Man 3025 Introduction To Management Essay

MAN 3025
Exam 1 Study Guide

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO MANAGEMENT

Intellectual capital: the total sum of a workforce’s knowledge and abilities that can be used for an organization’s benefit

Portfolio worker: a person who can adapt to different jobs and careers due to possessing many differ- ent types of skills

Workforce Diversity: creating and maintain a workforce that is represented by people of different age groups, ethnicities, nationalities, and gender; critical to have -Prejudice vs. Discrimination: having preconceived unreasonable attitudes towards others; becomes active discrimination when members of a particular group are given substandard or unfair treatment in the workplace -Glass Ceiling Effect: an unseen barrier
that stops minority groups and women from attaining high positions in organizations, despite adequate experience and qualifications -Globalization: process by which different countries become interdependent in regards of resources, markets, and competition; achieved thorough technology

Learning Outcome: Why is it important to establish workforce diversity? It is a critical aspect of an organization’s success; creates a more open and friendly environment that has a variety of experience and training

Organizations: an arrangement of workers who collaborate to accomplish a collective goal; provide valued services or products to its clients/customers -Open System: a system that responds to and has an effect on its environment (inputs and outputs) -Productivity: measures performance; cost of various inputs compared to the value of the outputs -Performance Efficiency (measure of input; described how well resources were used) vs. Performance Effectiveness (measure of output; form of goal or objective accomplishment)

Levels of Management: managers supervise employees and act as a driving force to direct and enhance the performance of other workers -Administrators: managers of a non-profit or government organization -Supervisors: lowest-level management position, on the front lines -Middle Managers: monitor and lead large divisions that are made up of smaller business units Plant managers general managers, divisional managers -Top Managers : in charge of managing and leading the whole organization or a large part of it President, Vice-President, Chief Executive Officer

Types of Managers -Line Managers: oversee employees on the “front lines”; interact with employees on a daily basis -Staff Managers: support the line workers with certain technical skills; director of human resources -Functional Managers: have the expertise in a single area, such as production, accounting, human resources, sales, or marketing -General Managers: has an area of responsibility that encompasses many of the above functional areas

Four Main Functions of Management -Planning: psychological process of determining appropriate activities that achieve objectives and goals of the org. -Organizing: after planning, the process of coordinating financial, physical, and human ‘ resources to accomplish the plan in place -Leading: motivating others to accomplish goals by fostering enthusiasm and dedication -Controlling: keeping track of performance and taking corrective action

Learning Outcome: Make sure you understand the management process and functions.

Managerial Roles – 10 basic roles a manager usually takes on while working Interpersonal Roles: communication with others -Leader: motivating others and giving them focus -Figurehead: implementing new policies and acting them out -Liaison: acting as a “go-between” in groups and making sure activities are coordinated Informational Roles: ways a manager analyzes and passes on info -Disseminator: passes info to others -Spokesperson: being the official person to give out info -Monitor: observing in order to find new info
Decisional Roles: the way a manager utilizes info when making a decision; attempt o solve problems and take advantage of opportunities
-Resource Allocator: deciding how much of the budget and other resources goes to each unit or team
-Disturbance Handler: helping to solve various problems and take advantage of opportunities -Negotiator: cutting deals and making agreements with others -Entrepreneur: taking advantage of opportunities by putting forth new courses of action

Managerial Agendas -Agenda Setting -Networking -Social Capital

Managerial Skills -Technical Skills: a special knowledge or expertise that allows a person to operate in a specialized field -Human Skills: a person’s ability and the capacity to work well with others -Emotional Intelligence: ability to manage ourselves in relationships effectively; control, regulate, and understand emotions -Social Capital: the ability to utilize one’s network connections or relationships to accomplish goals -Conceptual Skills: allow a manager to analyze complex or abstract situations

Learning Outcome: What are essential skills for an effective manager to have? Technical, human, and conceptual skills

CHAPTER TWO: MANAGEMENT APPROACHES FROM PAST TO PRESENT

Bureaucracy: a type of organizational structure that has a specific hierarchy of authority, a well-defined division of labor, clear rules and procedures on behavior and performance, impersonal relationships, and advancement based on merit

Human Relations Movement: emphasized the importance of managers focusing on good human relations in order to increase worker output

Contingency Thinking: utilizing different management when the situation calls for it

Learning Organization: constantly improving and evolving since it changes operations and processes as a result of past experiences

Evidence-Based Management: EBM, uses actual scientific data and informing on which approaches really work to make management decisions

Classical Approaches to Management -Bureaucratic Organization: resistant to change, slow response time to changes in environment, and rigid employee behavior

