Oral Communication
Written Communication
3. WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
3.1 THE WRITTEN WORD
3.1.1 Written Compared with Oral Communication
Written correspondence within or between organizations may take
many forms. The crucial difference between oral and written
communications will be the importance attributed to each. Oral
communication will be the basis for almost all negotiations,
liaison, team briefings and project management, but written
communication will be viewed as an endorsement of oral
statements, as having a permanence and contractual status.
Written communication can be used as evidence of previous
discussions and arrangements. It provides the history of a project
or collaboration. It justifies an activity and provides back-up and
proof.
E.g.: Written communication in an organisation is usually
considered to be more conclusive and binding compared to oral
communication.
We attach an enormously high value to written text. Once written
down, words are themselves pinned down, selected, representative,
deliberate, permanent and important in their own right in a way
that effective oral communication can never be.
If we consider graffiti, for example, it has a real permanence that a
joke or throw-away comment could never have. Words are
tangible, independent of their authors. We pay more attention to
even poorly expressed words in textual form than we would ever
give if they were spoken to us. The act of writing renders words
“true”. It is no wonder that copyright law and libel are major
issues of our time.
Written text makes information immediately available to an almost
unlimited audience simply by dint of reproduction. Photocopying
or printing processes can bring news media into our homes every
day which can be referred to again and again.
Whereas oral communication needs to be succinct and clear of
purpose, written communication has the scope to elaborate, to
justify and to manipulate information deliberately into particular
phrases to that many versions are available. When we write to
confirm arrangements, we have an opportunity to rephrase and
reinterpret meetings or oral communications in a way which we
feel is most suitable. There is a distance between the act of
speaking and the act of writing.
Similarly, in responding to oral communications we have been
influenced by body language, tone and appearance of the speaker,
and may not remember all the words spoken but gain an overall
impression of the success of the communication and have noted the
key points. A written communication is benefit of those
interpersonal skills and allows us to judge and interpret the actual
words in order to make a considered response.
3.1.2 Purpose of Written Communications
We use written communications most frequently to:
• Summarise key issues.
• Invite a response.
• Respond to other written/ oral communications.
• Establish a formal basis for the communication.
• Record the process of the communication.
• Provide a source of historical data.
• Express corporate strategy and ideology.
• Lend credibility to our utterances.
• Indicate our intent that the communication be viewed as
relevant/important.
• Access a wider audience.
• Ensure the accuracy of the message to all parties concerned.
• Share goals, visions, understanding.
• Present information/data independently of interpersonal skills.
3.1.3 Forms of Written Communication
There is a whole range of formats where information is written
down:
• Memoranda
• Letters
• Notes
• Magazine and newspaper articles
• Instruction
• Labeling
• Databases
• Books
• Directories ( including telephone directories )
• Pamphlets
• Wills and legal documents
• Company literature
• Postcards
• Signs
• Briefs
• Reports
• Business plans
There is a notion of “inter-textuality” where behind every text is
another text and that there is no such thing as an original word or
article or idea as everything has already been phrased in some way
before.
Certainly every time you write a report, letter, make notes or send
a memo you will have made reference to pervious written
correspondence.
For the purpose of written communications within the business
context, the forms that you need to make best use of are:
(a) Letters
(b) Memoranda (plus notes);
(c) Briefs; and
(d) Reports.
As letters, memos and briefs are the most frequent form of written
correspondence/communication within or between organizations,
we shall start by examining these formats.
3.2 GENERAL APPROACH TO BUSINESS
CORRESPONDENCE
In the next two sections we will concentrate on the design,
implementation and evaluation of business correspondence or,
more simply:
• What information should be included?
• How should it be presented most effectively?
• What is the purpose of the communication?
• Who else needs access to it?
• When should it be sent?
• How should it be sent?
• What type of response do we expect?
• What is the most appropriate format?
3.2.1 Letters – First Impressions
A letter is much more than the text it contains. It is a physical
document and will be judged by the recipient as such.
It is worth first considering the actuality or physicality of a letter.
What is it? Usually, sheets of paper presented within a paper or
card envelope. Note the following, however:
(a) Paper Quality
The weight, colour and texture of the paper used will make a
statement about the person or organization that sent the letter and
how they view the recipient. For example, poor quality, dirty or
even coloured paper will reflect a lack of interest in, or
commitment to, the correspondence. Is it folded to fit the envelope
or does it appear to be shoved in?
(b) Envelope
• Does the envelope match the letter?
• Does it have window?
• Was it franked or stamped?
• Is the sender’s address printed on the back of the envelope?
Bills and invoices are more likely to arrive in envelopes with the
sender’s address on the Reverse.
incorrectly folded.
(c) Logos and Corporate Image
Is the company logo represented on the letter and envelope?
(d) Typeface
• Is the typeface easy to read?
• Is the letter hand-written?
• Is the signature hand-written?
(e) General Impressions
• Does the letter appear to be one of thousands?
• Is it correctly addressed?
• Are names and places spelt correctly?
• What is the postmark?
• Was the letter sent first – or second – class?
• Is the envelope addressed in the appropriate language for the
recipient?
3.2.2 Purpose of Letters
In what circumstances are letters most used as a form of business
correspondence? I would suggest that they are used for:
• External communications
• Introductions/prospecting to new clients or potential clients
• Describing the purpose of other enclosures within the
correspondence such as product launches, dinner/function
invitations, relevant media articles, questionnaires
• Responding to complaints
• Summarising key or salient points made at a previous meeting
• Arranging future meetings, perhaps including possible agendas
• Updating or mini progress reports
• Job applications
Written Communication
3.2.5 Sending a Fax
Modern technology allows us to communicate world-wide in a
matter of minutes either by telephone or fax. The quality of fax
paper can be the determining factor as to its reception and may
lead to faxes being used selectively.
Activity:
What are advantages and disadvantages of using fax in business
correspondence?
For example, even if your fax machine can reproduce colour logos
and uses letter quality paper, the recipients of your faxes may not
have such machines. What they receive may be a blurred logo and
complicated document or important letter on shiny, flimsy fax
paper.
Activity:
Is there an advantage mailing the letter after faxing it to the
recipient?
Written Communication
If faxes are to be as effective as letters/posted or hand-delivered
written communications, then the following points are worth
considering:
(a) Is your logo/letterhead fax-friendly, i.e. will it reproduce
well in black and white?
(b) Do you ensure that you send your faxes on headed paper
and continuation sheets?
(c) Do you number all pages of the correspondence?
(d) Is your fax number clearly printed on your letterhead?
(e) Have you “blocked” the correspondence so that all text
will be faxed and you won’t lose the top/bottom or words
on the right or left?
Try to leave at least 1.5 cm margin around the entire text
on each page.
(f) How urgent is the correspondence? Would it be better to
send a good copy by post or even to hand-deliver it?
(g) Keep your copy:
o As a record of the correspondence as you would all
other correspondence; and
o For amendments over the telephone which can occur
in design briefs, advertising layout, job descriptions
and presentation details.
(h) Remember that it’s impossible to make notes or
corrections on the flimsy fax paper – you have to go to
the trouble of photocopying it first onto better quality
paper or rewriting/typing.
o Is it cost-effective to send a 40-page brief by fax?
o A fax is excellent in the following circumstances:
o For confirmation of details/booking/orders.
o As an external memo system.
o To send initial drafts or proposals.
o As an immediate written response to an external
request for data.
Activity:
Under what circumstances is it best to send information by fax?
3.2.6 Keep It Straightforward and Simple (KISS)
E.g.: A letter of complaint does not have to be worded harshly as it
may backfire or even not responded to. The objective of a
complain letter to get a positive response which will benefit you.
Dealing with written correspondence is often an underrated
function in organisations; yet in a marketing-oriented organization
it is recognized as crucial for effective and ongoing relationships
with actual and potential customers.
Marketing correspondence is not just about carefully phrased mail
shots or sales literature, but what responses are made to customers.
Letters of praise are wonderful to receive and may require an
acknowledgement to the sender and careful internal
communications to those praised and those not praised. Letters of
enquiry or complaint need to be dealt with even more sensitively
and should reflect internal communication procedures for dealing
with all information received by the organization.
3.3.3 Dealing with Complaints
(Note that we are considering the text, not layout, in these
instances. Obviously these would be produced on appropriate
letterheads.)
27 June 20.
Dear Mr. Green,
Re: telephone conversation Wednesday 24 June 19…-non-delivery of Wardrobe
It would seem that you have been unable to trace my wardrobe in your warehouse as
a further three days have elapsed since our last telephone conversation and my
wardrobe has not arrived.
I have now waited for six weeks and frankly, was it not for the fact that it forms part
of a fully fitted (matching) bedroom, would have preferred to cancel my order.
At this stage I would like a guaranteed date of delivery and recompense for the inconvenience
you have caused me. I have had to take three days’ holiday to date to
wait delivery of the aforesaid wardrobe.
I would appreciate your earliest attention to this matter.
Yours sincerely,
Mrs. J. Brown
(b) Response
28 June 20…
Dear Mrs. Brown,
Thank you for your letter dated 27 June 20...
Your wardrobe will, I’m happy to say, be delivered on Tuesday 7 July
20... At 10.00 a.m. Unfortunately there was a design fault and the
manufacturers recalled all existing wardrobes until this fault could be
rectified.
I enclose a gift voucher for Lbs.30 for use in any of our stores.
Please don’t hesitate to contact me should you require more information.
Yours sincerely,
Mr. W. Green
Activity:
Based on the response letter, analyse the suitability of the text.
3.3.4 Letters of Application – Standard Format
Activity:
In a letter of application, what are the various elements to be
included?
letter of application should:
(a) Be correctly addressed, dated, etc.
(b) Acknowledge the source of the advertisement.
(c) Make a formal application statement and refer to relevant
enclosures (e.g. curriculum vitae, application form).
(d) Link the advertised position with your own current
position and aspirations.
Activity:
Assuming you are applying for a job, come up with the
introductory paragraph of the letter?
If the letter is in place of an application form, and you have been
sent a detailed job description, answer the points in the job
description in turn, showing how you are the appropriate
candidates for this position.
