Impact of unemployment and Cultural NImpact of unemployment and Cultural Norms on environment and developmentorms on environment and development

‘You don’t live when you are unemployed—you exist’ (Jackson & Crooks 1993).
Impact of unemployment and Cultural Norms on environment and development

“Think Globally, Act Locally”

1. Introduction. The concept of “environment” has evolved since it started to become a global issue in the early 1970s. At first, it was a kind of global recognition that the Earth‟s ecosystems are in fact fragile, and that human beings have been contributing much to its de generation. When countries started to join efforts to strike a balance between improving the quality of human life and protecting the environment for the sake of future generations, a new awareness materialized. The social and economic welfare of human beings is closely linked to their environment. Any change in the socioeconomic fields will have an impact on the earth‟s environment and vice versa, whether positively or negatively, immediately or eventually. And in many cases, negative results are irreversible. The Earth Summit held in Rio in 1992 concluded that the economic, social and environmental concerns are inescapably interlinked to world development .Hence it pledged to eradicate environmental problems, reduce poverty and foster: Sustainable development through integrated efforts and global cooperation.
Culture
2. What is Culture? The importance of culture towards disasters was particularly highlighted during the Indian Ocean tsunami. When the tsunami hit the coast lines of the South Asian Countries in the year 2004, some communities with indigenous knowledge regarding tsunami were successfully survived where as migrants and tourists who did not had local knowledge were hugely affected (Arunotai, 2008). Survival of some indigenous communities as oppose to migrants and tourists were mainly based on the presence of “cultural” knowledge different people had on the tsunami. People view culture in different ways and some argue that it is complex and difficult to define. For some, culture is simply the way of life that expresses certain meanings and values of people (Williams, 1961). Baligh (1994) extends Williams’s (1961) definition and sees culture as the ultimate way of doing things or a way of finding ways of doing things. Anthropologists view world as a “cultural mosaic” of traditional culture and inherited values (Nanda and warms, 2007). The famous anthropologist Edward Taylor claims that culture as the “complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, moral, law, custom and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society” (Taylor, 1924). Similarly, Swidler (1986) sees culture as a tool kit comprising of symbols, stories, rituals, and world views which people may used in different situations. These elements within culture are passed down from one generation to another and provide guidance for individuals to survive in the society (hall et al., 2003).
3. Some of the definitions for culture encompass a “group element”. Schein (2004) defines culture as ‘a pattern of shared basic assumptions (beliefs) that was learned by a group as it solved its problems of external adoption and internal integration, that has worked well enough to be considered valid”. Since cultural aspects are considered valid and help groups for their survival, it is taught to new members as the correct way to perceive, think, and feel in relating to those problems (Schein, 2004). Similarly Rapoport (1987) sees culture is “about a group of people who have a set of values and beliefs which embody ideas, and are transmitted to members of the group through enculturation”. Haviland (1993) describes culture as the common denominator that makes the actions of individuals attached to a group or not. Due to this strong link between “culture” and “group” they cannot exist without the other.
4. Components of Culture. Culture can be divided into two components as material and nonmaterial. Material culture consists of physical or tangible creations that members of society make, use or share where as nonmaterial culture consists of the abstracts and intangible human creations of society that influence people’s behaviour (Ogburn, 1966 cited in Schaefer, 2009). At the most basic level, material culture is important for us to protect against the environment for example houses. Beyond this level, material culture can indicate your personality for example the clothes we wear (Kendall, 2010). Some other examples of material culture include crafts, historic buildings, locations (UNESCO, 2003; Throsby, 2001). Nonmaterial culture comprises of beliefs, values, language, rules of behaviour, family patterns, Religion, political systems, networks.
5. Kendall (2010) asserts the central component of material culture as the beliefs- the mental acceptance or confidence that certain things are true or real. In their definition, Hall et al. (2003) also consider both material and nonmaterial culture when describing culture. The main components of nonmaterial culture comprises of symbols, language, values and norms.
a. Symbols. Symbol communicates abstract concepts with visible objects. Symbols provide shared meanings to a culture and can provide loyalty, animosity, love and hate.
b. Language. Language helps to express ideas and enables communication with others.
c. Values. Values are ideas of right and wrong, good or bad and desirable and undesirable. Kendall asserts that values do not dictate which behaviours are appropriate or inappropriate, but provide ideas or beliefs about behaviour. Values help us to evaluate people, objects and event.
