Man and Women

GLOBALIZATION, MIGRATION AND BRAIN DRAIN: THE EXPERIENCE OF OLABISI ONABANJO UNIVERSITY, NIGERIA BY SODEINDE OLAKUNLE OLUFEMI DEPARTMENT O SOCIOLOGY, OLABISI ONABANJO UNIVERSITY, OGUN STATE, NIGERIA ABSTRACT Globalization was considered as a modern instrument of easy flow of labour and capital without restriction across the globe. Its impacts on intellectual transferred from Olabisi Onabanjo University academic staff was the major focus of this research; with research scope between 1992 and 2000. The research made use of secondary data from office of Academic Staff union of University (O.O.U. Branch) and registrar office (establishment department), Olabisi Onabanjo University. Simple descriptive statistics was employed to analyse the collected data. Frequency and percentages were used for data analysis. From the research it was found out that there are two levels of brain: the internal and external brain drain. Internal brain drain, that is, movement from state owned university to other Federal Universities and private sector was caused by disparity in wages, salary and other fringe benefit as perceived by migrants. On the other hand, external brain drain as influenced by globalization was affected by the need for exposure to Western idea, availability of modern educational facilities for teaching and research, huge financial reward and conductive socio-economic and political atmosphere for intellectual to operate. Olabisi Onabanjo has been experiencing depletion and degradation of academic growth in alarming grate due to academic staff outflow within or outside the country, basically to seek greener pasture or enhanced condition of service.

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INTRODUCTION Globalization brings with it diversify faces of expression, thereby fails to embrace a precise and concise definition. Although it may be multi-variance concept, several analyses portray relevant assumptions that are embodied in global connectivity. The idea of globalization in recent usage refers to the interpenetrating and interdependency taking place among the multi-facet people with divert cultures due to technological innovations render the barriers of space, time, national borders and sovereignty ineffective and promote the intermingling of ideas and peoples in such a way that a sort of uniformity can be identified among the divert groups that occupy the global space (Kolawole, 2001). Giddens (1990:64) defines globalization as ‘the intensification of worldwide social relations which link distant localities in such a way that Local happenings are shaped by events occurring many miles away and vice versa”. Thus, globalization simply reflects a growing interdependency of the world society. The implication of such view of globalization as a process suggests the creation of a world society in which the image of nation-state and national identity may give way to world-wide social interaction. Globalization, then, could refer to a world in which societies, nation-state, economies, polities, and cultures have, to a certain degree, come together to form a global village. Furthermore, Appadurai (1990), in his essay “Disjunctive and Difference in the Global Cultural Economy” extensively detailed five frameworks under which idea of globalization could be discussed: (a) Finance, (b) technology (c) ideas (d) people (e) information. Although, Appadurai in his Eurocentric view heavily subsumed

globalization under economic idea, inclusion of ‘people’ and ‘information’ reveal how globalization could be an instrument of economic exploitation, cultural imperialism,

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flight of human resources to an established ‘ideal Euro-American society’, and under utilization of potentiality of un-integrated part of ‘uneven’ global development. From the above definitions and framework, globalization could be viewed from two different perspectives. The first view of globalization was used to refer to ‘timespace compression’. The idea is that, there is a close link with the development of new communication technologies. The invention of modern satellite television and information technology is the major intriguing factor that initiated recent information society. The perspective of globalization in this first context explains the interrelationship between local space and global space. The second usage of the concept globalization refers to incorporation of different people, culture, nation and society into one identifiable system. That is, integration of different parts of the world into a global system and each part being affected by what is happening elsewhere. It further explains the multiplicity linkages and interconnections between the states and societies, which make up the modern world system. The processes by which events, decisions, and activities in one part of the world can come to have significant consequences for individual and communities in quite distant parts of the globe (McGrew, 1992:262) However, both first and second explanations on the meaning of globalization are very much relevant to the understanding of uneven development process in global network. Moreso, the two combine to enhance depletion and exploitation of resources of underdeveloped nations in many forms. While globalization as a means of incorporating different units into united global system helps in imperialism process; second perspective

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of globalization as a time-space compression – aids in providing essential technological requirement to perpetually subdue opposing forces tactfully .