If it is a covering letter, outline your experience, qualifications and
personal qualities which you feel appropriate for the position.
Finally, indicate your availability for interview.
3.3.5 Internal Communications – Memoranda
(a) Formats
Memoranda do not require an inside address, salutation, such as
“Dear Bill”, or a complimentary close, such as “Yours sincerely”.
The format using To, From, and Date is standard but the order in
which these items appear can vary. A reference (Ref) or subject
heading may not always be used. Although organizations often
have pre-printed memoranda stationery, you should remember to
us the MEMORANDUM heading for any memo that you draft for
examination purposes.
Memoranda should not be long and should be written in a concise
style. Ideally they should relate to one topic only
Here is an example of a memorandum sent to staff in one company
located on two different sites.
MILESTONE MARKETING MEMORANDUM
To : All Staff
From: Chris Weber
Managing Director
Date: 19 May 199.
Subject: Fire Drill Procedure
Last week’s fire drill was not carried out successfully. In fact many staff ignored it
and carried on with their work.
The correct procedure must be adhered to and any member of staff who does not
comply with this instruction will be disciplined.
Not only is it a legal requirement that all organizations carry out regular fire drills, but
it is also an essential safety procedure organized to ensure the safety of staff in the
event of fire.
The next fire drill will take place on Monday 20 June and on hearing the continuous
bell staff must:
(a) Stop work immediately.
(b) Close all windows and the last person leaving a work area should close doors as
they vacate the area.
(c) Leave the building quickly and calmly through the nearest fire exit.
(d) Not use the lifts.
(e) Congregate at the designated meeting points outside the building.
It is imperative that all employees follow these instructions and familiarize themselves
with the fire procedure notices in their section which identify fire exits and meeting
points.
(b) Purpose
Memos are ideal for interdepartmental correspondence where a
formal response needs to be noted and acted upon.
Usually they are requests for information required in a short time
period, or may issue orders or changes in procedures.
As a formal channel, it is perfectly acceptable to refer to memos,
dated such and such, regarding such and such a matter, in other
forms of correspondence.
They must always include the date sent, name(s) of the
recipient(s), the sender's name, the purpose of the memo and action
required.
3.4 REPORTS AND REPORTING
3.4.1 The Reporting System
E.g.: Report can be short and brief like the minutes of a meeting or
an executive summary of a proposal.
Much internal business communication will be characterized by its
reporting procedures as determined by the channels within the
organisation and the type of organizational structure used.
Activity:
What is the use of a business report?
Every employee will have to report to someone whether it is:
• A section head
• A department head
• A senior manager
• A colleague
• An auditor
There are also occasions requiring reporting such as:
• Team briefings
• Presentations
• Meetings with shareholders, directors or the chief executive
The business report is the document used for the formal
dissemination of specialist, researched information.
The commission and production of reports is crucial to the
achievement of the objectives which organizations set themselves.
Reports are likely to reflect issues, which affect personnel, finance,
production, marketing, managing the business or external political
or economic factors which could determine changes for running
the business effectively.
Not all reports arrive on your desk the size of the Yellow Pages
and just as interesting. The success of a report is reliant on the
report writer being given a clear remit and brief for the context and
content.
There has to be an agreed process for the dissemination and
evaluation of the report once it has been written. There must be an
evaluatory mechanism for dealing with any recommendations
which are made.
Reports are not always written – sometimes brief oral reports or
summaries of meetings are all that is required as the reporting
mechanism.
3.4.3 Business Report Formats
The usual format of a business report is as set out Figure 3.3.
following.
For very lengthy reports, an executive summary may be circulated
with the report, prior to the report or as an alternative to the final
report. It is often the basis for an oral presentation of the report
and allows for discussion as to its main features and
recommendations rather then wading through every page. The
executive summary would contain an outline only of the following
elements: E.g.: The audience of an executive summary are usually
top level managers and decision makers, hence the language,
content and the length of the summary has to be customised based
on the interest of the reader. The executive summary could make
or break the purpose of the business report.
• title, author and aims of the report;
• methodology and findings;
• main recommendations.
Activity:
What would be the content of an executive summary?
A short formal report is usually three-part and probably no longer
than 20 pages. It will include:
• Introduction – aims, objectives, background.
• Findings – sources.
Conclusions and recommendations.
Activity:
When would the general format of a business report?
(Introduction)
1. Title.
2. Author (name, title, status as necessary).
3. Identity of the person who commissioned the report.
4. Date report presented.
(The date it is commissioned or the date it was actually completed will not be the
same as the published or presented date. A report “comes into being” on its
presentation as live document. Prior to that date it is a draft or work in progress.)
5. Acknowledgements.
6. Table of contents, pagination.
7. Status, e.g. confidential.
(Main Body of Report)
1. Background/history/introduction/terms of reference/aims and objectives.
2. Methodology/procedure.
3. Findings, statistical data, etc.
4. Conclusions.
5. Key summary.
6. Recommendations.
7. Footnotes (if appropriate).
8. Appendices (including copies of questionnaires, standard letters, etc.)
9. Index.
10. Bibliography.
11. Circulation list (this may also appear at the end of the Introduction section
depending on the status of the report).
(b) Memorandum Report
Written Communication
MEMORANDUM
To:
Lisa Edwards
Personnel Manager
From:
Hilary Humphries
Personnel Administrator
Date: 19 October 200X.
Ref NR/BL
Subject: Pilot Flexi-time System
The following observations were made with regard to the flexi-time system
which was piloted over the last three months.
Use of the System
(a) Most staff has taken advantage of the flexi-time system during the last three
months.
(b) None of the staff using the system exceeded their limit of days owing.
Implications of the System
(a) The rules relating to the core time have meant that neither customers nor
the general flow of work has been disrupted in any way.
(b) Staff morale has improved due to the flexibility of the system. There has
been a significant decrease in absences amongst staff during the period of the
pilot scheme.
(c)The administration of the system has involved more work for Mrs.
Graves in the administration section than was originally planned.
4. ORAL COMMUNICATION
4.1 ORGANISING A PRESENTATION
We shall, in this first section of the unit, assume your role is as the
organizer, co-coordinator, facilitator or conveyor of a presentation.
Thus, a deliberate distinction is drawn between the roles of
organizer and presenter, because you need to be aware of the
different communication skills applied in each context. Although
sometimes organizers of presentations may also be requested to be
active participants in the presentation itself, the majority of
presentations are more effective if this does not occur. A presenter
does not or should not need to worry about the arrangements
surrounding a presentation, and an organizer does not or should not
need to worry about making an effective presentation.
The organizer is the only person who can have an effective
overview of the success of the proceedings and implement minor
adjustments as necessary. Similarly, the organizer is the best
person to evaluate the presentation untrammeled by concerns as to
his or her performance.
4.1.1. Organization and Planning
Whatever the context or proposed content of your presentation, it
will require careful planning. All of the following elements will
form part of the planning process – some will run sequentially,
others concurrently, so you may well be arranging speakers at the
same time as booking the venue.
Activity:
What is the role of a) organiser b) presenter?
(a) Preliminary considerations
• What is your status as an organizer (e.g. total control, reporting
to superiors, reporting to presentation team)? What sort of
organization are you working for?
• What type of presentation are you organizing? Is it fee-paying,
paid for, part of an existing public relations calendar, a meeting,
a conference, a seminar?
• By whom and how will the objectives be set? What are they?
Who determines the budget? Who reports to whom?
E.g.: An organizer is usually a support staff such as a secretary or
assistant manager. The presenter is usually a person of authority on
the subject matter.
(b) Work before the event
• Attend all necessary team briefings and meetings.
• Make up a file summarizing all the activities you will need to
organize, who your contacts are, time-scale, and deadlines and
budgeting.
• Check that you understand the requirements of your audience.
Who are they? Where are they?
Oral Communication
• Location:
Book the venue according to the requirements and budget.
Confirm the arrangements.
Check whether there are any potential sponsorship/advertising
opportunities.
Check the travel arrangements.
• Arrange speakers.
• Invite the audience.
• Special arrangements for the day itself.
Floral displays.
Audio–visual aids.
Music.
Lighting.
Sponsorship.
Food and refreshments.
Media coverage.
Press release.
Advertise event in relevant medium/media.
Access and cloakroom facilities.
Arrange supporting material/presentation packs.
Arrange signs, name badges.
Caretaking.
• Discuss potential follow-up activities at team briefings and
make arrangements.
Oral Communication
(b) At the presentation
• Meet/greet the speakers and audience.
• Double-check all previous arrangements.
• Keep a time check on the speakers.
• Liaise with catering staff.
• Remain a point of contact for all speakers and audience
members to deal with any eventuality.
• Distribute supporting material/presentation packs.
• Arrange photocopying facilities for speakers’ material in case
copies are required.
(c) Work after the event
• Ensure all parties have been paid, invoices received, etc.
• Circulate any necessary follow-up documentation to
participants (this may include evaluation questionnaires).
Thank speakers and participants for attending, etc.
• Present the final budget sheet.
• Attend post-presentation briefing and report back to teams as
necessary.
• Throughout the planning process and then, subsequently, keep
the internal market aware of the purpose of the event, its
success and the future implications (if any) for the organization.
It is important to be aware of a number of general principles about
presentations as these affect the approach to their organization.
For example, you can safely assume that you have
interesting/relevant information which needs to be communicated
to others, and that the communication will be pat of a formal
process (internally or externally).
However, there are a number of important points about
presentations which you cannot assume and which must, therefore,
be specifically addressed in the organization and planning leading
up to the event.
• All presentations are of a standard length.
• All presentations are directed at an audience of five people.
• All presentations take place externally.
• All presentations require sophisticated audio and visual aids.
• All presentations are successful.
• All presenters are equally prepared/skilled at presenting.
• Your material speaks for itself.
• Your personalities, choice of language and style have no
bearing on the effectiveness of your presentation.
• The audience is eagerly awaiting your every word.
• You have an unlimited budget.
• All presentations take place in exclusive hotel conference
suites.
• You are, or you superior is, the best person to make the
presentation.
• You have the support of your internal market.
• Advertisers and sponsors will be falling over themselves to
participate.
