Inuit Women: Traditional Gender Roles
Inuit Women: Traditional and Modern Gender Roles
Kelsey Melanson (6489281)
Concordia University
First Peoples of Canada - FPST 203
Professor Kahente Horn-Miller
Submitted December 11, 2013
Table of Content
Introduction 3
Background on Traditional Women Roles 3
Post-European Contact and the affects on Inuit Women 5
The Decrease of Inuit Male roles Importance… 6
Traditional verses Modern Inuit Women Gender Roles 8
Combining the Roles 9
Conclusion 10
Introduction
The Inuit people have managed to maintain a strong unique culture throughout European colonial regime, but not without many remarkable altercations in their way of life. The Inuit women have experienced a great change …show more content…
to their gender roles within the culture between pre and post European contact. Several historical issues such as forced resettlement and dominant cultural pressure have jeopardized, minimized, and reversed the roles and responsibilities of the Inuit women. The Inuit struggle with loss of culture, and the integration of a new culture and way of life – including new idealisms of gender roles, responsibilities and hierarchy. The role and power of a woman in the Inuit communities has changed immensely, but it could be debatable whether it has adapted for the better of their communities, and most importantly themselves. During a time of movements towards Inuit culture revitalization and maintenance, the question that will be explored in this paper is what was more beneficial for the Inuit women; traditional or modern gender roles? The purpose of this essay is to investigate the both traditional and modern roles of Inuit women, as well as their male counterparts. It also aims to explore how the reintegration of traditional gender roles could be possible, and what the results will be for the women and communities.
Background on Traditional Women Roles
Before European contact, both the roles of men and women were fundamental to their community’s survival. The roles of women and men were flexible, shared and balanced (Billson Mancini, 1994). As Janet Billson Mancini states in her article “Daughters of Sedna; Inuit Women Of Pannirtung, Baffin Island, Northwest Territories”, “Women’s work was different, not inferior” (Billson Mancini, 1995, chapter 4), and this was because there was diversity within the gender roles. The roles were equal in importance in relation to their male equivalent - an Inuit man could not survive without the roles and responsibilities of an Inuit woman, and likewise.
The household was a responsibility of the Inuit women– this includes caring for the children, maintaining the shelter, preparing food, crafting clothing, and occasionally hunting (Billson Mancini, 1994, chapter 4). The Inuit men of the community were to provide the food to prepare, the animal skins to sew and make clothing, and for building the shelters. Therefore, one gender role could not be fulfilled without the other – reconfirming that the term equal is appropriate to describe the traditional of gender roles. Both genders also shared the decision-making and leadership within their families – sometimes referring to their parents or shaman if there was a disagreement.
Inuit women were held in high regard in traditional Inuit culture – they were the keepers of traditions, and the practices and customs of their culture such as kinship and naming (Native Women’s Association of Canada, 2010). This made the women’s gender role extremely important in regards to continuation of their cultural traditions to the younger generation – basically, the health and relevancy of their culture in the future.
Post-European Contact and the affects on Inuit Women
The gender role of the Inuit women experienced a dramatically change after European contact to their communities. A prominent change to Inuit communities would be the resettlement into larger and more “modern” communities. The settlement had extremely negative impacts on the Inuit people, including the introduction to alcohol, extreme violence, and starvation (Billson Mancini, 1995, chapter 4). There was also the Inuit relocation to the High Arctic, which resulted in very similar consequences to the communities – just with a harsher, less forgiving climate. This caused a great frustration among the Inuit peoples. Both of these occurrences caused European culture and idealisms to slowly integrated into the lives of the Inuit. With this integration, the Inuit women suffered at the hands of patriarchy.
The European idealism of male dominance also became an Inuit idealism, and the value of women and their roles became less important and inferior in the eyes of their men. With this new change in the lives of the Inuit, the family structure changed drastically. The Inuit men obtained most of the power over the family, and the mutual respect between genders decreased (Billson Mancini, 1995, chapter 4). One specific example to display the gender role change in the Inuit society is the implication of the “Disk System”. The Disk system in simple terms was a system put in place to keep track over, and control the Inuit population – in which the Canadian government registered the families under the “Headman” who was the lead male in the family (Smith, 1993). With “Project Surname” in the 1970’s, The women were forced to take on the surname of their husbands, which was a foreign concept to the Inuit culture (Alia, 1994). This implemented a sense of ownership over the Inuit women by their husbands, and in the words of Valerie Alia, “Women were renamed in their absence, by men” (Alia, 1994), reaffirming the power shift in the gender roles. In the book “Inuit Women; Their Powerful Spirit in a Century of Change” by Janet Billson Mancini and Kyra Mancini, it is noted that white explorers, aerologists, police, traders and government workers made assumptions and viewed Inuit men to be dominate over the women. This helped the Europeans in projecting their westernized ways of structure on the Inuit peoples and adding to the image of the Inuit women as the inferior gender (Billson Mancini, Mancini, 2007, preface).