-Scientific Management:
Motion Study: breaks a task down into fundamental activities in order to create optimal stand ard operating procedures for each job * Break task down into fundamental components * Select workers for job who have the right skills and attributes * Effectively train workers to do the job the “best” way, and provide incentives * Management should be there to provide assistance

- Administrative Principles: Henri Fayol;management should be taught and have 5 main duties - Five duties: - Foresight: forecasting and planning for the future - Command: making sure the best workers are selected for the job - Organization: proffering the necessary resources and supplies - Coordination: ensuring a clear flow of information and all employees work to gether, and solve complications
- Control: monitoring progress of the plan and correcting any problems that occur along the way -Four Functions of Management

The Hawthorne Studies -Hawthorne Effect: because a group of workers were being studied and given special attention, they improved performance -Organizational Behavior: how individuals and groups act within organizations

Learning Outcome: Understand the basics of the Hawthorne Studies.
Group pressures can have both a positive and negative effects on individual performance; special attention increases
performance

McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y -Characteristics of Theory X- assumes average person would rather follow than lead, does not like working, lazy and unmotivated, and is very irresponsible -Characteristics of Theory Y- average person is creative, willing to work, seeks responsibility, and is self-directed -Self-Fulfilling Prophecy- when one person’s expectations cause another person to act as origin nally expected

Follet’s Organizations as Communities -Clear lines of communication between managers and employees in order to solve problems.

Learning Outcome:
What did Follett emphasize? That organizations are similar to communities
What did Follett deem as a best-case working environment? One that is not dominated by either workers or the managers; would allow them to work together much better
Who must facilitate cooperating? The manager

Quantitative Approach to Management -Operations Research: quantitative analysis and mathematical tools in management -Tools used in the Quantitative Approach -Inventory Analysis: keep inventory costs as low as possible -Mathematical Forecasting: helps predict things like future sales, availability of supplies, population growth, and future market size -Queuing Theory: helps allocate employees and other resources when and where they are needed most -Network Models: allow a manager to take a task and reduce it to fundamental activities, organize them, formulate the most appropriate completion timeline for each activity

Organizations as Systems -Operations Management: a field study that analyzes the way goods and services are rendered and tempts to improve the process and views the organization as a system -System: a set of smaller coordinated parts that work in tandem to produce a desired result
-Subsystem: the “smaller coordinated parts” of the system

CHAPTER THREE: MOTIVATION

Satisfaction: the condition of need fulfillment

What is motivation? Why is it important? To be desired to make moves; 80/20, 80% of work is done by 20% of the people; emanates from inside the person; personal aspiration; desire to achieve something higher

Needs Theory I – Maslow of Motivation: underpinning of human motivation was the desire (need) to satisfy one’s self; the quest to satisfy needs would follow a hierarchy or orderly procession from lowest (most fundamental to life and existence) to highest (most fundamental to individual expression of self-growth) -Progression of Needs:
-Physiological- essentials for life; food, water, sex
-Security- physiological stability, safety
-Social- social acceptance and affiliation with others; feel loved by others
-Esteem- need for respect and recognition
-Self-Actualization- highest level, satisfy all other levels of need first; realize potential to grow

-Satisfaction Progression: once a need is satisfied, a person will move on to strive and to satisfy the next higher need

Needs Theory II – Alderfer's Take on Motivation (ERG Theory) -Existence Needs: include all the basic physical and material needs that every person has
(Physiological and social needs of Maslow)
-Relatedness Needs: all the needs to interact with others, positively or negatively
-Growth Needs: highest form of needs, External esteem: only satisfied by relating to others; requires social approval of others. Internal esteem: not dependent on social approval, but how they feel about themselves -Frustration Regression Principle: when a person experiences frustration while striving to achieve Learning Outcome: Why is important to study motivation? What does it mean for me as a manager? It is important to understand what motivates people, or drives them to succeed; for a manager, you must give the occasional pep talk, and encourage motivation through understanding the personal aspiration of your employees. Provide the basics, a/c and comfortable working conditions; set higher standards for achievement, after supplying the basics; employees need to feel valued

Needs Theory III – McClelland's Manifest Needs: more closely assigned with life at work -nPow- need for power; fundamental competency and capability of being a leader
- nAff- need for affiliation; fundamental to communication effectiveness and social awareness
- nAch-need for achievement; critically linked to work performance; take calculated risks and attempt to achieve tasks that they can accomplish and 50% of others similar to them would likely fail to achieve
-Achievement Motivation = nAch – Fear of Failure; person may not act on desires if fear of failure is too high