GLOBALIZATION AND LABOUR MIGRATION. The most concerned aspect of globalization on labour was first expressed by international labour organizations; how it (global network) could affect mobility of labour from one country to another without violating their fundamental labour right. In that wise, ILO on its part, examined the social dimensions of globalization, especially under the aegis of the ‘working group on the social dimensions of globalization and liberation of international trade’. Evidently, globalization of labour force into world markets has not provided equal economy development; rather, it has concentrated capital flows to the already developed and fast-developing countries. For instance, in early 1990s, over sixty percent of total foreign direct investments to developing countries went to less than a dozen of them. Similarly, developed countries accounted for over twothirds of total exports coming from third world countries (Sengenberger, 2000:XII) Less developed countries from early 19th century have been experiencing net immigration in the world labour movement. Examining from slavery era, it was estimated that 15 million slaves were transported from Africa to the Americas, and during the preceding century, of slavery abolition, more than 30 million people were moved as indentured workers (Appleyard, 1991). On the other hand, third world countries, no thanks to globalization, suffer not only human capital but in addition looting of natural and material resources in the course of integration of world into a global economy.

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International labour migration of unskilled labour is of less importance to political economic analysis, but movement of skilled workers or professionals is regarded in quite a different light. Indeed, most countries will be happy to welcome such people into their territories. Globalization, adding to this cadre and giving them more opportunities to capitalize on their skills by moving a new employer or, if they are employees of transnational corporation (TNC), by transferring between affiliates. Most professionals travel between rich countries, or from poor countries to rich, and as with unskilled workers, the main motivation for professional migrants will be to increase their income (Ong, Chang and Evans, 1992:557). For instance, in a developing country like Manilla, in 1991, a staff nurse would get only $146 per month, while s/he could earn around $500 in the Persian Gulf and $3,000 in the United States (Asia week 1991). Migration of professionals, however, is not only induced by salary disparities but also by the opportunities to develop their careers and keep abreast of their chosen field of knowledge. While it may be advantageous for the individuals involved, ‘brain-drain’ experience represents a considerable loss to countries that have invested in workers’ training and skill. Today, it is estimated that there are about one and half million skilled expatriates from developing countries in Western Europe, the United States, Japan, and Australia. Africa has probably been worst hit. Between 1985 and 1990, it is confirmed that Africa has lost 60,000 professionals and to have been losing 20,000 per year ever since (ACP-EU Courier, 1996: 59). Nigeria, for instance, has been on professional labour exports since independence. More than 40 per cent of Nigeria doctors are in Middle East, Europe and America (Gwandu, 1991).

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Globalization has not only brain drain as side effect; that is migration of intellectuals, professional and skilled labours out of their domain, and implies an

irreplaceable loss to the stock of highly skilled populations in the country of origin, the overall impact is hard to estimate. It also employs commodization of knowledge as modern instrument of retaining Euro-American knowledge in less developed countries. Uroh (2001) defines commodization of knowledge in Africa as “ a situation where the intellectuals works undertaken by African scholars are only processed for export to Europe in an exchange, which only impoverishes the process of knowledge accumulation by Africa”. Migration of professionals is often driven by considerations of personal or professional advancement, but it is also facilitated by the policies of receiving countries – which skew their immigration systems in favour of professional immigrants. The flow of professionals around the world has been intensified by the globalization of higher education. In 1993 an estimated 1.5 million students were studying overseas (Salt and Stein, 1997: 469). The highest numbers are coming from Asia and most of these are heading for the United States. Between the mid-1950s and the mid-1980s, the number of overseas students from south and East Asia increased from 10,000 to over 140,000 (ong, Chang and Evans, 1992:557). In 1990, 62 percent of engineering doctorates in the United States were given to foreign students, mainly Asian. The proportion was almost as high in a number of other fields, such as mathematics, computer science, and the physical sciences (Stalker, 2000: 109). By 1990 during the final review of the UN programme of Action for Africa’s Economic Recovery and Development (UNPAAERD), it was estimated that African countries had lost some 200,000 scientists, doctors and similar professionals to the North hemisphere since the 1980s. This is the alarming “brain drain” from Africa due to sharply reduced incomes since the depression from the 1980s, the foreign debt crisis, Structural