The Decrease of Inuit Male Gender Role Importance, and the affect on Inuit Women
As European contact continues to change the Inuit lifestyle, a hunting economy turned into settlements where the option of easily accessible food in cans was available (Billson Mancini, 1995, chapter 4). Therefore, the need for men to hunt for survival became less important. The male gender role experienced its side own decrease significance in the Inuit community and family. With this said, Inuit women experienced a rise in the downfall of the male role. The Inuit women gender role responsibilities continued to be important in the modernizing times – for example; there was still a need for sewing skills. Billson Mancini states that, “this gives her more power and authority because she earns some of the money…” reflecting on the regain of power to the Inuit Women in their families. The Inuit men had the European idealism of a women’s role and how they were beneath them as the male superior, but this was being contradicted by the financial success of their women.
The Inuit men had lost control and power - which came with positives to the Inuit women role . As Inuit women became more successful because of their traditional skill, their income, good jobs, education, and even hunting, the man’s role in the family has much less importance. Positive social changes for women began to arise, like the disappearing importance of arranged marriages (Billson Mancini, 1995, chatper 4). Clearly, the Inuit women’s importance to their family and their community is much higher in modernizing times. However, very powerful negative changes happened to the role and well-being on the Inuit women as a direct result of the shift in power.
The Inuit men experienced a great decline in their self-esteem and self worth, creating a male struggle to rebalance power in several ways. One alarming example of this struggle for rebalance of power is the spousal assaults that began to happen by the man to the women (Billson Mancini, 1995, chapter 4). This upraise in spousal assault became a serious issue, and the spousal assault rate in Nunavut was 6.5 times higher than the national average (Dickenson, 2006). This prompted a higher suicide rate amount Inuit women in comparison to men. Billson Mancini states that Inuit women fall “prey” to young Inuit men, because the men are threatened by their aspirations, better education, and their option to leave the community to seek employment (Billson Mancini, 1995, chapter 4).
Traditional verses Modern Inuit Women Gender Roles
Inuit women struggle with the aspects of two cultures – traditional, and an modernized adaptation. European-Canadian culture interfered with the traditional culture - it has jeopardized Inuit women’s knowledge and connection with traditional culture. It also changed realities of the Inuit, their lifestyle had very much altered due to relocation. This has created crisis within family structures, social structures, self-esteem, and social issues (Billson Mancini, 1995, chapter 4). This raises questions in an attempt to answer the main research question. What was more beneficial for the Inuit women; Traditional or Modern gender roles? It could be argued to be traditional from the research – a time when women’s roles were in balance with men’s roles, creating a harmony. However in modern times, there is no option for Inuit women to go completely back into traditional ways. A huge reason for this is because of new settlement living conditions where there is no need to have to reply on a man to provide food and supplies. There is no longer a need, or even resources to rely on the land as much as in traditional times with modern settlements, and climate change in the high arctic. Aspects like following taboo’s to survive are somewhat less important due to a decrease the “culture keeper” factor in the women’s traditional role. The Inuit communities have changed, and gender roles had to adapt.
However, this modern change in the Inuit lifestyle does not mean that the modernized role is the only role option for Inuit women. The research has presented the harsh negative effects of the modernized role of Inuit women. Spousal abuse and suicide do not reflect a healthy quality of life of Inuit women. With this stated, it appears that both modern and traditional Inuit women roles have their positive and negative components, and neither seem to be completely beneficial alone.
Combining the Roles
Both the traditional and modern roles of the Inuit women prove to lack beneficial consequences amongst the women themselves and their communities. However, both roles have positives and negatives in regards to the Inuit people today – so a solution would be to combine components from both traditional and modern Inuit women roles. The concept of the idea seems complicated, but not impossible. There are movements, such as the Pauktuutit Inuit Women of Canada’s “The Inuit Way: A Guide into Inuit Culture” which encourages the idealism of the mix of traditional and modern roles. The guide praises the idea of mixing Traditional and Modern women roles and a positive evolution – acting as a guide to traditional Inuit women culture, but acknowledging the Modern role and engagements of the women. The mandate of the “The Inuit Way” guide states that they wish to revive and maintain Traditional aspects like kinship, diet, traditional sharing, and role equality and respect – but puts importance on Inuit women practicing Modern role aspects like seeking an education, and coexisting with European- Canadian culture(The Inuit Way, 2006).