Finally, we can note a number of points about which you can be
certain and which, again, you will need to address in the
organization and planning.
• Presentations make use of a wide variety of communication
skills.
• No two presentations will be the same.
• Individual style has a tremendous influence on the reception of
a presentation.
• Organising presentations is extremely hard work!
4.2 PRESENTATIONAL SKILLS
Presenting information, proposals or ideas to someone else should
be easy. After all, you just need to talk to them, reach agreement
and take appropriate action. If only it were that simple! AS you
have seen from previous study units, there are many barriers to
effective communication and the most important one is ourselves.
Too often we assume that because we understand the
importance/relevance of our plans or proposals, then so does
everyone else. We forget to introduce the stages or processes of
our thinking, which would illustrate how we reached the
conclusions we are presenting. We get bogged down in a mass of
detail which disguises the simplicity of an idea.
Sometimes we are overawed by our audience, or lack commitment
in our ideas or judgement.
Activity:
What is the criterion in choosing an effective presenter?
Oral Communication
In order to present ourselves and our information effectively, we
need to show evidence of what might be termed the 6 Ps of
presentation:
• Planning
• Purpose
• Political sensitivity
• Personal commitment
• Personal commitment
• Personal communication skills (ability to persuade)
• Polish
We shall examine these in detail later, but first we shall look at
some of the key elements of making a presentation and the
different demands of different types of presentation.
4.2.1 Key Presentational Elements
The main elements which make up an effective presentation may
be summarized as in the list below. You should consider this as a
checklist to be directly and carefully addressed when planning the
delivery of any presentation.
• Understanding the difference between written and spoken
communications
• Oral communication skills (style, delivery, rapport)
• Using non-verbal techniques
Oral Communication
• Understanding your audience’s requirements
• The ability to interact with an audience
• Preparation and planning
• Knowing your subject
• Presenting enough, but not too much, information/data
• Careful selection of information/data
• Summarizing salient points
• Using appropriate visual aids
• Timing
• Reflecting corporate objectives accurately.
• Working in a team with other presenters, presentation
organizers and/or senior management.
We shall be concerned, in the following part of this section, with
illustrating these skills and how you can make your presentations
more effective by paying particular attention to them.
4.2.2 Types of Presentation
Not only does the size of the audience, the subject matter, timescale
or location vary from presentation to presentation, but also
the purpose – which determines those factors – will vary
enormously. The key to making a successful presentation is
understanding this context and you need to ask yourself:
• What is the purpose?
• Who is it for?
• What is my role in this?
• Who are the audience?
• How will it be judged? By whom?
• Are there any specific requirements/criteria which have to be
met?
4.2.3 The 6 Ps of Presentations
(a) Planning
Being well prepared for a presentation affects how the audience
perceives you and your organization, and how confident you feel
about your presentation. It will result in your using any technical
equipment more effectively and in your being able to react quickly
and accurately to any questions posed by the audience. Presenters
who apparently “think on their feet” and engage in an almost social
interaction with their audience, usually do so as a result of very
careful and detailed planning.
So, what are the elements of a presentation which you are giving
that require planning?
• Background
You will need to know the location, the timing, the running order,
and the position from which you will be presenting (e.g. on a stage,
in a meeting room, etc.). What technical equipment will be
available to you? Who will be co-coordinating the presentation
should you require additional assistance? Who are the other
presenters? What are their subjects? Who are their audience?
Why and how have they been selected? What is your role, status
and what is expected of your in this context?
• Personal Preparation
Is it necessary to adopt a particular dress code?
Are you physically prepared with relevant data as well as spare
pens, etc.?
Do you need to rehearse in the chosen location to maximize your
impact and to feel comfortable with your surroundings?
• The Presentation Itself
Does your argument follow a logical sequence?
Is the language clear enough and appropriate for your audience?
Have you researched all your data/information thoroughly? Are
your “facts” facts or fiction?
Have you timed the length of your presentation?
Will your presentation be lively and varied or delivered in a dull
monotone?
Will you make reference to the audience? (Ask questions, allow
questions.)
Do you understand what you are presenting?
Have you considered all the potential implications or perceptions
that there may be to your material? This will ensure that you can
respond to any criticism or query adequately as opposed to
defensively.
Are any visual aids produced easily visible, relevant and properly
produced?
Check who will be available to offer technical support if necessary.
The planning should allow you to take control of your
presentation. In fact, you can even set the scene by preparing
information about yourself and your presentation, with which the
co-coordinator can introduce you.
(b) Purpose
The first element of the planning stage is concerned with
identifying the purpose of the presentation being given and your
role in fulfilling that purpose.
Clearly the purpose varies from presentation to presentation, but
some presentations are for the benefit of internal audiences and
others for external audiences. In every case they are a medium for
corporate strategy, objectives or ideas to be revealed, discussed
and communicated .
(c) Political Sensitivity
Why political sensitivity? Quite simply, presenters need to be
aware of the potential impact and ramifications of the content of
their presentations. Some issues are of political sensitivity in the
largest sense (e.g. nuclear waste, closing hospitals or schools). In
other instances there could be internal politics which need to be
considered (e.g. reallocating workloads from one department to
another). There include:
• Political presentations which represent local or national politics
(e.g. party conferences, union meetings, local government
meetings).
• Presentations which are politically sensitive and need to take
account of legislation or political change in the external sense
(e.g. new processes for food production, chemical emissions,
education).
• Presentations which in their planning and execution need to
reflect sensitivity to internal political issues.
(d) Personal Commitment
If a presenter has no interest in the planning, writing or presenting
of the material then the presentation will be a disaster.
However, too great a commitment to the subject matter may result
in an inability to see the potential pitfalls or problems, and cause
the presentation to be seen as overzealous and of the preaching
type.
Too great a personal involvement in the presentation and your role
can result in an excess of nerves and over planning which destroys
the impact of the presentation.
Your commitment should be to extensive and relevant preparation,
professional delivery and your own sanity!
(e) Personal Communication Skills
It is extremely important to be able to establish a rapport with your
audience and fellow presenters. Obviously you can’t retain eye
contact with a hundred people, but you can make sure that your
physical appearance, body language and style of presentation
contribute to, rather than detract from, what you are trying to
communicate.
The following tips may come in useful:
• Wear clothes which are smart (and clean) in which you feel
comfortable. Avoid being fussily dressed or too formal.
• Try to control your nerves and the general nervous “tics” which
we all have – fiddling with pens, scratching, etc.
• Use the space you have available to you; move around it so that
the audience have to follow you and stay attentive.
• Look directly at your audience, not at your notes, the floor or
the ceiling. This is actually easier with a large audience. As
before, if you are not comfortable looking people in the eye,
look at the space between their eyebrows. This gives the
appearance that you are looking directly at them.
(f) Polish
This is the most difficult element to achieve; it rarely comes
naturally and is usually a result of practice, rehearsal and
experience. A truly polished presenter can attain professionalism
with friendliness. Don’t mistake being polished for being slick or
over-rehearsed. (“it sounds like he’s said this a million times
before.”)
Even if you have to give the same information to a variety of
audiences, vary your presentation. Remember to present the
identified benefits to each particular audience. Avoid clumsy
phrasing, jargon or rambling.
It’s worth looking at news bulletins to see how professional
presenters use their material and respond to the unexpected. Live
morning shows are an even greater test of presenters and reflect
polish to varying degrees. E.g.: Knowing and understanding the
subject matter and all its issues is one key aspect of being polished.
4.2.11 Non-verbal Communication
Body language is very important in delivering presentation, as this
conditions the rapport you establish with the audience. You need
to adopt an open stance and style which engages with the audience,
rather than distances you from them. You also need, as far as
nerves may permit, to be as natural as possible.
Depending on the particular situation (formality, size of audience,
size of room, etc.), you may be able to make a decision about
whether you should stand or sit to make your presentation.
Whichever way you do it, do not hide yourself away behind a desk
or lectern, or feel that you have to retain the same stance and
remain motionless throughout the session – a certain amount of
movement will be more natural. For example, if you are using a
lectern, it is quite acceptable to move away from it, and indeed,
such movement may help to engage the audience.
If you are the sort of person who would naturally use your hands as
you express yourself, feel free to do so, but beware of overexpansive
gestures, as this will detract from what you are saying.
It is important to maintain eye contact with the audience as a
whole. This helps to show interest in, and engagement with, your
audience. Let your eyes move over the audience and avoid fixing
your gaze on one particular individual. This is where you will see
the importance of using only cue cards rather than a full script –
you will be able to glance at your notes without losing the impact
of eye contact.
Eye contact is also important because you should all the time be
watching for feedback from the audience, and assessing people’s
level of concentration. Try to vary the intensity of your delivery to
take into account the need for individuals to refocus.
In using any visual aids, it is important to remember that you need
to maintain contact with your audience as you write. Do not turn
your back for too long, and never speak without turning to face the
front.
4.2.12 Participation
The final point in considering the delivery of a presentation lies in
respect of the way in which you interact with the audience. Oral
communications is essentially a two-way process, and although in
a presentation you will have a lot of one-way presenting of
information to do, do not lose track of the need for some degree of
participation.
At the least, you need to consider how you deal with questions.
There are, basically, two alternatives:
• leave them until the end, when you can set some time aside for
them – which provides you will more control over the running of
the session, but can be very uninvolving for the audience at the
time; or
• take them as you go along – which as the advantage of
resolving any issues at the time they arise, but can be difficult to
handle as it may throw out your timing or disrupt your planned
order of dealing with topics. This method allows for a higher
degree of audience involvement and works best with smaller, less
formal groups. However, even in larger, formal presentations, it is
best to allow some degree of questioning on points as they arise,
but do not be afraid to cut short discussion and defer consideration
of particular points to a later stage of the presentation or the end.
Whichever method you use, you need to take control over it and
explicitly state the way in which you intend to handle questions in
your introduction.
Allied to this is the question of allowing for audience response and
feedback to what you have to say. Depending on the type of
presentation, it is quite possible that people will want to discuss
issues you raise. Again, you may want these to be aired as they
arise and encourage participation and involvement from your
audience. However, in anything more than small, informal groups,
this can be very hard to control. Remember that you have a
presentation to give, not a discussion group to run! The best time
for discussion is at the end, when you done your bit and can allow
time for the audience to make their contribution.