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Adjustment Programmes (SAPs), conflicts in the continent and internal repression (Onimode, 2002: 97). Onimode further comments that due to sharply reduced funding for education, especially for tertiary institutions (arising from distorted natural priorities) and serious attacks on academic freedom under authoritarian regimes, have also contributed to this massive brain drain from Africa. To what extent has brain drain been real in Nigeria? Studies by Okigbo (1990), the Oladapo (1988) and the interministerial committee (1974) have quantified the problem. In 1964/65, 85 Nigerians were trained under a scholarship scheme for university students and despite the fact that they were expected to return home on completion of the programme according to the terms of the award, only 18 actually returned (Okigbo, 1990). Oladapo (1988) in the analysis described as “very liberal” an estimate that there were 1,500 Nigerian physicians in Europe alone. They referred to another estimate, which showed that out of the 321 Nigerian physicians trained in most of the British medical schools during the period 1948-66, 249 left the country (presumably for Nigeria) while 72 remained. However, the duration of the stay of those who even actually left that country ranged between zero and 15 years. (Nye, 1997) It is generally appreciated that it is not the quantity of these ‘drawn away’ that matters but their quality. For instance, according to some United Nations data for 1967, of the 417 Nigerian immigrants admitted to the U.S between July 1963 and June 1967, 255 were with various occupations, 131 were professionals and technicians, 31 were engineers, 9 were physicians; while 34 were professional nurses (Aderinto, 1975). The quantity of those involved in brain drain may be low but the problem is relatively serious

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in terms of their quality. This seems to explain why the Oladapo agreed with the view that brain drain constituted a potentially serious problem for development even though the number of skilled Nigerians who were involved in the process was low at that time

EDUCATIONAL INVESTMENT AND BRAIN DRAIN IN AFRICA

International labour migration had has a primary consequence brain drain syndrome. It is not only limited to siphon off excess workers, but it can also deprive sending countries of people they actually need for their economic improvement. In such manner, sending countries of migrants will be at lost to economic growth and could also increase unemployment among unskilled workers at multiplier effect level. The aftermath of such movement may be actually unquantifiable due to multidimensional effects on individual and society at large. However, if measure from educational investment, report reveals that almost 90,000 professionals and highly skilled migrants who left developing countries for United States in 1990, has been calculated to represent a net loss in tertiary education and indirect societal advancement of nearly $7,400 each, or $642 million in total on the country of origin (Griffin and McKinley, 1994:50). Aside from the lost in educational investment, the impact of emigration on the economic production of the developing is more disastrous. Development of human resources serves a pre-requisite to economic growth and technical advancement as could be seen from economic growth of Asia Tiger countries. But Africa, on the contrary level is losing people she could make good use of. It has been estimated that between 1960 and 1987 Africa lost 70,000 of its highly skilled (30 percent of the stocked, mostly to the