Pauktuutit Inuit Women of Canada are active in trying to solve the issues in Modern times for Inuit women, like the spousal abuse. In 2007, the organization had a summit to produce strategies to help the abuse to Inuit women, including specific training to front line shelter workers to help a women who has been abused, and developing culturally/traditionally relevant services for the women (Pauktuutit Inuit Women of Canada: Empowering Inuit Women of Canada, 2007).
Gwen K. Healey and Lynn M. Meadows published a study called “Tradition and Culture: An Important Determinant of Inuit Women’s Health” were they explored Inuit women’s perspective on their health. The study concluded that Inuit women believe they would be healthier if traditional aspects were integrated into their modern day role – this includes factors like learning their traditional language, practicing traditional childbirth, and relearning “old day” customs (Healey & Meadows, 2008).
Conclusion
The question at the start of the research was to compare traditional and modern Inuit women gender roles, and to discover which was more beneficial.
However it has become more of a question to determine whether Inuit communities could successfully revive traditional gender roles in which benefited Inuit women, and could enrich/compliment their modern roles? The answer has become very clear – Inuit communities can, and have successfully revived traditional gender roles by integrating some elements of the role in collaboration with the modern role. The modern role is vital to current survival in Canadian society because a culture must adapt its surroundings to stay strong. This does not mean that there is no room for traditional role aspects to be intergraded back into modern culture. Creating opportunities for the traditional role to be present in modern days, like preparing food in traditional ways, using and following the kinship systems, establishing traditional workshops to teach skills like making clothing and learning the traditional language, and creating traditional recourses (example, abuse shelters) to help Inuit women with problems that arise from their modern roles, is the starting point in the integration of traditional roles into the modern role of the Inuit women. To further see the success of the traditional roles of Inuit Women be integrated with their modern role, it is important to see a change in their counterparts – Inuit men. A way this can be done is by maintaining the “culture-keeper” traditional role aspect of the Inuit women. This will allow them to pass down cultural knowledge to their sons, and teach about equality in the Inuit tradition and that patriarchy had no place in their lives until colonization. In closing, the combination of the positive aspects of both Traditional and Modern Inuit women roles is a step in the right direction to better the lives of both the women and the
communities.
Bibliography
Alia, V. (1994). Inuit Women and the politics of naming in Nunavut. Canadian
Women Studies, 14(4), 101-105.
Billson Mancini, J & Mancini, K. (2007). Inuit Women: Their Powerful Spirit in a
Century of Change. Toronto: Rowman & Littlefield
Billson Mancini, Janet (1995) Chapter 4: Daughters of Sedna. Inuit Women of Panngnirtung, Baffin Island, Northwest Territories. In Keepers of the Culture.
The Power of Tradition in Women’s Lives. Toronto: Rowman & Littlefield
Dickson (2006). Family violence in the Canadian Arctic. Working Group on Aboriginal Family Violence, Pauktuutit Inuit Women of Canada. University of
Regina.
Healey, L, & Meadows, G. (2008, January). “Tradition and Culture: An Important
Determinant of Inuit Women’s Health”. (National Aboriginal Health Organization, 2008). University of Calgary. Retrieved from http://www.naho.ca/jah/english/jah04_01/05TraditionCulture_25-33.pdf
Native Women’s Association of Canada (2010, March). “Culturally Relevant Gender
Based Model of Reconciliation”. (University of Regina, 2010) Retrieved from http://www.uregina.ca/resolve/PDFs/culturally%20revelant%20%20gender%20based.pdf
Pauktuutit Inuit Women of Canada (2007). “Empowering Inuit Women of Canada”.
(Pauktuutit Inuit Women of Canada, 2007). Retrieved from http://pauktuutit.ca/
Pauktuutit Inuit Women of Canada (2006). “The Inuit Way: A Guide into Inuit
Culture”. (Pauktuutit Inuit Women of Canada, 2007). Retrieved from http://pauktuutit.ca/
Smith, D. (1993). Chapter 2: The Emergence of the “Eskimo Status”: An Examination of the Eskimo Disk System and its Social Consequences, 1925-1970. In
Anthropology, Public Policy and Native Peoples in Canada. Noel Dyck and James B. Waldram (Eds.) Montreal & Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press.
