the aid of a descendant of Aeacus. • Nestor (Νέστωρ), of Gerênia and the son of Neleus. He was said to be the only one of his brothers to survive an assault from Heracles. Oldest member of the entire Greek army at Troy. • Odysseus (Ὀδυσσεύς), another warrior-king, famed for his cunning, who is the main character of another (roughly equally ancient) epic, the Odyssey. • Othryoneus, suitor of Princess Cassandra of Troy, killed by Ajax the Great. • Pandarus, a Trojan archer, whose shot at Menelaus in Book 4 breaks the temporary truce between the two sides. • Paris (Πάρις), Trojan prince and Hector's brother, also called Alexander; his abduction of Helen is the casus belli. He was supposed to be killed as a baby because his sister Cassandra foresaw that he would cause the destruction of Troy. Raised by a shepherd. • Patroclus (Πάτροκλος), beloved companion to Achilles. • Peleus, father of Achilles and grandson Zeus. He never appears in person but his memory is invoked by Priam to convince Achilles to return Hector's corpse to the Trojans in Book 24. • Phoenix, an old Achaean warrior greatly trusted by Achilles, acts as mediator between Achilles and Agamemnon. • Polydamas, a young Trojan commander. • Polypoetes, leader of the Lapiths who helps to protect the ships. • Priam (Πρίαμος), king of the Trojans, too old to take part in the fighting; many of his fifty sons are counted among the Trojan commanders. • Sarpedon, co-leader of the Lycian forces allied to the Trojan cause with Glaucus. • Stentor, Greek herald, known for his "stentorian" (loud) voice. • Sthenelus, Achaean from Argos, friend to Diomedes. • Talthybius, herald of Agamemnon. • Thetis, a water nymph, mother of Achilles. • Teucer, Achaean archer, half-brother of Ajax. • Thersites, Achaean, criticises Agamemnon in Book 2 and so beaten by Odysseus with Agamemnon's sceptre.
Ucalegon, one of the Elders of Troy, whose house was set on fire by the Achaeans when they sacked the city. He is one of Priam's friends in the Iliad (3.148) and the destruction of his house is referred to in the Aeneid (2.312). His name in Greek means "doesn't worry."