d. Norms. Norms have behavioural expectations that are established in the form of rules or standards of conducts. Prescriptive norms say what behaviour is appropriate or acceptable whilst proscriptive norms say what behaviour is inappropriate or unacceptable.
e. Norms can be further classified into informal (folkways and mores) and formal (law) according to the leading sociologist William Sumner (Sumner, 1907). Folkways are informal norms or customs that may be violated without serious consequences (Sumner, 1907). Folkways are followed through imitation and with less social pressure, but not strictly enforced by law. On the other hand, Mores are considered to be compulsory for the stability of the society (Sumner, 1907). These are informal norms that are unavoidable and are based on cultural values and deemed to be important for the well-being of the society. Formal norms such as laws are written down as legislations and enforced by formal sanctions. According to Sumner (1907) folkways and mores create group patterns and behaviour within a society and because of the group pressure; people in the society tend to follow them.

6. Development. The opinions on what development is to actually mean have passed great evolution in the last half of century and there is no consensus on how to define this notion at present. The causes of this differentiation can be found in the historical contexts of the approaches to development. Economic growth was regarded as central to the development endeavours up to the 1980 's. Gradually, development came to be interpreted as multidimensional concept which should encompass material, social, environmental, political and cultural components (with all of them having a direct impact on the quality of human life). This way it was recognised that there is no single model of development appropriate and desirable for all countries. at the same time emerged the idea of „sustainable development“, emphasising the questions related to demographic processes, considerate use of natural resources and mutual influences between a human and his living environment.
7. The Relationship between Development and the Environmental Condition
This interaction can be characterised as one of interdependence. Just as development is impossible without a good condition of living environment, so quality environment cannot be maintained in inhabited or intensively exploited areas without their sustainable development.
8. Impact of employment on Environment and Development in Developed World. Unemployment not only serious consequences to society but also adversely effect environment. The personal and social costs of unemployment include severe financial hardship and poverty, debt, homelessness and housing stress, family tensions and breakdown, boredom, alienation, shame and stigma, increased social isolation, crime, erosion of confidence and self-esteem, the atrophying of work skills and ill-health. Most of these increase with the duration of unemployment (Dixon 1992; EPAC 1992; Cass 1988; White 1991; Victorian Social Justice Consultative Council (VSJCC) 1992). Unemployed people report that being unemployed is one of the worst things that can happen to them (White 1991). In addition, unemployment falls disproportionately on already disadvantaged groups in society, for example, lower income earners, recently arrived migrants and indigenous Australians. Detail of some of the problems emerge due to unemployment are appended below:
a. Poverty and hardship. Unemployment is the major reason for poverty in Australia today. King (1998) finds that unemployed people in Australia had the highest rate of poverty with almost 70 per cent of unemployed people having incomes below the Henderson after Housing Poverty Line in 1996. The Victorian Social Justice Consultative Council (1992) has documented the rapidity with which unemployed people experience hardship and a decline in their standard of housing, diet, clothing and health care.
b. Unemployment and health. Australian and overseas studies have unequivocally demonstrated a strong relationship between unemployment and health (National Health Strategy 1992; Smith 1987). This occurs for some specific causes of death (such as diabetes, pneumonia, influenza and bronchitis) as well as for a number of specific chronic illnesses (National Health Strategy 1992). Unemployment has been shown to cause certain forms of mental illness, such as depression (Smith 1987).
c. Long-term harm for children and young people. In 1997 702,800 children or 17.9 per cent of children under 15 years of age were in families with no parent in paid employment (ABS 1997). This is not only immediately distressing for the children’s lives but is also likely to have long term consequences for their educational, employment and social futures. People with low education and skills are more likely to be unemployed or to have low wages (The World Bank 1993), and work by Williams and others (1993) indicates that school completion is lower for young people with parents who have low education and an unskilled occupational background (and thus who are more likely to be unemployed). The Australian Institute of Family Studies found that adolescents with lower levels of well-being (such as health and sociability) have fathers or both parents with no paid work (Weston 1993). Family stress arising from poverty and unemployment has been found to be associated with children’s behavioural problems and with their adjustment over time (Shaw et al. 1994). Unemployment is also contributing to substantial alienation of a large number of teenagers and young adults.
d. Social division. There is increasing division between those families with children with both parents in the paid work force and those with no parents with paid work. The wives of unemployed men have much higher rates of joblessness than wives of employed men. Female sole parents also have high rates of joblessness (McClelland 1994). Unemployment may also contribute to greater divisions according to where people live. McDonald (1995) highlighted the higher rates of unemployment experienced by those in living in older industrial areas such as north-west Melbourne and mid-west Sydney. Gregory and Hunter (1995) found that there had been little or no employment growth for people living in low socioeconomic areas between 1976 to 1991 in contrast with the better experience of people living in higher socioeconomic areas.