Kelsey Melanson (6489281)
Concordia University
First Peoples of Canada - FPST 203
Professor Kahente Horn-Miller
Submitted December 11, 2013
Table of Content
Introduction 3
Background on Traditional Women Roles 3
Post-European Contact and the affects on Inuit Women 5
The Decrease of Inuit Male roles Importance… 6
Traditional verses Modern Inuit Women Gender Roles 8
Combining the Roles 9
Conclusion 10
Introduction
The Inuit people have managed to maintain a strong unique culture throughout European colonial regime, but not without many remarkable altercations in their way of life. The Inuit women have experienced a great change …show more content…
to their gender roles within the culture between pre and post European contact. Several historical issues such as forced resettlement and dominant cultural pressure have jeopardized, minimized, and reversed the roles and responsibilities of the Inuit women. The Inuit struggle with loss of culture, and the integration of a new culture and way of life – including new idealisms of gender roles, responsibilities and hierarchy. The role and power of a woman in the Inuit communities has changed immensely, but it could be debatable whether it has adapted for the better of their communities, and most importantly themselves. During a time of movements towards Inuit culture revitalization and maintenance, the question that will be explored in this paper is what was more beneficial for the Inuit women; traditional or modern gender roles? The purpose of this essay is to investigate the both traditional and modern roles of Inuit women, as well as their male counterparts. It also aims to explore how the reintegration of traditional gender roles could be possible, and what the results will be for the women and communities.
Background on Traditional Women Roles
Before European contact, both the roles of men and women were fundamental to their community’s survival. The roles of women and men were flexible, shared and balanced (Billson Mancini, 1994). As Janet Billson Mancini states in her article “Daughters of Sedna; Inuit Women Of Pannirtung, Baffin Island, Northwest Territories”, “Women’s work was different, not inferior” (Billson Mancini, 1995, chapter 4), and this was because there was diversity within the gender roles. The roles were equal in importance in relation to their male equivalent - an Inuit man could not survive without the roles and responsibilities of an Inuit woman, and likewise.
The household was a responsibility of the Inuit women– this includes caring for the children, maintaining the shelter, preparing food, crafting clothing, and occasionally hunting (Billson Mancini, 1994, chapter 4). The Inuit men of the community were to provide the food to prepare, the animal skins to sew and make clothing, and for building the shelters. Therefore, one gender role could not be fulfilled without the other – reconfirming that the term equal is appropriate to describe the traditional of gender roles. Both genders also shared the decision-making and leadership within their families – sometimes referring to their parents or shaman if there was a disagreement.
Inuit women were held in high regard in traditional Inuit culture – they were the keepers of traditions, and the practices and customs of their culture such as kinship and naming (Native Women’s Association of Canada, 2010). This made the women’s gender role extremely important in regards to continuation of their cultural traditions to the younger generation – basically, the health and relevancy of their culture in the future.
Post-European Contact and the affects on Inuit Women
The gender role of the Inuit women experienced a dramatically change after European contact to their communities. A prominent change to Inuit communities would be the resettlement into larger and more “modern” communities. The settlement had extremely negative impacts on the Inuit people, including the introduction to alcohol, extreme violence, and starvation (Billson Mancini, 1995, chapter 4). There was also the Inuit relocation to the High Arctic, which resulted in very similar consequences to the communities – just with a harsher, less forgiving climate. This caused a great frustration among the Inuit peoples. Both of these occurrences caused European culture and idealisms to slowly integrated into the lives of the Inuit. With this integration, the Inuit women suffered at the hands of patriarchy.
The European idealism of male dominance also became an Inuit idealism, and the value of women and their roles became less important and inferior in the eyes of their men. With this new change in the lives of the Inuit, the family structure changed drastically. The Inuit men obtained most of the power over the family, and the mutual respect between genders decreased (Billson Mancini, 1995, chapter 4). One specific example to display the gender role change in the Inuit society is the implication of the “Disk System”. The Disk system in simple terms was a system put in place to keep track over, and control the Inuit population – in which the Canadian government registered the families under the “Headman” who was the lead male in the family (Smith, 1993). With “Project Surname” in the 1970’s, The women were forced to take on the surname of their husbands, which was a foreign concept to the Inuit culture (Alia, 1994). This implemented a sense of ownership over the Inuit women by their husbands, and in the words of Valerie Alia, “Women were renamed in their absence, by men” (Alia, 1994), reaffirming the power shift in the gender roles. In the book “Inuit Women; Their Powerful Spirit in a Century of Change” by Janet Billson Mancini and Kyra Mancini, it is noted that white explorers, aerologists, police, traders and government workers made assumptions and viewed Inuit men to be dominate over the women. This helped the Europeans in projecting their westernized ways of structure on the Inuit peoples and adding to the image of the Inuit women as the inferior gender (Billson Mancini, Mancini, 2007, preface).