Expectancy Theory (pg. 24) – A Choice Theory of Motivation (old mcdonald) -Effort → Performance → Reward → Individual Outcome [EPRIO] -Expectancy- believe or confidence that a person’s effort will lead to performance -Instrumentality- the belief that if you do perform, that your performance will be rewarded and duly noted -Valance- the degree to which the reward that you are given is valuable to you
3 necessary links, but not sufficient by itself

Learning Outcomes: Who determines if expectancy, instrumentality, and valance are satisfied? The individual, not the manager, therefore, Expectancy is a personal perception model

Adam's Equity Theory – An Old Lesson from the Vineyard: -referent: others we compare ourselves to -Self Balance of Outputs/Inputs vs. Referent Balance of Outputs/Inputs -Negative Inequity: when a person (A) perceives that they are receiving relatively fewer outcomes (rewards) for their given inputs (efforts) than the person they compare themselves to (B)

The Caustic Effects of Unfairness -Procedural Justice: the process of allocating rewards or punishments is just (agree with the procedure regarding being written up for arriving late to work) -Distributive Justice: focuses on the unfair distribution of resources (agree you were late and should be written up) -Interactional Justice: person’s sense of fair treatment insofar as it involves the communication process (object to the way in which you were treated)

Learning Outcome: It is important that a manager remain sensitive to the justice perceptions of those s/he is responsible for, because injustice is toxic to motivation.

Two-Factor Theory (Motivator-Hygiene Theory) - Herzberg -Hygiene Factors: those things extrinsic to the job; make you satisfied/dissatisfied -Motivation Factors: intrinsic in nature, have potential to create motivation in employees -Extrinsic Factors (Company Policies, Supervision, Relationship w/ Boss, Salary, etc.) -Intrinsic Factors (Achievement, Recognition, Work itself, Responsibility, etc.)

Lessons From Two-Factor Theory Lesson 1: Absence of hygiene factors leads to dissatisfaction, but an abundance of these factors does not create motivation (satisfaction) Lesson 2: Intrinsic motivational factors lead to high levels of satisfaction Lesson 3: Even jobs with relatively high levels of motivation factors that have low hygiene factors will usually not produce an environment conducive to motivation

Learning Outcome: Why are some people highly motivated in environments where hygiene factors are clearly absent?
some enjoy the idea of working for no reward for personal satisfaction; high intrinsic reward for them

Intrinsic motivation- threw him a party when he got A’s
Gave a dollar in class to show the value of something to someone

Crowding Out – The Hidden Cost of a Reward -Acts of citizenship: exist because people receive a sense of intrinsic reward for doing something for nothing; satisfaction is high because the act is not expected/required of them -Cognitive Evaluation Theory: crowding out, is the phenomenon where a person
experiences less motivation (because they experience less overall reward) to complete a task that is rewarded or officially sanctioned by the organization or a manager
-”Crowd Out”: extrinsic rewards ($) can crowd out the existing intrinsic motivation a worker already experiences when they volunteer for service

Learning Theories – Another Way to Look at Motivational -Conditioned Response: when one event automatically triggers a response -Operant Conditioning: instrumental conditioning; learning associations between behaviors and consequences; based on law of effect -Thorndike's Law of Effect: states that behaviors that are rewarded will tend to be repeated, while behaviors that are not rewarded will not -Shaping Behavior: rewarding someone for incremental changes in behavior -Skinner's 5 types of reinforcement: Tactic | Response Type | Consequence | Positive Reinforcement | Desired response leads to | Positive Consequence | Negative Reinforcement | Desired response leads to | Removal of Undesirable Consequence | Avoidance(escape) Condition | Desired response leads to | Avoidance of undesirable consequences | Extinction | Undesired response leads to | Ignoring of behavior | Punishment* | Undesired response leads to | Undesirable Consequence |
*may result in desired response; tends to stop undesired behaviors, but not encourage desired behavior, should be used sparingly

-Saturation: when the desirability of a consequence (reward) diminishes over time because the person has a lesser desire for that particular reward; maybe go to a fixed reward schedule

Goal Setting and Management By Objectives: The Most Popular Motivation Programs -Management by Objectives (MBO): a program of goal setting first popularized by Peter Drucker; it prescribes that the most effective goals are characterized by the following 8 conditions: -Challenging- easy goals are not motivational
-Attainable- unachievable goals will have low expectancy; good goals are perceived as attainable through effort
-Specific- goals must be clear and specific
-Reward Contingent- goals are motivating to the extent that achieving them results in a reward -Measurable- goals must be measurable and tangible in some way; ex. Sales quotas
-Feedback Richness- best goals are those that allow workers to monitor their progress as they work on task completion. Seeing incremental success is motivational
-Jointly Set- employee’s goals are aligned with organization’s goals
-Time Bound- most goals have a start and end time; allows employees to evaluate the pace at which they must work to achieve the goal by a specific date and time
-Morally Worthy- has to be of real and meaningful value; must feel significant; managers should define meaningful terms