E.g.: To control the audience, it is best to let them know that there
would be a question and answer session at the end of the
presentation
Do not, though, ignore your audience. Very often, they can make a
valuable contribution to the development of your presentation by
providing examples from their own experience and contributing
their own ideas. Obtaining their input at certain points is a useful
device for involving them, as well as bringing in real issues of
concern to them. Thus, in developing a list of, say, safety
problems encountered at the workplace, you could usefully solicit
examples from your audience, rather than just presenting your
own.
In doing this, you need to ensure that you can keep control over
what is said. It is easy to get deflected from the central line of your
presentation by the issues that may be raised. You need, therefore,
to know the types of responses you want to get, so that you can
classify the actual responses to fit in with the way you want to
develop your argument. It is important, then, that you are prepared
for such an aspect to your presentation. Just because you are going
to get the audience to contribute something, doesn’t mean that you
don’t have to plan for it.
It is helpful to record the responses you get by writing them onto a
flipchart or marker board. In doing so, you can respond yourself to
the input and perhaps put the specific instance raised into a
classification which suits you. (Remember, whenever you write
anything up during the course of the presentation, that you have to
write legibly and in large letters!).
4.3 USING THE TELEPHONE
4.3.1 Purpose of Telephone Calls
There is no area of business that is not affected by the use of the
telephone. Using the telephone as an effective communication tool
requires an understanding of the purpose of the communication
and the effect that telephone communications can have on your
audience. The postman may ring twice, but your customers or
colleagues may only ring once.
Using the telephone effectively can result in:
• An increase the level of personal contact and the development
of ongoing “live” relationships – both internally and externally,
crucially with customers/clients.
• Immediate response to issues – which may be particularly
important in maintaining good customer relations.
• Improved information flow within and around your
organization.
• A reduction in time spent writing letters (and awaiting
responses) and consequent reduction in administrative costs.
• An enhanced total quality performance of your business.
Oral Communication
Telephone activity Benefits to organization/audience
Desk research
Identify who to contact in a specific
organization.
Must have clear purpose.
Telemarketing Identify potential markets for
goods/services.
List cleaning Updating databases. Check names, status
and address of contacts.
Direct mail Follow-up call reinforces message.
Additional market research opportunity.
Issuing invitations to
customer events
More likely to gain commitment.
Recipient of call will check diary. Letters
may be filed or destroyed.
Questionnaires If brief and purposeful, useful information
can be gained.
Prospecting Allows initial research. Establishes profile
and referral process.
Appointment making Give outline as to proposal to be
discussed; give alternative dates and times.
Allows recipient to feel in control.
Customer care calls Most effective if timed correctly. 9-9.30
a.m. and 2.30-4 p.m. are often bad times
for clients working from home.
Account management Saves client money as call cost borne by
you rather than lengthy written
correspondence.
Renewing business
contacts
Re-establishes your position.
Selling Requires efficient support systems to deal
with further enquiries, sales and after
sales.
Order taking Tell (sell) what you have in stock, not
what’s unavailable.
Retrieving lost business Re-establish client contact. Client may feel
more important as a result of this selection.
Handling enquiries Key is to stay calm, listen carefully and
respond quickly to
Enquiries. Follow up referrals.
Dealing with complaints
Invoice queries
Credit control
Establish the facts. Ensures that there is a
sense that an individual, not an
organization, is concerned.
Internal calls May be more informal but a lot of
important information exchanges can be
made.
External calls – customers
and suppliers
More effective if you ring at a time which
suits them and when you have all relevant
data and question.
After-sales service/followup
calls
Prospects for future business. Helps
achieve client loyalty.
4.3.2 Successful Calls
Listening is the key to a successful telephone call. People who
communicate well on the telephone are not easily distracted. They
will listen attentively and let the caller know that they are listening
by utilizing phrases like “Yes, I see”, “I understand”. This kind
of feedback is extremely important in using the telephone since
there are not visual clues between the participants as to how the
interaction is going (Have you ever had the experience that there
was suddenly no one on the other end of the line – “are you still
there”?)
Speaking clearly and calmly is far more important than worrying
about an accent or having to use a “telephone voice”. Telephones
are in the majority of homes and nearly all businesses (it is hard to
imagine a business which doesn’t use a phone), and most people
are used to using the telephone socially. In the business context
there is no need to adopt a new persona and voice but you should
be clear as to the purpose of the call, who you are talking to and
what the desired outcome may be.
Business telephone calls often appear casual or informal but will
take place within the context of a need to share, impart or acquire
knowledge or information. Remember that every time you answer
the telephone or make a call, you should be representing the
organization to its fullest advantage. Telephone calls, like all
business communications, must be purposeful.
Callers must have a clear idea as to:
a) Who their audience is.
b) The nature of the organization they are contacting.
c) What information to convey.
d) What questions to ask to elicit desired responses?
e) What action to take as a result of the call.
Making notes prior to and during calls is a useful way of ensuring
that you cover and remember the salient points. Remember that
your attitude to the audience or client is reflected in:
• Your tone of voice.
• They type of language you use.
• The clarity with which you express your ideas.
• How attentively you listen to their responses.
• Your confidence and enthusiasm.
It is possible to write a successful business communication,
however “bloody” you feel towards the recipient. It is not possible
to make a successful telephone call if:
• Your are unsure of the purpose of the call.
• You don’t know who to contact.
• You can’t be bothered. (“I’m so busy. I just managed to fit you
in today.”)
• You feel anger towards the person you will be contacting
• You are unprepared.
Smile when you dial” is more effective than to “groan on the
phone”.
4.3.3 Telephone Technique
An effective telephone call is one when you’ve sent your message
to the audience, received appropriate feedback and are able to take
action. Even complaints can be positive and allow for more
efficiency in services provided. You must welcome calls and
callers whatever the circumstances.
The following guidelines will aid towards all your calls being
positive communications:
(a) Introduce yourself and be introduced to your caller (the
verbal handshake).
(b) Explain why you are calling.
(c) Indicate what you expect to gain from the call.
(d) Use open-ended questions to elicit information and to
gain the confidence of the person you are speaking to.
(e) Respond to any information you receive.
(f) Always reflect the organization you represent favorably
in your own attitude and commitment, even when dealing
with a complaint or difficult negotiation. Whatever your
personal views on a matter, be consistent with company
procedures or views. It may seem friendly to agree with
a client, but it actually makes you seem disloyal and your
organization characterized by fragmentation and lack of
teamwork.
(g) Acknowledge that you are still there if listening for a
longish period of time.
(h) Gain agreement or consensus as to what has been said,
agreed and what future action to take.
(i) Check that you have both drawn the same conclusions.
(j) Offer alternative options.
(k) Close by thanking the person for his or her time and taste
that you look forward to speaking to him or her again
soon.
Every call made from your organization says as much about your
company as any other area of activity can do.
4.3.4 Using Answer phones to Your Advantage
Answer phones allow organisations to get on with their business
without interruption at key moments, mean that there is always a
voice at the other end of the phone, and allow for 24-hour
communication worldwide.
They are at their most effective as a communications medium if:
(a) The answer phone message is clear, announces the name of the
company or individual, and repeats the telephone number so
that the caller is certain that her or she ahs rung the right
number.
(b) The answer phone message requests name, company name,
message or date and time called (unless digitally recorded) from
the caller.
© Messages are responded to quickly and approximately.
(d) Instructions as to when to leave the message are given (after the
long or short tone).
The caller must be able to leave his or her details clearly and
suggest an appropriate time for a return call.
It is better to hang up before leaving a message if you feel unable
to do so clearly, than to leave a bumbling, incoherent one. The
most confident telephone callers can be caught out by answering
machines – be prepared, have notes as to the purpose of your call
and leave a clear, concise message.
Oral Communication
4.3.5 Message Taking
If you answer a telephone call and take a message for someone else
you must note down certain important details:
• The name of the person the caller wanted to speak to
• Name, organization, telephone number and possibly address of
the caller
• The day, date and time
• The name of the person who took the message
• The message and any action needed, e.g. call back urgently
4.4 CONCLUSION
The role of oral communication is never to be underestimated as it
is increasingly possible to have a live presentation from a distance
through video conferencing.
Therefore before any presentation preparation is the key. By the
time you are finished preparing your written report, you should
know your subject material very well. Therefore, we're going to
concentrate on how to present that material in a speech.
Oral Communication
5. VISUAL COMMUNICATION
5.0 INTRODUCTION
The written or spoken word are just one means of communication,
albeit the most important. On their own, through, they can tend to
be somewhat boring – too many pages of text to wade through,
listening to a speaker for too long, etc. Can turn off the best
recipient no matter how good the form of presentation. One way
of alleviating this is the use of visual or graphical effects within
reports, booklets, manuals, information brochures and oral
presentations.
We start by following up our examination of presentations and
presentational skills by looking at the role of audio and visual aids.
In many forms of face-to-face interaction, it is very helpful to use
visual displays to assist in getting your message across – for
example, jotting down a diagram to help explain the way a system
works to a colleague. The same principle applies in presentations,
except that the way in which such visual aids are used needs to be
carefully integrated with the rest of the presentation. Here, then,
we shall examine the nature and purpose of audio and visual aids,
and how you can use them to enhance the giving of a presentation.
Visual Communication
Our second area of study here is the presentation of statistical
information. Figures on their own- particularly lengthy tables –
convey little to the average eye, and it is usually very difficult to
pick out the important relationships between various items without
a thorough examination of the figures. Graphs, bar charts, pie
charts, etc. present the information in a more accessible form,
enabling the whole range of the subject and particular relationships
to be seen at a glance. We shall, and then examine the way in
which such visual representations can be used to draw attention to
the key points.
Activity:
Give examples of audio visual aids.
What are the disadvantages of using AV aids in presentations?
Finally, we shall consider issues of design in general and of its
application to the corporate image which companies project in
particular. Good design is essential in today’s competitive
business environment, as the expectations of the public are now
very high in this respect. We shall, then, review the contribution
of design to good business communications and examine some of
the many vehicles for conveying corporate image.