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European union (Adepoju,1995:99) in the name of homogeneous global flow of human and technical resources. In a recent World Bank report on migration and remittances, it was clearly noticed that “One important implication of brain drain frequently mentioned in the case of Africa is that a part of the investment in education in the country of origin is not replaced once migrants leave. Consequently, a shortage of skills becomes evident, leading to the impossibility of ensuring economic growth. However, the aforementioned high level of enrollment in tertiary education and universities in most ECA countries may help offset this situation in the future” ( Mansoor and Quillin, 2007: 186) Since the majority of these migrants move on a permanent basis, this perverse ‘brain-drain’ not only represents a loss of valuable human resources but also could prove to be a serious constraint on the future economic growth of less developed nations like Nigeria. METHODOLOGY Setting The study was carried-out in Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago-Iwoye, Ogun State. The University has been in existence in the last twenty-five (25) years ago with over six (6) campuses all within Ogun State. The University is known to have attracted scholars from University of Ibadan, University of Lagos and Obafemi Awolowo University. The University has been found to have over 30, 000.00 students, in undergraduate Studies (both full-time and part-time). The post-graduate school of the university is also very attractive to graduate students within and outside the country as it has many students in thousand running one programme or the other.

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Instrument The data used for this study were based on secondary data obtained from the office of Academic Staff Union of Universities (ASUU, OOU) and Registrar Officer (Establishment department) of Olabisi Onabanjo University. The secondary data were based on Academic Staff outflow pattern between the period of 1992-2000.

Procedure This study was made easy through a number of contacts initially made with the ASUU Secretariat, Olabisi Onabanjo University chapter. The author of the study sought for information based on outflow of academic staff from the university for the period of 9 years. The permission was grated and the information of academic staff outflow of the university was provided between 1992-2000 periods.

Statistical Analysis Simple descriptive statistics was employed to analyse the collected data. Frequency and percentages were used for data analysis.

Results The outflow pattern of the Academic staff of the university is shows below between 1992 and 2000.

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Table 1:

Showing the outflow of Academic Staff by faculty in O.O.U Faculty Social Sciences Management Sciences Sciences Art College of Agric College of Medicine Law Education Number 15 23 40 25 8 4 12 6 133 % 11.3 17.3 30.1 18.8 6.0 3.0 9.0 4.5 100%

Source: Establishment Unit

The table 1 above showed the outflow pattern of Academic Staff by faculty. It was clearly revealed that 11.3% of the academic staff that had left the service of Olabisi Onabanjo University (OOU) between 1992-2000 were from the Faculty of Social Sciences; 17.3% were from the faculty of management sciences; 30.1% were from the faculty of Sciences. Further, 18.8% of the academic staff that have left were from faculty of Art; 6.0% were from college of Agriculture; 3.0% were from College of Medicine; 9.0% were from Faculty of Law while 4.5% of the academic staff that had left were Faculty of Education. This implies that greater proportion of professional that migrate out of Olabisi Onabanjo University were science based which collaborated the fact that most scientists in developed countries have high demand and incorporate in scientific research or employed in Research and Development (R & D) section.

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Table 2:

Showing the outflow of Academic Staff by Sex in O.O.U Sex Male Female Total Number 122 11 133 % 91.7 8.3 100%

Source: Establishment Unit

The table 2 above showed that 91.7% of the academic staff that had moved out the services of Olabisi Onabanjo University were males while only 8.3% of the academic staff that had move out of Olabisi Onabanjo University were females. This is clearly an indication that more males had moved out of Olabisi Onabanjo University. This might be has a result of larger proportion of male academics staff in Olabisi Onabanjo University compare to their female counterpart.

Table 3: Showing the outflow of Academic Staff who were Ph.D Holders and nonPh.D holder in O.O.U Sex Ph.D holders and above Non-Ph.D holders Total Source: Establishment Unit Number 34 99 133 % 25.6 74.34 100%

The table 3 above showed the outflow patterns based on Doctorate degree. It was shown that 25.6% of the academic staff that have left the services of Olabisi Onabanjo University were Ph.D holders while 74.4% were non-Ph.D holders. However, most of all non- Ph.d holders are running their Ph.d concurrently while still lecture within or outside the university. Comparatively, the number of Ph.D holders may be less than 30% of the staff outflow, still they constituted about one fourth of Ph.D holders in the university as at the time coverage of the research. This is threat to academic excellence, especially when

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it has been established by Nigeria University Commission that minimum academic qualification to teach in university is doctorate degree.