Learning Outcome: What are four key reasons why goals are important to organizations? 1) Goals focus the attention of an individual toward goal-relevant activities, and away from goal-irrelevant activities 2) Goals are energizing for workers and higher goals induce greater effort than lower goals 3) Goals encourage key and relevant learning outcomes necessary for success 4) Goals stimulate strategic thinking as a means of coping with complex environments

Job Characteristics Model – For Enhancing the Motivational Content of Work -Core Job Characteristic, Critical Psychological State, Affective & Personal Work
Experienced Meaningfulness of Work

Experienced Meaningfulness of Work

(Look at the chart on page 33) -Skill variety- number of diff activities performed by an employee -Task identity- extent to which an employee’s work can be identified as a “meaningful whole”
Experienced responsibility for work outcomes
Experienced responsibility for work outcomes
-Task Significance- degree to which an employee can perceive the impact of his/her work on the final product -Autonomy- refers to the level of control an employee has over deciding how and when work is completed Knowledge of Work Results
Knowledge
of Work Results -Feedback – information regarding performance; helps take corrective action

All lead to high internal work motivation, high growth satisfaction from work, job satisfaction, work effectiveness, low absenteeism and turnover

-Motivating Personal Score (MPS) MPS = (Skill Variety + Task Identity + Task Significance) / 3 x (Autonomy) x (Feedback) -Note this formula is not simply additive but multiplies scores of 3 psychological states

CHAPTER FOUR: FOUNDATIONS OF BEHAVIOR

Perceptual Organization: the process of grouping environmental stimuli into recognizable patterns * Figure-ground- perceive objects that stand against a background * Similarity- stimuli that have common physical traits are more likely to be grouped together * Proximity- stimuli that occur in the same proximity (space or time) are often associated * Closure- naturally tend to project the missing info to form a complete picture

Cognitive complexity: allows us to differentiate people and events using multiple criteria, which increases the accuracy of our perceptions; degree to which individuals have developed complex categories for organizing information

Self-fulfilling Prophecy/Pygmalion Effect: a phenomenon that occurs when a person acts in a way that confirms another’s expectations

Personality: traits that refer to enduring characteristics that describe an individual’s attitudes and behavior.

Fundamental Attribution Error: the tendency to overestimate the influence of personality in understanding human behavior

Attribution Theory: examines how we assign responsibility and the cognitive processes to understand why people act as they do * Observe someone else- overestimate personality * Observe ourselves- overestimate importance of situation * Success- internal factors, failure-external factors

Locus of Control: refers to the degree to which individuals believe that their actions influence rewards they receive in life; determined by past experiences * Internal: rewards are controlled by their own actions * External: rewards are controlled by fate/ external sources

Hypothetical Construct: not a physical reality or something you can taste, hear, or touch * Cognitive component: beliefs and data * Affective component: feeling and emotions * Behavioral tendency component: refers to the way the person intends to behave towards the object

Emotional Intelligence: set of competencies that allow us to perceive, understand, and regulate emotions in ourselves and others; regulation and recognition * Self-awareness, self-management, social awareness, and relationship management *
Behavioral Intentions: an intervening process between attitudes and behavior

Behavioral Evaluations: the intervening process between behavior and attitudes that interprets and makes sense of our behaviors

Perception: the process of interpreting and organizing the sensations we attend to; no two people share the same reality, for each of us, the world is unique

The Perceptual Process -Sensation, Attention (size, intensity, frequency, contrast, motion, novelty), Perception -Perceptual Inference- categorize people using limited pieces of information, and then acting on that information by forming a complete perception about an object or event

Perceptual Errors
-Halo Effect- refers to the tendency to allow one personality trait to influence our perception of other traits
-Selective Perception- process of systematically screening out information that we don’t wish to hear -Projection- tendency to attribute our own feelings and characteristics to others -Implicit Personality Theories – the process of allowing our personal stereotypes and expectations regarding certain kinds of people to create a perceptual set that influences how we respond to other people -Stereotyping- the process of using a few attributes about an object to classify it, and then responding to it as a member of a category, rather than a unique object

Learning Outcome: Understand all of the perceptual errors.