5.1 NATURE AND PURPOSE OF AUDIO AND VISUAL AIDS
This study unit is concerned with the effective use of audio and
visual aids. Although such aids can greatly enhance a presentation,
not every presentation will need them or be more effective because
of them. Using audio and visual aids in order to appear more
professional but without reflecting the purpose of the presentation
is time-wasting, costly and can make you appear more concerned
with the trivia rather than the detail of your presentation. They can
also detract from, rather than enhance, your performance – unless
they are well produced and relevant, they are a waste of everyone’s
time. The more sophisticated the technology, the worse the
disaster if anything goes wrong.
So, what is the point of using audio and visual aids at all? (Note
that we need to include the effective use of audio – the notion that
we only use visual aids in a presentation is incorrect.)
Appropriate audio or visual aids, if used selectively (with regard to
timing, format, complexity) and designed to a standard expected of
the presentation, can enhance a good presentation and increase its
effectiveness through:
• creating awareness;
• encouraging interest;
• retaining involvement;
• achieving instant result/responses;
• describing in one image an entire proposal or concept;
• being memorable;
• complementing the spoken word;
• reinforcing corporate identity.
Give instances when AV aids would be advantages during
presentations.
What would be the most effective AV aids?
What are the issues to be considered before using AV aids?
If you are planning a presentation, you nee to ask yourself:
(a) Would this presentation be improved by using
audio- visual aids?
(b) What would be the most appropriate format?
Do not ask yourself “What audio-visual aids shall I use?” The
difference is a subtle one but the message is clear. Only use audiovisual
aids if they will enhance your presentation and are
appropriate. E.g.: During highly scientific presentations a visual
aid is appropriate, however an audio aid is unnecessary.
If, after appropriate consideration, you do decide to use them to
make more effective presentations, then you must determine:
• The range of audio-visual aids available and their advantages
and disadvantages.
• How to design audio-visual aids.
• How to make the best use of all audio-visual aids at your
disposal.
These are they key issues with which we shall be concerned in the
rest of this unit.
5.1.1 What Are Audio-Visual Aids?
Quite simply, visual aids are those items which make use of
pictures or visual images (including the written word) in support of
an oral presentation. We also need to include audio aids because,
Increasingly, music or sound effects can be used to add impact to a
presentation, and some (such as video) combine visual and audio.
The range of AVA available is illustrated in Figure 5.1
5.1.2 Using Audio-Visual Aids Effectively
Before deciding to use audio-visual aids as part of a presentation,
you need to be certain that they will:
• Enhance the presentation
• Not detract from its effectiveness.
• Be professionally product and presented
One of the best reasons for not using audio-visual aids is a lack of
confidence in using them. In every instance you need to be
familiar with the equipment you are going to use and to have a fallback
position of the unexpected (like a power cut) should happen.
Remember that audio-visual aids support and enhance
presentations. Presentations are not showcases for the most
technically advanced or best produced audio-visuals.
Never forget that you have included audio-visuals in your
presentation of the benefit of your audience. It does not matter
what type of audio-visual you use, the following criteria must be
met:
• Language or images are selected which reflect the nature of the
presentation and represent a dimension of the subject under
discussion/being presented.
• Care is taken not to use offensive images, phrases or music.
(Do semi-clothed people actually sell cars?)
• The seating arrangements/room layouts are designed (and
double-checked by you) so that everyone can hear or see what’s
going on.
• There is sufficient technical back-up.
• You do not use effects which could upset your audience (e.g.
Loud bangs, flickering lights, strobe lights, fireworks) or even
endanger them.
• You opt for simplicity and clarity rather than complexity and
confusion.
• Always make reference to a visual.
• Don’t turn away from the audience to operate audio-visuals;
either use technical support or arrange for your and the
audience’s convenience.
• Try not to obscure visuals by standing in front of them.
• To keep attention, use audio-visuals at low attention periods
such as after lunch, before a break or towards the end of a
session.
• Rehearse.
Type of Audio-Visual
Using Them Effectively Additional Requirements
Prepared flip charts Usually too small for a large
audience. Very useful in small
internal presentations, including
interview presentations
Need to be clearly written. Useful
for cartoon-like illustrations.
Use non-smudge pens.
Flip chart Particularly useful in seminartype
presentations. Be careful
not to be obscure what you are
writing.
Sufficient paper; non-smudge,
bright-colored working felt-tip
pens. Can refer to previous sheets
Whiteboards
Best in teaching situation. In
formation has to be constantly
erased. Need clear, straight,
handwriting.
Similar to blackboards. Only really
useful in small training sessions.
Overhead projectors Prepare transparencies in
advance.
Keep slides in order.
Have back-up photocopies in
the even of disaster.
Check projector working. Check
your slides fit projector and are
right shape, otherwise you lose
detail.
Projector Assume this will go wrong.
Prepare slides beforehand and
check equipment
Use hand-held remote-control
model.
Build-up visuals Need to be big enough to have
an impact. Can create audience
tension.
Need careful rehearsing or
preplanning.
Physical objects Must be visible and relevant.
Attracts immediate attention.
If samples, you need sufficient for
1 1/2 times your audience.
Working models Can make or break a
presentation. Test and retest.
Good at exhibitions. Excellent
for product launches.
Always have a”spare/one that I
made earlier” if making a
demonstration. Speaks for itself.
Tape recordings Check equipment for adequate
amplification. Best for music
rather than speech unless in
classroom.
Video Well-presented video is a
presentation in itself .Try to
keep it short and relevant.
Check equipment.
Film Useful if presenting a new
film instead of video. Check
equipment.
Be interested in visual display.
Don’t distract by fiddling,
moving
Off stage or making notes.
Participate with the audience.
Introduce video, etc. as to
reason
for showering it, summarise;
Invite comments.
Satellite link-up Fraught with danger for the
novice. See most news
programmes
You may find videoconferencing
more effective for in-house
presentations.
5.2 DESIGNING AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS
The reasons for using audio-visual aids are to:
• Illustrate the point/concept you are making/introducing.
• Reveal a product or image rather than describe it.
• Engage and/or retain the interest of your audience.
• Add variety to your presentation.
As we have said, there is little point in designing sophisticated
audio-visual aids unless they have relevance to your presentation
and add value to it. Note, too, that badly designed, although well
planned and intentioned audio-visual aids, have a more negative
impact than not using any audio-visual aids at all.
However, not everyone is a graphic designer, cartoonist,
calligrapher, desk top publisher and layout specialist. In this
section we will consider how best to design audio-visual aids
using a variety of formats but always bearing in mind that it may
be necessary to call on the experts to aid in production of the
finished article.
The starting point that you need to be clear about is:
• The purpose of the presentation.
• The need for audio-visuals.
• The most appropriate audio-visuals for this presentation.
• How and when you plan to use the audio-visuals.
5.2.1 Using Words as Visuals
Clearly, many visual aids will include words – indeed, words will
often be the dominant image on overhead projector (OHP)
transparencies, slides and flip charts, etc. you will probably want
to use them to summarise and highlight keywords or phrases.
Whenever you use words in visual displays, always ensure that:
• The text is clear, straight and large enough to be read easily
throughout the room;
• All words are spelt correctly
• Lower and upper case letters have been use properly
• There is a clear margin around the edge of the whole display
and that there is sufficient white space around the words to
enable them to stand out clearly.
It is preferable not to use hand-written text on any pre-prepared
displays (with the exception of flip charts which cannot be used in
any other way), although obviously anything written on to a
display during the course of the presentation will have to be handwritten.
The same points as above apply.
Note, though, that the point of a presentation is not to engage in a
communal reading session. You do not want your audience to be
concentrating so much on assimilating the words that they do not
follow what you are saying or miss the context in which the visuals
are being introduced. Putting words up on display
Also makes people feel that they should be noting them down and
you do not want this to occupy the audience at the expense of
listening or engaging in a dialogue.
5.2.2 Overhead Projector Transparencies
OHPs project an image from a transparent sheet onto a wall or
screen. The projection can be large or small, depending on the
needs of the room size and audience, making them a very versatile
aid in many different circumstances.
It is best not to include too much, or too complex, information on a
transparency. You do not want your audience concentrating on
reading large amounts of text on the screen, or trying to work out a
statistical table, when they should be concentrating on what you
are saying. They are, therefore, best used to display summaries –
either as an introduction to a topic to show the structure of how
you are going to work through it, or at the end as a précis of the
main points covered. They can also be used to present summary
information, such as simple charts or diagrams, or examples to
illustrate the points you are making as you go along. E.g.: OHP
and slide projectors are out dated as AV aids but are relevant in
some instances like using old materials that cannot be transferred
to a multimedia presentation or be presented in third world
countries.
OHPs have the advantage that you can refer directly to the
information being displayed – by pointing to items on the
transparency itself – without having to turn away from the
audience. You can also easily over certain items on the sheet with
a piece of paper so that, for example, a list of points can be
revealed one by one – as shown in Figure 5.3.
Figure 5.3: Revealing points one by one
Being able to prepare OHP transparencies in advance means that
you can obtain a very professional looking finish. (This is in
contrast to producing hand-written material during the presentation
itself.) Materials may be produced on computer – either from
word processing packages or specialist presentation packages –
and printed directly on to transparencies to produce the best effect.
Doing it this way may mean that colour can be used, depending on
the printer available, and that particular styles can be consistently
employed, perhaps including a company logo. However, if you
produce transparencies by hand, effective results can be obtained
by neat, clear handwriting and use of different Colours.
When using OHPs, ensure that the equipment is in working order
and is correctly positioned – both for you to use and for your
audience to see.
Using AVAs
• OHPs
Using AVAs
• OHPs
• Slides
Using AVAs
• OHPs
• Slides
• Flip Charts
Using AVAs
• OHPs
• Slides
• Flip Charts
• Videos
5.2.3 Slide Projectors
These are used mainly to display photographs, but other high
definition images may be produce don film to be presented in this
way. They are particularly useful for providing illustrations of real
items or events – such as a new product or a location.
It is also possible to use tape/slide packages, with a recorded
commentary alongside the slides. However, this can detract from
the relationship you have with your audience, so should be used
with care.