Table 4: Showing the different destinations of the Academic Staff that have left the University. Destination Private Sector Federal University and other Research Centres Abroad Personal Establishment Civil Service Other Total Source: Establishment Unit Number 49 23 39 2 5 3 133 % 36.8 26.3 29.3 1.5 3.8 2.3 100%

The table 4 above also reflected on the outflow patters of the academic staff based on different destinations they have all left to. It was revealed that 36.8% if of the academic staff had moved to private sector; 26.3% had moved to other local universities and research centers while 29.3% had moved abroad. In a further analysis, only 1.5% of the academic staff had moved into their personal establishments; 3.8% were found to have moved civil service jobs while 2.3% were revealed to have moved to other destinations not being specified in the study,. The table reveals that about 70% of outflow staff still engages in various activities within the country. Less than 30% travels abroad. From further information gather, it was reveals that most academia that indicate private sector did so to receive certain benefit from the university; they eventually travels out abroad after a while but there is no formal document to back such fact up.

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Discussion Analysis from the table above revealed that 133 staff left the university over a period of 8 years. This is disturbing to a university that was established in less than twenty year (1983 to 2000; considering scope of research analysis). On the establishment of OOU, it was based on international and world standard where lecturers in Nigeria could favourable compete and perform excellently if placed in any university within and outside the country. However, recent global campaign made a sharp revelation on the movement of lecturers and intelligentsia from Nigerian Universities to other developed countries universities on one hand, and from states universities on other hand. In essence, brain drain from this research is not limited to migration of intelligentsia to foreign countries or universities but exclusively involves academics staff outflow from state universities to federal and private universities to federal and private universities, research centers and private organization. From the table, using Olabisi Onabanjo University, as a case study about 30% of academic staff outflow were oversees destination. What this implies is that, due to discrepancy in salary structure as spearheaded by IMF/World bank Policy ( stalker, 2000 and ACP-EU, 1996), and easy flow of labour from one geographical location to another, Nigeria professionals move in large quantity to developed countries. Such movement was noticed as a new development in 1990s when the concept of global economy and global village were in used. Prior to this time, labour movement, especially, professionals intelligent was of low rampant in Nigeria. In OOU, this movement was not lonely limited to oversea outflow. Federal University with federal funding has a better chance of supply necessary equipment, salary payment and conductive environment for effective utilization of intellectual manpower resources available. Federal universities are seems to be better off then states because fund release by international organisation such IMF/World are mostly directed to the development of federal universities. This argumentr supported reason for high academic staff outflow from OOU between 1992-2000 to other universities (especially federal) within Nigeria which constituted above 26%. OOU with students over 30,000 could not

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boast of conductive academic atmosphere for students and lectures alike. Insufficient facilities and disparity in salary and other monuments might be some of the vital reason for Brain drain. This explanation buttresses the fact that migration of intellectuals from state and federal university is more of economic function. Push factors such as unfavourable government policy, inadequate equipment and facilities and influence of international government are responsible for movement of intellectuals into private sector. From the table 4 above, movement of intellectuals into private sector constituted almost 30%. Even among lecturers that fail to immigrate out of Nigeria for a better greener pasture had resulted into their private work leaving behind intellectual gap for less qualified personnel to disseminate knowledge for Nigeria students. While the world sees the 20th century as the century of science and technology and therefore tries to get ready to be involved fully in its affairs, our hope of getting meaningfully involved in those affairs is being diminished with every pull-out by our skilled professionals from our institutions of higher learning. In fact, whether this pull-out turns out to be internal or external brain drain is not the issue. The issue is that, on the whole, it must result in retarding our socio-economic development. On outflow of academic staff of Nigeria Universities, the research pointed out that, it is not only salary discrepancies that caused academic staff migration to western countries and other oil rich countries but the influence of globalization cannot be under estimated. In most cases, lecturers migrate due to influence of western world to acquire ‘brain’. It has also been established that globalization as used by western world to portray global village where there could be equality in global society was far reality. Globalization is an instrument of oppression of Third world countries by carting away their precious human resources (intellectuals) on the disguise of global village.