9. Impact of employment on Environment and Development in Developing World. Many of the problems youth are experiencing can be linked to the poverty that they face as a result of unemployment. Many unemployed youth are engaging in criminal and dangerous behaviours in order to financially support themselves and/or to cope with the difficulties of living in poverty.
a. Drug and Substance abuse. The scope of the drug problem has not spared the African region and Tanzania in particular. The scourge has progressively spread throughout the country especially in the urban areas threatening all segments of the society, especially young people. The most disturbing and alarming feature is that the proportion of drug dependent youth is increasing and becoming a growing concern as more and more youth get involved in the abuse and trading of these illicit drugs. The problem of illicit drug abuse and trafficking complements that of HIV/AIDS infection in that an addict has poor or no control or good judgment as regards to sexual relations.
b. High prevalence of HIV/AIDS and STDs. HIV/AIDS pandemic in Tanzania has grown rapidly and widely especially in urban areas during the past two decades. This pandemic has become the leading cause of death to many Tanzanians. Studies show that females seem to be more affected than males in age groups below 30 years, while males are more affected over 30 years. Youth aged between 15 – 24 years contributed to 15% of the total cases.
c. Unplanned and Early Pregnancies, Abortions. The promiscuous behaviour of having unprotected sex, that leads to high rates of HIV/AIDS among unemployed youth, also leads to high rates of unplanned and early pregnancies and abortions. The expense involved in caring for a child leads to further impoverishment of young people particularly young women who often care the burden of single motherhood.
d. Prostitution. The desperate need for unemployed youth to earn a living often pushes them into such activities as prostitution, theft and drug trafficking. These actions can be directly linked to various other social problems, namely the rapid spread of HIV/AIDS.
10. Psychological Effects of Unemployment and Underemployment. Individual and family consequences. Job loss is associated with elevated rates of mental and physical health problems, increases in mortality rates, and detrimental changes in family relationships and in the psychological well-being of spouses and children. Compared to stably employed workers, those who have lost their jobs have significantly poorer mental health, lower life satisfaction, less marital or family satisfaction, and poorer subjective physical health (McKee-Ryan, Song, Wanberg, & Kinicki, 2005). A meta-analysis by Paul and Moser (2009) reinforces these findings - unemployment was associated with depression, anxiety, psychosomatic symptoms, low subjective well-being, and poor self-esteem. Unemployed workers were twice as likely as their employed counterparts to experience psychological problems (Paul & Moser, 2009).
a. Life Expectancy. Unemployment can contribute to reduced life expectancy. In a longitudinal study in which the employment, earnings, and work histories of high-seniority male workers were tracked during the 1970s and 1980s, mortality rates in the year after job displacement were 50 to 100 percent higher than would otherwise have been expected. The effect on mortality risk declined sharply over time, but even 20 years after these men had lost jobs, elevated risk of death was found among those who had lost jobs earlier, in comparison to the stably employed (Sullivan & von Wachter, 2009). Even after controlling for baseline health and other demographic characteristics, unemployed workers report significantly poorer health and more depressive symptoms than those who remain stably employed (Burgard, Brand, & House, 2007). Low paying jobs typically offer minimal opportunities to utilize one’s skills and come with a host of negative outcomes (McKee-Ryan et al., 2005).
b. Alcohol Use. Underemployment is associated with decreased self-esteem, increased alcohol use, and elevated rates of depression, as well as low birth weight among babies born to underemployed women (Dooley & Prause, 2004).
c. Family Relationships. The stress of unemployment can lead to declines in the well-being of spouses (Rook, Dooley, & Catalano, 1991) and to changes in family relationships and in outcomes for children. Research dating back to the Great Depression found that men who experienced substantial financial loss became more irritable, tense, and explosive. Children often suffered as these fathers became more punitive and arbitrary in their parenting. Such paternal behavior, in turn, predicted temper tantrums, irritability, and negativism in children, especially boys, and moodiness, hypersensitivity, feelings of inadequacy and lowered aspirations in adolescent girls (Elder, 1974; Elder, Caspi, & Nguyen, 1986). Subsequent studies have continued to find such a pathway from economic loss to father’s behavior to child’s well-being (e.g., Galambos & Silbereisen, 1987).
d. Depression. Elevated depressive symptomatology has also been found among unemployed single mothers, and mothers who were more depressed more frequently punished their adolescent children (McLoyd et al., 1994). Frequently punished adolescent children, in turn, experienced increased distress and increased depressive symptoms of their own.