The Decrease of Inuit Male Gender Role Importance, and the affect on Inuit Women
As European contact continues to change the Inuit lifestyle, a hunting economy turned into settlements where the option of easily accessible food in cans was available (Billson Mancini, 1995, chapter 4). Therefore, the need for men to hunt for survival became less important. The male gender role experienced its side own decrease significance in the Inuit community and family. With this said, Inuit women experienced a rise in the downfall of the male role. The Inuit women gender role responsibilities continued to be important in the modernizing times – for example; there was still a need for sewing skills. Billson Mancini states that, “this gives her more power and authority because she earns some of the money…” reflecting on the regain of power to the Inuit Women in their families. The Inuit men had the European idealism of a women’s role and how they were beneath them as the male superior, but this was being contradicted by the financial success of their women.
The Inuit men had lost control and power - which came with positives to the Inuit women role . As Inuit women became more successful because of their traditional skill, their income, good jobs, education, and even hunting, the man’s role in the family has much less importance. Positive social changes for women began to arise, like the disappearing importance of arranged marriages (Billson Mancini, 1995, chatper 4). Clearly, the Inuit women’s importance to their family and their community is much higher in modernizing times. However, very powerful negative changes happened to the role and well-being on the Inuit women as a direct result of the shift in power.
The Inuit men experienced a great decline in their self-esteem and self worth, creating a male struggle to rebalance power in several ways. One alarming example of this struggle for rebalance of power is the spousal assaults that began to happen by the man to the women (Billson Mancini, 1995, chapter 4). This upraise in spousal assault became a serious issue, and the spousal assault rate in Nunavut was 6.5 times higher than the national average (Dickenson, 2006). This prompted a higher suicide rate amount Inuit women in comparison to men. Billson Mancini states that Inuit women fall “prey” to young Inuit men, because the men are threatened by their aspirations, better education, and their option to leave the community to seek employment (Billson Mancini, 1995, chapter 4).
Traditional verses Modern Inuit Women Gender Roles
Inuit women struggle with the aspects of two cultures – traditional, and an modernized adaptation. European-Canadian culture interfered with the traditional culture - it has jeopardized Inuit women’s knowledge and connection with traditional culture. It also changed realities of the Inuit, their lifestyle had very much altered due to relocation. This has created crisis within family structures, social structures, self-esteem, and social issues (Billson Mancini, 1995, chapter 4). This raises questions in an attempt to answer the main research question. What was more beneficial for the Inuit women; Traditional or Modern gender roles? It could be argued to be traditional from the research – a time when women’s roles were in balance with men’s roles, creating a harmony. However in modern times, there is no option for Inuit women to go completely back into traditional ways. A huge reason for this is because of new settlement living conditions where there is no need to have to reply on a man to provide food and supplies. There is no longer a need, or even resources to rely on the land as much as in traditional times with modern settlements, and climate change in the high arctic. Aspects like following taboo’s to survive are somewhat less important due to a decrease the “culture keeper” factor in the women’s traditional role. The Inuit communities have changed, and gender roles had to adapt.
However, this modern change in the Inuit lifestyle does not mean that the modernized role is the only role option for Inuit women. The research has presented the harsh negative effects of the modernized role of Inuit women. Spousal abuse and suicide do not reflect a healthy quality of life of Inuit women. With this stated, it appears that both modern and traditional Inuit women roles have their positive and negative components, and neither seem to be completely beneficial alone.
Combining the Roles
Both the traditional and modern roles of the Inuit women prove to lack beneficial consequences amongst the women themselves and their communities. However, both roles have positives and negatives in regards to the Inuit people today – so a solution would be to combine components from both traditional and modern Inuit women roles. The concept of the idea seems complicated, but not impossible. There are movements, such as the Pauktuutit Inuit Women of Canada’s “The Inuit Way: A Guide into Inuit Culture” which encourages the idealism of the mix of traditional and modern roles. The guide praises the idea of mixing Traditional and Modern women roles and a positive evolution – acting as a guide to traditional Inuit women culture, but acknowledging the Modern role and engagements of the women. The mandate of the “The Inuit Way” guide states that they wish to revive and maintain Traditional aspects like kinship, diet, traditional sharing, and role equality and respect – but puts importance on Inuit women practicing Modern role aspects like seeking an education, and coexisting with European- Canadian culture(The Inuit Way, 2006).