Again, if you are using slides, make sure the projector is in
working order (and that you know how to se it!) and is correctly
positioned. You also need to ensure that your slides are correctly
mounted and in the right order.
5.2.4 Flip Charts
Flip charts are very useful in a small seminar, working group or
brainstorming session, but present real problems of visibility in
larger groups.
They can be used, in a pre-prepared fashion, in a similar way to
OHPs – displaying a framework for the session (or parts of it),
notes of key points, summarise, etc. – although you cannot reveal
points one by one. However, they come into their own as a means
of displaying points during a session, particularly those raised by
participants during discussion, which can then be kept and returned
to for be review.
Activity:
What are the advantaged of the flip chart?
What are some of the principals to be adhered to when using the
flip chart?
In using flip charts, the same principles apply as above in respect
of the use of text generally, and of handwriting in particular. In
addition, you need to ensure the following:
• that you have sufficient pens available, that they all work
properly and do not dry out;
• that there is a sufficient supply of paper;
• that you do not obscure what you are writing;
• that your writing is not too small, not that it trails off the page.
Also, beware the problem of having to keep cross-referencing to
previous sheets which is time-consuming and confusing for your
audience.
5.2.5 Whiteboards
Whiteboards are plain surface display boards on which you write
using a special marker pen, as for flip charts. They may be wall
mounted (as in some purpose built training rooms) or portable.
They are an alternative to flip charts in small presentations as a
means of writing up key points during a presentation, although
they cannot really be pre-prepared.
Visual Communication
There are, though, a number of drawbacks to them:
• They need to be wiped clean when the board is full.
• They can not store material for reference as in flip charts, for
example.
• You must have clear, legible handwriting.
• You need to check that pens and cleaning cloth are available
and in working order.
• If information is left for any time at all, it tends to distract.
• They seem to establish a teacher-pupil relationship rather than a
dialogue between presenter and audience.
5.2.6 Video
Videos are widely employed in training situations and are
increasingly being used in other forms of presentations –
particularly to show the active use of products or different aspects
of situations/locations, or to introduce someone else’s views in
person, etc. There are very many commercially available videos in
most areas of training and it is relatively inexpensive to produce
them oneself on specific topics, although producing in-house
videos to the professional standard that most audiences will expect
is not easy.
Videos can be very effective if used properly – but remember that
they should be a support for your session, not a substitute for your
own input. Thus you need to explain the relevance and purpose of
the video before showing it and give some pointers for the
audience to consider whilst viewing it.
You need to be thoroughly conversant with a video before using it
– exactly how long it is, where the main points are which you want
to emphasize, where you might want to break for discussion, etc.
5.2.7 Physical Objects
It may be very useful to display materials to your audience or
present them with examples of relevant materials – samples of
products, working models, presentation packs, etc. This is
particularly appropriate at trade fairs and exhibitions, but also at
many other types of presentation.
All materials you use in this way must be:
• Easy to control and present.
• Relevant to the presentation.
• Attention – grabbing
• Large enough to be seen by everyone.
You need to be completely familiar with the products you are
handling. If you use working models, check that they do actually
work and have spares of everything just in case. In a
demonstration, “Here’s one that I made earlier” is a useful fallback
position.
Providing samples of products being presented can be very useful
– the feel, smell and look of products you are discussing say so
much more than words describing its values and properties. At a
small presentation you can hand out such samples, but at larger
ones they are best included in a presentation pack… These should
not, generally, be distributed during the presentation, as this will
distract attention from what you want to say, but can be provided
either before – to be picked up by the audience as they arrive, or by
putting them on seats – or after the session.
When handing out materials, do not push them into someone’s
hand or bag – make a gift of them, offer them up to your audience,
and relinquish them slowly so that you can make eye contact with
your audience at the same time.
5.2.8 Using Sound Effectively
In certain circumstances, sound effects may be used on their own
to enhance a presentation. These include tape recordings, live
musicians or actors, or even effects you introduce yourself.
Sound effects may be used to introduce examples of the sounds of
products, contributions by other people (although video is better
for this), etc. into the presentation itself, or to smooth the
transition between sections of the presentation. The intrusion of
external sounds into a presentation is likely to be quite dramatic
and you need, therefore, to ensure that any such effects are fully
integrated into the presentation. They must serve a purpose and
that purpose must be made clear to the audience. Music is quite
often used for the second purpose – transition – with dramatic
themes used for introducing speakers or the unveiling of products,
or suitably soothing music at the end or during a break.
You need to ensure that any technical issues are sorted out in
advance – amplification is loud enough, but not too loud, for the
audience, the quality is crystal clear (no hiss, scratches, etc. on
recordings) – and that you have rehearsed any cues with the tape
operator or live musicians as to when to come in.
One of the most effective ways of using sound in a presentation is
to make use of the silences. Make each pause one of anticipation.
It can be used as a sound effect – for example, “Listen. Can you
hear that” That’s our new model XYZ. Silent as a lamb!”
5.3 PHYSICAL SURROUNDINGS
Whilst not an audio-visual aid in itself, the physical surroundings
in which a presentation takes place can have a dramatic effect upon
its effectiveness. We can consider three such aspects.
(a) Lighting
The most important factor to remember is to check how lighting
affects the audience. Try to see your presentation from their
perspective, not from your own position on the stage or podium. It
may be comforting to feel that you can’t see your audience, but
from their perspective the whole presentation may be leaving them
in the dark.
All visual aids need their light projected from the place that causes
least shadow when they are in use. The lighting must be strong
enough to produce a clear image. General lighting available in a
small presentation will be sufficient. In a large or dramatic
presentation, spot lighting, fading in and fading out, and coloured
lighting might be used.
(b) Decor
When choosing an external location for your presentation, décor
will certainly be a factor. Internally it is more difficult to influence
décor. Use company publications and brochures to create an area
of interest, which will divert attention from hideous curtains or
carpet. Screens and curtains can be used to fence off unsightly
areas.
6.1 INTERVIEWS
6.1.1 Types of Interviews
As we have emphasized throughout this course, the purpose of an
interaction is crucial to determining the communication which
takes place. We can see this in respect of a number of different
types of formal interview, thereby distinguishing the particulars of
each.
It is important to remember, at the outset, that there are two parties
to any interview – the interviewer and the interviewee – and that,
in most circumstances, the purpose must be considered from both
sides, irrespective of the particular side you are on at the time.
However, it is always the case that the interviewer has “control” of
the process, and there is a responsibility on him/her to ensure that
the process allows both parties to meet their objectives.
Not also that, whilst interviews generally represent examples of
one-to-one interaction, it is by no means uncommon for the
interviewer side to comprise a panel.
Interviews and Meetings
However, in essence, the interaction that takes place continues to
be one-to-one. E.g.: A panel of interviewers is most common
during an interview for high positions like by the board of
directors.
(a) Selection interviews
Recruitment and promotion interviews are the most common
perception of the interview, and are the one type of which you will
almost certainly have experience – either as an interviewer or as an
interviewee.
The objectives of any selection interview are to:
• find out whether the candidate is suitable for the job and the
organization; and
• Find out whether the job and the organization are suitable for
the candidate.
The first objective is well understood and forms the basis of most
questioning, designed to allow the candidate the opportunity to
demonstrate his/her abilities in relation to the requirements of the
post. The second objective is less well acknowledged, but should
be clear if you consider the interview from the perspective of the
candidate – he/she will not only want to show the capability to do
the job effectively, but also to find out more about it and assess
whether he/she does actually want it. As a result, the interviewer
has to provide the scope within the interview to allow the
candidate the opportunity to explore his/her concerns.
Interviews and Meetings
(b) Appraisal interviews
Appraisal interviews are less well-understood and, if the objectives
are not clearly stated, have the potential, to become the opposite of
their purpose.
Activity:
List down the objectives of a selection interview?
If the objectives of an appraisal interview are not clearly stated, the
entire session has the potential to become the opposite of it
purpose. Explain.
The intention of appraisal interviews is to provide a focus for
employee development, usually as part of an on-going system
which includes the provision of development opportunities. The
interview is not, therefore, a one-off event, but one of a series
between the employee and his/her manager (or other designated
appraiser). The purpose is two-fold:
• to review past and current performance in the job, form both the
appraiser and appraisee’s points of view; and
• to plan the future development of the individual
It has, therefore, a positive focus which should condition the
interview process. If conducted in a careful and sensitive way,
appropriate to this central focus, the appraisal interview can be a
positive experience, and will be of benefit to the individual and the
organization.
© Disciplinary interviews
Disciplinary interviews are held to consider whether disciplinary
action should be taken against an employee, usually in accordance
with the organization’s disciplinary procedure. This can have very
serious consequences. It is crucial, therefore, to be clear about the
objectives of the formal interaction.
The most important point is that the interview must aim to
establish the truth about what has occurred. As such, it can not be
regarded as one-sided, but rather must be a two-way process to
tease out the facts of the situation. The principles of natural justice
demand that the employee concerned must have the opportunity to
put his/her case properly, and issues of personal prejudice and
partiality have to be very carefully dealt with.
The need for careful preparation is paramount in this situation. In
particular, it should be the culmination of a process which has
included a thorough a thorough and impartial investigation of all
the issues.
Activity:
What are some of the criterion when conducting disciplinary
interviews?
In disciplinary interviews, it is usually the case that the interviewee
is able to be accompanied by a representative or “friend” – to
advise, support and possibly speak on his/her behalf, as well as
acting as a witness to the proceedings.
(d) Grievance interviews
These interviews also form part of a broader procedure – the
organization’s grievance procedure – which structures the way in
which an employee may raise complaints about his/her treatment at
work (by the organization in general or by an individual member
of it) and the steps which are to be taken to deal with the
complaint.
On the face of it, the aim of the interview is to resolve the
grievance. However, having said that, it isn’t necessarily the
solution which is the most important outcome. Often the way in
which the solution is arrived at can be just as important – even an
ideal solution may be ineffective if it leaves the participants still
feeling aggrieved (for example, because it was arrived at only after
bitter argument, accusation and counter-accusation).