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Summary and conclusion This research has intensified its effort from the on set to explain impact of globalization on migration of intellectuals and professionals from Olabisi Onabanjo University, Nigeria to private organizations and western world. Specifically, the research looked into factors that are responsible for the migration of academic staff of Nigeria universities using available data from Olabisi Onabanjo University. The influence of globalization on migration intellectuals and professionals from university either internally (that is, from state universities to federal universities and private sector). On the internal brain drain of intellectuals, one major responsible factor is the disparity in fringe benefit and salary between state universities and federal universities while migration of professionals from university to private sector was mostly on the basis of low remuneration comparatively. External brain drain of academics staff which was basically influenced by global connection had its premises that weakness of local currency against international currency; desire for maximum utilization of intellectuals abilities of knowledge. Other contributing indices are inadequate government support programme and funding, poor financial reward for intellectual exercise and non availability conducive atmosphere for teaching and research. However, the consequence of brain drain is not must felt individuals involved; institution and country bears the lost. Olabisi Onabanjo University has been affected by intellectual migration. Between 1992-2000 almost 20% of the academic staff left the service and more that 25% of these intellectuals were PhD holders. This proves that depletion and degradation of academic growth is at alarming rate. Also, it has led to economic stagnancy and underutilization of natural and human resources in most sending countries. Nigeria has lost most of her professionals and her scientists to developed world through global connectivity while in return advanced countries has experienced BRAIN ACCUMULATION-unlimited growth in economic and educational system.

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REFERENCES Abubakar D. (2001) “Globalisation, Social Sciences and Nigeria in the 21st Century”. Newsletter of the Social Science Academy of Nigeria. Vol 4 no. 1 March. ACP-Eu Courier (1996) “Colossal Loss of Investments for Developing Countries,” No.159, September- October. Adepoju, A. (1995) “Migration in Africa: An Overview” in J. Baker and T. Aina (eds.), The Migration Experience in Africa. Uppsala, Sweden: Nordisk Afrikainstitutet. Appadurai, A. (1990) “Disjuncture and Difference in the Global Cultural Economy,” in M. Featherstone (eds.), Global Culture: Globalisation and Modernity. London: Sege. Nationalism,

Appleyard, R. (1991) “International Migration: Challenge for the Nineties”. Geneva: International organisation for Migration (IOM). Bhagwati, J., and M. Rao (1996) “The U.S. Brain Gain: At the Expense of Blacks?” Challenge, March. Citizenship and Immigration Canada (1997) “Staying the Course: Annual Immigration Plan” URL: http://www.cicnet.ci.gc.ca/english/pun/anrep97e.html. Cohen, R and Joly, D. (1989) “Migration and the Refugee Experience” In Kiely R. and P. Marfleet (eds.) Globalisation and the Third World. London: Routledge. Coleman, D. (1995) “International Migration: Demographic and Socioeconomic Consequences in the United Kingdom and Europe.” International migration Review 29, No. 1. Giddens, A. (1990) “The Consequences of Modernity”. Cambridge: Policy Press. Griffin, K., and T. Mckinley (1994) “A New Framework for Development Co-operation” Human Development Report Office, Occasional Papers, No. 11. New York: UNDP.