Pauktuutit Inuit Women of Canada are active in trying to solve the issues in Modern times for Inuit women, like the spousal abuse. In 2007, the organization had a summit to produce strategies to help the abuse to Inuit women, including specific training to front line shelter workers to help a women who has been abused, and developing culturally/traditionally relevant services for the women (Pauktuutit Inuit Women of Canada: Empowering Inuit Women of Canada, 2007).
Gwen K. Healey and Lynn M. Meadows published a study called “Tradition and Culture: An Important Determinant of Inuit Women’s Health” were they explored Inuit women’s perspective on their health. The study concluded that Inuit women believe they would be healthier if traditional aspects were integrated into their modern day role – this includes factors like learning their traditional language, practicing traditional childbirth, and relearning “old day” customs (Healey & Meadows, 2008).
Conclusion
The question at the start of the research was to compare traditional and modern Inuit women gender roles, and to discover which was more beneficial.
However it has become more of a question to determine whether Inuit communities could successfully revive traditional gender roles in which benefited Inuit women, and could enrich/compliment their modern roles? The answer has become very clear – Inuit communities can, and have successfully revived traditional gender roles by integrating some elements of the role in collaboration with the modern role. The modern role is vital to current survival in Canadian society because a culture must adapt its surroundings to stay strong. This does not mean that there is no room for traditional role aspects to be intergraded back into modern culture. Creating opportunities for the traditional role to be present in modern days, like preparing food in traditional ways, using and following the kinship systems, establishing traditional workshops to teach skills like making clothing and learning the traditional language, and creating traditional recourses (example, abuse shelters) to help Inuit women with problems that arise from their modern roles, is the starting point in the integration of traditional roles into the modern role of the Inuit women. To further see the success of the traditional roles of Inuit Women be integrated with their modern role, it is important to see a change in their counterparts – Inuit men. A way this can be done is by maintaining the “culture-keeper” traditional role aspect of the Inuit women. This will allow them to pass down cultural knowledge to their sons, and teach about equality in the Inuit tradition and that patriarchy had no place in their lives until colonization. In closing, the combination of the positive aspects of both Traditional and Modern Inuit women roles is a step in the right direction to better the lives of both the women and the
communities.
Bibliography
Alia, V. (1994). Inuit Women and the politics of naming in Nunavut. Canadian
Women Studies, 14(4), 101-105.
Billson Mancini, J & Mancini, K. (2007). Inuit Women: Their Powerful Spirit in a
Century of Change. Toronto: Rowman & Littlefield
Billson Mancini, Janet (1995) Chapter 4: Daughters of Sedna. Inuit Women of Panngnirtung, Baffin Island, Northwest Territories. In Keepers of the Culture.
The Power of Tradition in Women’s Lives. Toronto: Rowman & Littlefield
Dickson (2006). Family violence in the Canadian Arctic. Working Group on Aboriginal Family Violence, Pauktuutit Inuit Women of Canada. University of
Regina.
Healey, L, & Meadows, G. (2008, January). “Tradition and Culture: An Important
Determinant of Inuit Women’s Health”. (National Aboriginal Health Organization, 2008). University of Calgary. Retrieved from http://www.naho.ca/jah/english/jah04_01/05TraditionCulture_25-33.pdf
Native Women’s Association of Canada (2010, March). “Culturally Relevant Gender
Based Model of Reconciliation”. (University of Regina, 2010) Retrieved from http://www.uregina.ca/resolve/PDFs/culturally%20revelant%20%20gender%20based.pdf
Pauktuutit Inuit Women of Canada (2007). “Empowering Inuit Women of Canada”.
(Pauktuutit Inuit Women of Canada, 2007). Retrieved from http://pauktuutit.ca/
Pauktuutit Inuit Women of Canada (2006). “The Inuit Way: A Guide into Inuit
Culture”. (Pauktuutit Inuit Women of Canada, 2007). Retrieved from http://pauktuutit.ca/
Smith, D. (1993). Chapter 2: The Emergence of the “Eskimo Status”: An Examination of the Eskimo Disk System and its Social Consequences, 1925-1970. In
Anthropology, Public Policy and Native Peoples in Canada. Noel Dyck and James B. Waldram (Eds.) Montreal & Kingston: McGill-Queen’s University Press.