This indicates that the way in which the grievance is handled is
every bit as important as the solution itself. Employees arrive at
grievance interviews with a sense of injustice. They should leave
with at least the feeling that they received a fair hearing and
consideration. The aim, therefore, in handling a grievance
interview is to arrive at a solution through a discussion which, as
far as possible, provides a satisfactory conclusion to all parties.
Activity:
What do employees hope to achieve from the organization in a
grievance interview?
Interviews and Meetings
6.1.2 Principles and Practice of Interviewing
Although the contexts for these interview situations are different,
we have established a number of common themes to them all – the
need for the process to be two-way, acknowledgement of the
objectives of both parties to the process, etc., We can, then, look at
them in the same way when it comes to understanding the way in
which interviews are conducted.
The principles and practice of interviewing derive directly from the
basic two-stage process we considered earlier – preparation and
delivery. We can work this through in respect of the particular
requirements of interviewing.
(a) Preparation
Each type of interview has its own general aims, as we saw above.
In preparing for a specific interview, it is important to identify the
particular objectives which apply within these. Thus, in respect of
a job interview, the particulars of the job itself – and the
knowledge, skills and attitudes required for it – will inform the
framing of the desired outcomes and the structuring of the
interview to achieve them. Similarly, the particulars of an
individual case will condition the approach in a grievance
interview.
Gathering and organizing relevant information means ensuring you
are fully conversant with the subject area of the interview – for
example, the job requirement, the employee’s appraisal records
and employment history, the details of the disciplinary or
grievance case. Picking out the salient points is likely to provide
the structure for the interview. Thus, a selection interview can be
built around the details of the job description and person
specification, or an appraisal interview planned around the
employee’s recent work experience and development activities.
It is surprising how often interviewers do not really inform
themselves about the person or persons they are interviewing. It
necessitates considering the background information available
about the interviewee to form a picture of the specific person, such
that the interview itself can be tailored to him or her in particular.
Thus, for selection interviews, the candidates’ application forms
will provide details of education and employment background,
together with some indication of experience and skills. These can
be used develop the general lines of questioning in respect of the
job description and person specification, which should be common
to all candidates, into specific questions appropriate to each
individual.
Finally, most good interviewers – even very experienced ones –
generally run through what they are going to say. This can take the
form of actually rehearsing questions, particularly in respect of the
style and intonation used, or simply talking through the planned
structure with a colleague to ensure that it is correct. Clearly,
where there is a panel of interviewers (i.e. more than one), this
process is essential so that all participation are aware of the
proposed procedure.
(b) Conduct of the interview
It is important for the interview to be structured in order to keep
the process focused on the key points and to avoid irrelevant
discussion and time wasting. Remember too that the interviewer is
responsible for conducting the process and ensuring its successful
outcome.
The interview itself can be seen as a four-part event, characterized
by the acronym WASP.
W Welcome – greetings and introductions, each party to the other,
with the objective of establishing rapport and relaxing the
participants. Particular points include:
• putting the interviewee at ease;
• explaining the purpose of the interview and outlining the way in
which it will be structured;
• explaining, if appropriate, about taking notes.
A Ask – the process of questioning whereby information is sought
from the other party in relation to the objectives of the interview.
We shall be considering questioning techniques in detail in the
next unit, but other points include:
• using questions prepared in advance, based on the general aims
and specific objectives of the interview and the particular
circumstances of the interviewee;
• using open questions (which encourage developed responses
and further discussion), working from relatively general and
easy ones to more specific and difficult ones;
• listening to, and probing the interviewee’s responses.
S Supply – providing full and honest responses to questions
which will show the respondent in the best possible light,
according to their objectives. Particular points include:
• Backing up assertion with examples wherever possible;
• Being reasonably concise, particularly in the case of the
interviewer (the interviewer should only do 20 – 30% of the
talking).
P Parting - ending the interaction on a positive and cordial note,
with a clear idea of what has happened and what will happen next.
Particular points include:
Interviews and Meetings
Summarizing conclusions, where appropriate; Identifying when,
what and how any action arising from the interview will be
communicated.
6.2 MEETINGS – AN OVERVIEW
Note that, whilst the discussion here will be mainly focused on
committee or other formal meetings, the principles apply generally
to most types of meeting.
6.2.1 The Role of Meetings
The main functions of any of these meetings may be summarized
as:
• providing for a dialogue between members, allowing the
exchange of information, views and opinions;
• generating ideas or solutions to problems;
• monitoring and evaluating performance or progress;
• making policy and other decisions.
These general functions hold true for the meetings of informal
working groups, a school’s parent-teacher association, and
company boards and governmental bodies. There are, clearly,
differences in scale and the issues considered, but the general
purpose is the same.
6.2.2 Constitution
The particulars of the meetings of a body are determined by the
nature of the body itself and this will be laid down in its
constitution. The constitution of a body will cover such
fundamental matters as:
• Membership – who is entitled to be a member and how
membership may be determined, numbers, length of service,
etc.;
• Terms of reference – the powers and duties of the body (what it
can and cannot do and what it must do), so for example, it may
have the power to make proposals and suggestions, but not
actually to commit the financial resources of the organization;
• Timing and frequency of meetings – this will vary according to
the functions and purposes of individual bodies, so for example,
a company AGM will be an annual event, but a school
governing body may meet once a terms, or a finance committee
may meet every six weeks.
All bodies holding meetings have a constitution of some sort.
Formal committees will certainly have a written constitution,
sometimes governed by legal regulations, which spell out in detail
all these issues. However, even informal groups will have an
implicit understanding of these matters – whether they are
discussed and agreed among the members or simply taken granted.
6.2.3 The Organization of Meetings
• Meetings don’t just happen – they have to be organized. This
can be considered in three stages;
• Before the meeting – the planning of what will happen;
• At the meeting – the conduct of business during the course of
the meeting itself;
• After the meeting – wrapping up the proceedings by producing
the record of the meeting and following up on the issues
discussed and decisions made.
E.g.: Never hold a meeting unless the objectives are clear. Meeting
without clear objectives are always a waste of everybody’s time.
We shall review these in very general terms now, and then go on to
look at specific aspects of the procedures and documentation in the
next two sections.
Activity:
When organizing a meeting, what are the three stages involved?
(a) Preparation for meetings
Meetings have to be planned. Efficient undertaking of the
necessary work prior to any meeting – whether it is for the AGM
of a public company, a local government committee, or a work
group – will invariably smooth the conduct of business at the
meeting itself.
The starting point is the preparation of an agenda. This is
fundamental to any meeting as it sets out, in order, the business to
be transacted. It provides, then, not only the statement of what the
meeting will consider – its content – but also defines its structure.
However, prior to that, perhaps the first step is to determine if the
meeting is really necessary! Many of us will have felt the
frustration of spending two or three hours in a meeting where no
progress ahs been made, or there was nothing of substance to
discuss, or even where it was evident that decisions had already
been taken elsewhere. Meetings are an expensive way of using
staff time and effort, so they need to be cost –effective. Therefore,
if it is not a required meeting of a formal committee, its
appropriateness or necessity should be questioned and alternatives
considered for achieving the desired outcomes
Interviews and Meetings
(b) The conduct of business
The proceedings of a meeting may be considered as a sort of
structured discussion. The structure is partly provided by the
agenda, but the way in which the discussion is conducted is
governed by rules of procedure. Again, formal bodies will have
very specific rules of procedure, usually codified and written down
as standing orders, but even informal groups will have some
generally understood rules about how the meeting will be
conducted.
There are a number of specific roles within all meetings. Some of
these are implicitly agreed, but more often there is a deliberate
appointment to these positions – either by election, or as a
consequence of holding a particular post in the organization. Two
of these roles are particularly important:
• the chairperson; and
• the committee secretary/clerk.
At the meeting itself, it is the chairperson who actually controls the
meeting. This is the key role in any meeting, setting the tone and
style of the meeting and generally ensuring that the business of the
meeting is efficiently and effectively conducted. However, this
role is not simply one of a passive, neutral referee of proceedings.
It is invariably a very powerful position, giving the holder the
ability to control what is discussed and how that discussion
progress.
The secretary’s role is to ensure the effective administration of the
meeting, including all work before and after the proceedings, and
to advise the meeting on the application of the rules of business.
This is a key role and, for formal committees and boards, will be
fulfilled by a senior officer of the organization. He/she will have a
close working relationship with the chairperson to ensure that the
proceedings go smoothly and the desired outcomes are achieved.
In informal meetings it is often the case that the secretary and
chairperson’s role are held by the same person.
The clerk’s role is essentially that of carrying out the work of
agenda preparation and writing the minutes, including (of
necessity) taking notes of proceedings at the meeting itself. In
many smaller bodies, this work is actually carried out by the
secretary.
It is worth pointing out that these roles – committee secretary and
clerk – should not be confused with the general office positions of
secretary and clerk. They are specialized and very important
positions in relation to meetings specifically.
(c) Work after meetings
This breaks down into two areas – the preparation of the record of
the meeting, and ensuring that decisions taken at the meeting are
subsequently implemented.
The particular requirements of the formal minutes of proceedings
go much further than the recording needs for most business
meetings. In essence, all is required is:
• A record of all essential information, particularly what has been
decided;
• A statement of who has to take what action.
This preserves a record of salient information and can be circulated
to all participants and others involved or interested. It is important
to remember that the information must reach all those who need to
know – either for general awareness or because action is required -
rather than just those who were present. It is helpful, though, to
direct the recipient’s attention to the relevant items in what may
often be very large reports or minutes.
Finally, it is worth noting that meetings exist to facilitate the
execution of work. It is sometimes tempting to think of them as
talking shops which have to be serviced, but have no relevance
after the event. However, if they are to have any meaning, the
discussions and decisions must be followed up and put into effect.
They then form a key participative element in the decision making
and operating processes of the organization, rather than a
distraction.
Interviews and Meetings
6.2.4 DOCUMENTATION FOR MEETINGS
The Agenda
The main purpose of the agenda is to set out, in order, the business
to be transacted at the meeting. As such, for formal committees
and boards, it will usually be the subject of some discussion
between a number of interested parties – the committee
chairperson, senior officers and the committee secretary. For other
types of meeting, preparation of the agenda may be the sole
responsibility of the person who will chair the meeting, but advice
may be sought on what items of business should be included.