Unemployment may even impact decisions about marriage and divorce. Unemployed or poor men are less likely to marry and more likely to divorce than men who are employed or who are more economically secure (McLoyd, 1990).
11. Impact of Culture on Environment and Development.
a. Values and Environment. The word "value" means worth. It also refers to an ethical precept on which we base our behavior. Values are shaped by the culture in which we live and by our experiences. However, there are values that are held high by most cultures. These include fairness and justice, compassion and charity, duties and rights, human species survival and human well-being. While values guide our behavior, there are many behaviors to which we grow accustomed because of the society, culture, and conditions in which we live. We may not explicitly examine our environmental values, for example, when we decide whether to live close to or far away from work. Or, perhaps it is more correct to say that we think of more our economic or social environment, comfort, and convenience when we make this choice. Such decision making by large numbers of people has had many serious environmental impacts, such as air pollution from large commuting populations, deterioration of the built environment in cities, and problems of environmental inequities.
b. Demographic Factors. Demographic factors that have been found to influence environmental attitude and pro-environmental behavior are gender and years of education. Women usually have a less extensive environmental knowledge than men but they are more emotionally engaged, show more concern about environmental destruction, believe less in technological solutions, and are more willing to change (Fliegenschnee & Schelakovsky, 1998; Lehmann, 1999). The longer the education, the more extensive is the knowledge about environmental issues. Yet more education does not necessarily mean increased pro-environmental behavior.
c. Social And Cultural Norms. Cultural norms play a very important role in shaping people’s behavior. Boehmer-Christiansen and Skea (1991) explored the history of policy reactions to acid rain in Germany and the UK. They showed that the high cultural value of the forests in Germany, along with its geographic position and the Germans’ strong need for security and stability, led to a drastically different approach to the problem. It would be very interesting to design a cross-cultural study that looks at pro-environmental behavior. We would hypothesize that cultures in small, highly populated countries such as Switzerland and the Netherlands tend to be more resource conscientious than societies in large, resource-rich countries such as the USA.
d. Religion and Environment.
(1) Islam. The roots of Islamic environmental practice are to be found in the Qur’an and the guidance (sunnah) of Prophet Muhammad. Prophet Muhammad is the Prophet of Islam and is usually referred to by Muslims as the Messenger of God (Rasulullah).
(a) One of the stories often told by Muslims concerning the environment is the instruction by Abu Bakr, the first Caliph (Khalif) of Islam to his armies. In addition to telling them not to harm women, children and the infirm, he ordered them not to harm animals, destroy crops or cut down trees. There were two elements present in this decree: the first, to establish justice even as the Muslim armies fought, and the second, to recognize the value of nature. It should also be noted that the environment was not an issue or subject for separate treatment in life as it flowed onwards in both war and peace. The human condition was never separated from the natural order. It was a matter to be reckoned with at every moment of existence like the very air we take into our lungs.
(b) The primary duty of the Islamic state is to promote the good and forbid wrong doing. As part of these functions, it has the mandate to protect land and natural resources from abuse and misuse. From its earliest years the Islamic state established an agency known as the hisba whose specific task was to protect the people through promoting the establishment of good and forbidding wrong-doing. This agency was headed by a learned jurist (muhtasib) who functioned like a chief inspector of weights and measures and chief public health officer rolled into one. He was also responsible, among other similar duties, for the proper functioning of the hıma and al harım zones and he acted as what one might describe as an environmental inspectorate. The development and application of these principles and institutions have seen a decline over the past two centuries, as another worldview based on the exploitation of natural resources for profit gradually overtook this model. We are experiencing the consequences of this now. However, there are clear indications as to how this Islamic heritage has been and could again be put to good use in the modern context.
(2) Christianity.
(a) Christianity has a negative impact on environmental concern, according to White, who considers ‘Christianity to be the most anthropocentric religion the world has ever seen’ (White 1967, p. 1205). As a result, the Christian message permits the individual to show less concern for environment.