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Gwandu A. A. “Brain drain” proceedings of 14th Annual Seminar Report of Committee of Vice Chancellors of Nigerian Universities. March 6th and 7th 1991 Howard Gensler (1996)“The effect of Welfare on Migration on “Social Science research” A Quarterly journal of Social Science methodology and Quantitative Research. Vol 25, No. 3 Sept 1996, Orlando: Academic Press. Hurrel and Wood (1995) “Globalisation and Inefficacity”. In Millenium: journal of International Relations. Vol. 24, no. 3, pp. 471-487. ILO 1992. World Labour Report. Geneva. ILO. 1994. World Labour Report. Geneva. Kolawole, A.O. (2001) Globalisation, Americanisation and Western Liberalism: Between Imperialism and Communitarianism. In journal of Social Dynamics in Africa, Vol. 23, July, 2001. Migration News: Various Issues URL:http//www.migration.ucdavis.edu. Mansoor A. and Quillin B. (2007) Migration and Remittances: Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union. Washington, The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank press National Universities Commission “Meeting the Nations aspiration for future higher educational institutions” Reports, 1990. National Universities Commission

Nye, Joseph S. Jun., “Redefining the National Interest”, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 76, No. 5, September-October 1997, p. 26. OECD (Organisation of Economic Cooperation and Development ) 1994. The OECD Jobs Study: Evidence and Explanations, part 1. Paris, p. 4. Okigbo O.( 1990) “Management of University funds” National Universities Commission Report Oladapo I. O. “Emergence of State and Private Universities”. National Universities Commission Reports, 1988. 18

Ong, P., L. Cheng, and L. Evans (1992) “Migration of Highly Educated Asians and Global Dynamics” Asian and Pacific Migration journal, Nos. 3-4. Robert Blair and Josephine Jordan (1999) “staff loss and retention at selected African Universities”: A synthesis report, African Region, the World Bank, September, 1999, pp. 33-34. Rodney, W. (1992) “How Europe Underdeveloped Africa”, Washington, D.C. Howard University Press. Salt, J., and J. Stein (1997) “Migration as a Business: The Case of Trafficking.” International Migration 35, No. 4. Sengenberger Werner (2000) “Foreword” in Stalker, p. Workers Without Frontiers: The Impact of Globalisation on International migration. Colorado Lynne Rienner pp xi-xii. Staker P. (2000) Workers Without Frontiers: The Impact of Globalisation on International Migration, Colorado: Lyne Rienner. United Nations (1998a) Final report on UNPAAERD (UN Programme of Action for African Economic Recovery and Development), New York. Uroh C.O. (2001) “Globalisation and the Commoditisation of knowledge in Africa”. In Moluka E. and Le Roux E. (eds.) Africa in the New Millenium. Protoris: Africa Institute of South Africa, Pp 86-95. Waters, M. (1995) Globalisation, London: Routledge. Wattelar, C., and G. Roumains (1991) “Simulations of Demographic Objectives and Migration, “in Migration: The Demographic Aspects. Paris: OECD World Commission on Culture and Development (1995) Our Creative diversity. Paris: UNESCO.