Primacy Effect: allowing first impressions to have a disproportionate and lasting influence on later evaluations; first impression

Attribution Theory -Conclusions of the Attribution Theory

Big Five Personality Model: the five personality dimensions -Conscientiousness- degree to which an individual is dependable or inconsistent -Agreeableness- degree to which people are friendly/ easy to work with -Emotional Stability- consistency of reactions toward certain events -Openness to experience- degree to which people are interested in broadening horizons -Extroversion- degree to which people are outgoing and social
-Introversion- refers to those who are shy and antisocial

Emotions -Emotional Intelligence -4 dimensions: Self-awareness, Self-management, Social awareness, Relationship management

Organizational Commitment -workaholic: someone who is addicted to work -Normative Commitment: strong belief and acceptance of organization’s value and goals -Affective Commitment: strong emotional attachment to organization and a willingness to exert considerable effort on behalf of it -Continuance Commitment: a strong desire to maintain membership in the organization
Factors that contribute: personal factors, role-related factors, structural characteristics, and work experience

Self-Efficacy- one’s belief in one’s capability to perform a specific task -Magnitude- level of task difficulty that a person believes he/she can attain; related to goal-setting -Strength- amount of confidence one has in one’s ability to perform -Generality – degree to which one’s expectations are generalized across many situations
Learned through enactive mastery, vicarious experience, verbal persuasion, and perceptions of one’s physiological state

Job Satisfaction - consists of the attitudes employees hold regarding factors in their work environment, particularly pay and benefits, characteristics of the job, supervision, fellow workers, and opportunities for advancement; tied to productivity -Absenteeism and Tardiness- withdrawal or avoidance behaviors -Turnover- caused by job dissatisfaction and favorable economic conditions; poor working conditions, poor communication, and limited opportunities for achievement

Learning Outcome: What does job satisfaction contribute to? What does job dissatisfaction contribute to? Productivity; absenteeism and tardiness

Discrimination and Prejudice -Three perceptual tendencies- visibility, contrast, assimilation -Prejudice- unreasonable bias associated with suspicion, intolerance, or an irrational dislike for people of a particular race religion and sex -Discrimination- basis of race, religion, or sex; occurs because of prejudice

Learning Outcome: What causes discrimination? Prejudice

LECTURE TOPICS TO CONSIDER Why did Dr. Cleavenger talk about crack and addictive drugs?
Positive, immediate, and certain rewards people will be compelled to repeat it; increase motivation in employees as a manager

Why are people compelled to use drugs?
Because of the rewards, people are compelled to repeat the action to get the same effect

Why did Dr. Cleavenger talk about counter-steering?
Steer away (opposite) from the direction you are going in; he thought he was leaning in the direction he was steering; there are a lot of things in a managers life that they will do right, like give rewards. Look for revelations of new things that you have never thought of before. Look at how the value of understanding why something works, just as much of your ability to do it that way

What was the point of Dr. Cleavanger talking about pilots and flight attendants?
They fly on the plane every day, and should know about the Bernoulli effect, wind speed, vectors, etc. We hold people responsible for increasing amounts of knowledge as they have a higher position and greater responsibility in their job.

How many minutes do typical managers spend on one given task? 7 min

Why did Dr. Cleavenger talk about sex? Where does it belong in Maslow's theory? Physiological; when needs are not met, motivation is increased

What theory was illustrated by the story of the workers in the vineyard? Equity Theory; we are fine with our rewards for our labors until we find a disparity in the output ratios compared to others

Supplemental Videos

Impression Management
Deference- extent to which your claims are believed

Life is like a house of cards, lie or do not seem genuine, then a card is taken from the bottom and the ‘relationship’ falls apart

Self-monitoring- observing listener’s reactions/behaviors

Dramaturgical analogy for life:
We are all actors, on a stage (environment), in a performance (role), before an audience

You are your own audience when you are alone

For Goffman, every individual/human soul is God.
Impression Management: Jones and Pitman in 1985; people deliberately present themselves in a certain way in order to compel people to see them in a certain way

Tactic | Desired identity Image | Example | Self-promotion | Competent | Show off awards/get credit | Ingratiation | Likeable | Humor/complements | Exemplification | Morally Worthy | David and Goliath; exemplars | Supplication | Helpless | | Intimidation | Feared | |

Self-promotion paradox: want to look good for a certain person; that person knows that you are making yourself look better

Appropriate Use * Company has the right to delete your private stuff * Companies are responsible for employee’s action

ABC’s of Behavior
Antecedent Behavior Consequence (reinforcement/ reward)

Applied Behavioral Analysis/ Performance Management

Reward with something that is valuable to the person; ask them what they like

Pinpointing- identifying specific behavior

Antecedent- something that precedes a behavior (ex. Fire alarm)