(b) For White, the Bible is the main source when he describes the relationship between environmental concerns and the Christian faith. White exemplifies his argument by referring to the passage in Genesis where God tells the humans to dominate every living thing: ‘Then God said, “Let Us make man in Our image, according to Our likeness; and let them rule over the fish of the sea and over the birds of the sky and over the cattle and over all the earth, and over every creeping thing that creeps on the earth”’ (Genesis 1:26, New American Standard Bible, NASB). According to White, this passage legitimizes the exploitation of environmental resources only to the benefit of humans: ‘no item in the physical creation had any purpose save to serve man’s purposes’ (White 1967, p. 1205). As White sees it, Christianity makes people think of themselves as apart from nature, instead of being part of nature. According to White, this has been understood as if humanity is free to exploit all resources on Earth without considering the destructive effects on the environment. Therefore, he claims, ‘… we shall continue to have a worsening ecologic crisis until we reject the Christian axiom that nature has no reason for existence save to serve man’ (White 1967, p. 1207).
(2) Hinduism. It has often been coined as a "environmental friendly" religion. Hindus regard everything around them as pervaded by a subtle divine presence, may it be rivers, mountains, lakes, animals, flora, the mineral world, as well as the stars and planets. It is so because the Divine reality is present as Prana/Shakti energy, power, in every electron, particle, atom, cell and in every manifestation of matter. It is its very fabric. Just like the sparks of a fire are of the same essence as the fire they were issued forth from, so is the entire creation, of the same essence as the Divine. Just as Hindus greet each other saying "Namaste", which means: I recognize and salute the Divine within you, so do they recognize the same Divine essence, in all around them.
14. Conclusion. Many conflicting and competing factors shape our daily decisions and actions. Similarly, there are several factors that influence our decisions towards environmental behavior especially a social factor i.e. unemployment and culture as whole. Unemployment not only serious consequences to society but also adversely effect environment. The personal and social costs of unemployment include severe financial hardship and poverty, debt, homelessness and housing stress, family tensions and breakdown, boredom, alienation, shame and stigma, increased social isolation, crime, erosion of confidence and self-esteem, the atrophying of work skills and ill-health. Specific culture predetermines the behavior of individual and society as whole toward environment. It has positive as well as negative effects on environment More and more often, human communities realize that the health and vibrancy of the natural environment affects the health and vibrancy of the community and vice versa.

References
M. Nils Peterson & Jianguo Liu, 2008, Impacts of Religion on Environmental Worldviews: The Teton Valley Case, Society & Natural Resources: An International Journal
Fazlun M Khalid, 2002, Islam and the Environment Social and economic dimensions of global environmental change
Anja Kollmuss & Julian Agyeman, 2010, Mind the Gap: Why do people act environmentally and what are the barriers to proenvironmental behavior? , Environmental Education Research
Kim Walker & Tony Loughland, 2010, The Socio-cultural Influences on Environmental Understandings of Australian School Students: A response to Rickinson, Environmental Education Research
Udayangani Kulatunga, 2011, Impact of Culture towards Disaster Risk Reduction, International Journal of Strategic Property Management
Abdul Ghafoor Awan, 2013, Relationship Between Environment And Sustainable Economic Development: A Theoretical Approach To Environmental Problems, International Journal of Asian Social Science
Magnus Hagevi, 2014, Religion and the environmental opinion in 22 countries: a comparative study, International Review of Sociology: Revue Internationale de Sociologie

References: M. Nils Peterson & Jianguo Liu, 2008, Impacts of Religion on Environmental Worldviews: The Teton Valley Case, Society & Natural Resources: An International Journal Fazlun M Khalid, 2002, Islam and the Environment Social and economic dimensions of global environmental change Anja Kollmuss & Julian Agyeman, 2010, Mind the Gap: Why do people act environmentally and what are the barriers to proenvironmental behavior? , Environmental Education Research Kim Walker & Tony Loughland, 2010, The Socio-cultural Influences on Environmental Understandings of Australian School Students: A response to Rickinson, Environmental Education Research Udayangani Kulatunga, 2011, Impact of Culture towards Disaster Risk Reduction, International Journal of Strategic Property Management Abdul Ghafoor Awan, 2013, Relationship Between Environment And Sustainable Economic Development: A Theoretical Approach To Environmental Problems, International Journal of Asian Social Science Magnus Hagevi, 2014, Religion and the environmental opinion in 22 countries: a comparative study, International Review of Sociology: Revue Internationale de Sociologie