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References: Abubakar D. (2001) “Globalisation, Social Sciences and Nigeria in the 21st Century”. Newsletter of the Social Science Academy of Nigeria. Vol 4 no. 1 March. ACP-Eu Courier (1996) “Colossal Loss of Investments for Developing Countries,” No.159, September- October. Adepoju, A. (1995) “Migration in Africa: An Overview” in J. Baker and T. Aina (eds.), The Migration Experience in Africa. Uppsala, Sweden: Nordisk Afrikainstitutet. Appadurai, A. (1990) “Disjuncture and Difference in the Global Cultural Economy,” in M. Featherstone (eds.), Global Culture: Globalisation and Modernity. London: Sege. Nationalism, Appleyard, R. (1991) “International Migration: Challenge for the Nineties”. Geneva: International organisation for Migration (IOM). Bhagwati, J., and M. Rao (1996) “The U.S. Brain Gain: At the Expense of Blacks?” Challenge, March. Citizenship and Immigration Canada (1997) “Staying the Course: Annual Immigration Plan” URL: http://www.cicnet.ci.gc.ca/english/pun/anrep97e.html. Cohen, R and Joly, D. (1989) “Migration and the Refugee Experience” In Kiely R. and P. Marfleet (eds.) Globalisation and the Third World. London: Routledge. Coleman, D. (1995) “International Migration: Demographic and Socioeconomic Consequences in the United Kingdom and Europe.” International migration Review 29, No. 1. Giddens, A. (1990) “The Consequences of Modernity”. Cambridge: Policy Press. Griffin, K., and T. Mckinley (1994) “A New Framework for Development Co-operation” Human Development Report Office, Occasional Papers, No. 11. New York: UNDP. 17 Gwandu A. A. “Brain drain” proceedings of 14th Annual Seminar Report of Committee of Vice Chancellors of Nigerian Universities. March 6th and 7th 1991 Howard Gensler (1996)“The effect of Welfare on Migration on “Social Science research” A Quarterly journal of Social Science methodology and Quantitative Research. Vol 25, No. 3 Sept 1996, Orlando: Academic Press. Hurrel and Wood (1995) “Globalisation and Inefficacity”. In Millenium: journal of International Relations. Vol. 24, no. 3, pp. 471-487. ILO 1992. World Labour Report. Geneva. ILO. 1994. World Labour Report. Geneva. Kolawole, A.O. (2001) Globalisation, Americanisation and Western Liberalism: Between Imperialism and Communitarianism. In journal of Social Dynamics in Africa, Vol. 23, July, 2001. Migration News: Various Issues URL:http//www.migration.ucdavis.edu. Mansoor A. and Quillin B. (2007) Migration and Remittances: Eastern Europe and the Former Soviet Union. Washington, The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank press National Universities Commission “Meeting the Nations aspiration for future higher educational institutions” Reports, 1990. National Universities Commission Nye, Joseph S. Jun., “Redefining the National Interest”, Foreign Affairs, Vol. 76, No. 5, September-October 1997, p. 26. OECD (Organisation of Economic Cooperation and Development ) 1994. The OECD Jobs Study: Evidence and Explanations, part 1. Paris, p. 4. Okigbo O.( 1990) “Management of University funds” National Universities Commission Report Oladapo I. O. “Emergence of State and Private Universities”. National Universities Commission Reports, 1988. 18 Ong, P., L. Cheng, and L. Evans (1992) “Migration of Highly Educated Asians and Global Dynamics” Asian and Pacific Migration journal, Nos. 3-4. Robert Blair and Josephine Jordan (1999) “staff loss and retention at selected African Universities”: A synthesis report, African Region, the World Bank, September, 1999, pp. 33-34. Rodney, W. (1992) “How Europe Underdeveloped Africa”, Washington, D.C. Howard University Press. Salt, J., and J. Stein (1997) “Migration as a Business: The Case of Trafficking.” International Migration 35, No. 4. Sengenberger Werner (2000) “Foreword” in Stalker, p. Workers Without Frontiers: The Impact of Globalisation on International migration. Colorado Lynne Rienner pp xi-xii. Staker P. (2000) Workers Without Frontiers: The Impact of Globalisation on International Migration, Colorado: Lyne Rienner. United Nations (1998a) Final report on UNPAAERD (UN Programme of Action for African Economic Recovery and Development), New York. Uroh C.O. (2001) “Globalisation and the Commoditisation of knowledge in Africa”. In Moluka E. and Le Roux E. (eds.) Africa in the New Millenium. Protoris: Africa Institute of South Africa, Pp 86-95. Waters, M. (1995) Globalisation, London: Routledge. Wattelar, C., and G. Roumains (1991) “Simulations of Demographic Objectives and Migration, “in Migration: The Demographic Aspects. Paris: OECD World Commission on Culture and Development (1995) Our Creative diversity. Paris: UNESCO. 19