An agenda should normally include the following elements:
• The time and place of the meeting.
• Apologies for absence.
• Provision for confirmation of the minutes of any previous
meeting, and for consideration of matters arising from them
(where the issues are not included as items elsewhere on the
agenda);
• Provision for the reporting and consideration of any
correspondence received (where the issues are not covered by
items elsewhere on the agenda);
• A subject heading for each item of business to be transacted,
together with a brief explanatory comment, if necessary (often
by reference to attached reports, correspondence, etc.);
Interviews and Meetings
• A final item of “any other business” to allow for discussion of
any issue which has arisen since the production of the agenda;
and
• A final, final item to determine the date of the next meeting.
E.g.: Always set agenda based on time available for the meeting
with the most important ones taking priority.
For most formal committee or board meetings, it is job of the
committee secretary (or administrator or clerk, however the post is
termed) to prepare the agenda. He/she will usually maintain a file
of items which may potentially require the committee’s attention.
These items may be derived from:
• correspondence received;
• matters referred by other committee, etc.;
• circulars and directives from other bodies (particularly
government);
• matters – usually policy issues and usually in the form of
“motions” referred by members or officers for discussion
and/or resolution.
Although it is usual for items for formal committees to be
submitted in writing, in practice there will often be the need for
discussion between the secretary and individual members, perhaps
also with the involvement of the chairperson, to clarify how items
will be presented on the agenda.
It is important to remember that, if a meeting is to be effective in
its deliberations and decision-making, members will need time to
familiarize themselves with the agenda and any supporting papers.
This means that the agenda must be sent out some time prior to the
actual date of the meeting.
When exactly will vary. The required notice of business to be
transacted may be formally stated in the constitution or standing
orders of some formal bodies. Local authority committees, for
example, have a statutory duty to have the agenda and relevant
report, etc., available for public perusal three clear days before the
date of the meeting.
In some organizations, notice of the meeting may be sent out
separately – prior to the agenda itself. In others, notice of the
meeting and the agenda may be combined.
Agenda may appear in a variety of formats, depending on the
conventions of the organization in question. The example in
Figure 6.1 combines the notice of the meeting with the agenda, and
the agenda contains all the usual necessary elements.
You should note the following points about this example:
• The headed paper gives clearly the contact number for the
secretary, so that apologies for absence can be sent, and
discussion about items of urgent business can take place.
• The prior notice provided by the date of dispatch of the agenda
in this case, almost four weeks.
• The date, time, and place of the meeting are clearly set out.
Here, they are included in the letter which gives notice of the
meeting. If the agenda was sent on its own, this would need to
be included at the top of the agenda.
• Members are specifically reminded about considering “any
other business” in advance of the meeting.
• The first four items are usually fixed for all regular meetings
and generally appear in this order. Items 7 and 8 are also fixed.
• The items which form the variable subject matter of any
meeting should have sufficient detail to enable members to
understand the nature of the item. Where appropriate, there
should be a reference to any relevant documentation.
HAMSHIRE ASSICIATION OF PARISH COUNCILS
SALEM AREA COMMITTEE
Chairman: Mr.J.Tobey Hon.Sec.:Mrs.J Pride
Bragdale Farmhouse 16, High Street
Bragdale Road Lower Allwood
Feversham LX53 8XY Settingly LX95 7DY Tel:01878
555555 Tel: 01878 888888
7 February 200X
Dear Sir/Madam,
The next meeting of the Salem Area Committee will be held on Monday
March 2nd 200X, at 7.30 pm in the Council Chamber, Salem House,
Settingly.
The agenda and supporting papers are appended. If you have items for
inclusion under “any other business”, they should be with the Secretary
no later than 5.00 pm on Friday 27 February.
Yours sincerely,
J Pride
Secretary
AGENDA
1. Apologies for absence.
2. Minutes of the last meeting.
3. Matters arising.
4. Correspondence.
5. Reports from representatives on:
(a) Police Consultative Committee
(b) Executive Committee
6. Rural Lanes Survey – Report AB/123 refers
7. Any other business.
8. Date and topic for next meeting.
Figure 6.1: Example of an agenda
Interviews and Meetings
E.g.: New item to the agenda especially sensitive issues like
termination and retrenchment should not be brought up without
notice.
Minutes
It is generally the case that, after any meeting, a record of what
transpired at the meeting is made. This may be in the form of a
few hand-written notes, a memorandum, a note for filing or a
report of some kind, possibly with notes for action. The
appropriate form will vary with the type of meeting and the
importance of what took place.
The situation with regard to formal meetings of a committee or
board is rather different. The proceedings of such meetings are
recorded by the minutes.
Minutes are the factual record of the proceedings and
resolutions of a meeting. They constitute a true and impartial
record of the events.
The prime function of minutes is to place on record the
proceedings of a meeting as the basis for subsequent action. The
minutes constitute the authorization for such action to be taken.
Activity:
Why is it important to circulate a record of all essential
information obtained in a meeting?
What do you believe is the right format to display minutes on
paper?
(a) The format of minutes
The way in which the events at a meeting are recorded in the
minutes is likely to vary between organizations. Each has its own
particular conventions about what should be recorded and how
they are set out.
However, there are a number of general principles which can be
identified.
As noted above, the primary purpose of the minutes is to provide
authorization for actions to be taken. As such, then, the key
element which must be recorded is the decisions taken at the
meeting.
This may be done by simply stating the motions passed by the
meeting, using the exact words of the motions as voted on. For
example:
Resolved: That the Treasurer’s Report (ref.FD.045) be adopted,
subject to the assumed Government funding becoming available
for development of the new site by the end of the financial year.
This may mask considerable debate about the issue, including the
proposing of, and voting on, various motions and amendments.
However, at the simplest level, the only important point is the final
decision at which the meeting arrived.
Whilst this is the essential element of minutes, it is often the case
that they need to go further than this in order to accurately convey
the sense and meaning of a meeting. Indeed, this may be necessary
since, in the event of a dispute as to what transpired or was agreed,
the minutes may be cited as legal evidence.
Thus, it is quite possible that the minutes will record all motions
and amendments put to the meeting (with their propose and
seconder), together with brief details of discussion and the
subsequent vote. It is also sometimes necessary to record details
about the voting on particular motions – either as totals “for” and
“against”, with abstentions, or even the way individual members
voted.
Finally, in addition to decisions taken by the meeting, it is normal
for the minutes to record events in respect of each item on the
agenda, including:
• Those members present, together with absences for which
apologies were made at the time;
• Agreement about the minutes of the previous meeting(s),
together with any changes made to them;
• Brief notes about items or issues introduced to the meeting, but
not specifically referred to on the agenda or supporting papers –
as in the case of reports or discussion about matters arising
from the previous minutes, correspondence and any other
business;
• The start and finish times.
(b) Minute writing
The production of clear and accurate minutes is an exercise
requiring many of the communication skills we have considered
previously. It is important to listen effectively and consistently, to
take accurate notes, and then to translate these into a coherent and
comprehensible written statement.
There are a number of points of good practice in minute writing, as
follows:
• The essence of minutes is that they are a brief note – i.e. a
condensed statement – of the proceedings at a meeting. As
such, they are not the same as a report. They are designed,
basically, to record the decisions taken, and that is all. On the
other hand, they need to be sufficiently detailed and complete to
convey what transpired at the meeting and to provide clear
instructions and authorizations for action.
• Where it is accepted practice that minutes should record, in
some detail, the discussions which take place, this should not
become unwieldy and over-long. It should not obscure the
central point about the decisions made.
• The minutes – as a whole and in each individual statement –
should be positive, free from ambiguity and capable of standing
on their own. For example, resolutions should not merely say
“resolved accordingly” or “resolved as agreed”, but state
precisely what the decision was, using the exact wording on
which voting took place.
Interviews and Meetings
• Minute writing requires accurate and concise language,
involving objectivity and the absence of ambiguity. The
minutes should be written in third person – i.e. using “he/she”,
“they”, “them”, etc. – and in the past tense.
• It is important to emphasize the word “factual” in the definition
above. Minutes must not express opinions or give
interpretations of what has been said. They should be simple
statement of fact.
Thus, it would be wrong to write:
“The Treasurer displayed such excellent persuasive skill in putting forward her
argument that she took all the members with her.”
This should be expressed as:
“There was unanimous agreement to accept the Treasurer’s report.”
E.g.: The tone of the minutes taken has to be neutral – not
emotional, overly authoritative or accusatory – but clear enough
for action to be taken.
• Minutes should be completed as soon as possible after the
meeting. It is surprising how quickly your understanding of
your own notes can fade, and your memory of a certain
discussion grows cloudy.
• It is normal practice in many organizations for the accuracy of
the minutes to be checked with the chairperson before
circulation.
The following example (Figure 6.2) of an extract from the minutes
of a meeting illustrates many of the points made above.
SALEM PARISH COUNCIL- GENERAL PURPOSES COMMITTEE
Minutes of the meeting held on 9 January 200X, between 7.00 pm and 9.00 pm in
The Assembly Room at SalemHouse.
1. Members present: Councillor Green (in the chair); Councillors
Brown, Black, Cyan, Grey, Maroon, Purple, Red, Tan and White.
2. Apologies were received from Councillor Jones
3. The minutes of the meeting held on 12 December 200V were
approved and signed as a true record.
4. Pay rise
After a full discussion, it was proposed by Cllr. Red and seconded
By Cllr. White that the opinions of all employees be sought by
Means of a questionnaire. An amendment that the questionnaire
Should also ask if employees would prefer a one-off or staged
Arrangement was proposed by Cllr. Cyan and seconded by
Cllr. Black. This was passed by six votes to three, and the
Motion that the questionnaire be produced and circulated
Was then passed unanimously.
Minutes constitute a true and impartial record of the events at the
meeting. Explain.
What are the key elements to be recorded at any meetings?
Interviews and Meetings
6.2.5 Procedure in meetings
The proceedings of a meeting may be considered as a sort of
structured discussion. The issues for discussion, and their order,
are structured by the agenda, but the way in which the
discussion itself and general interaction of the participants is
conducted is structured by the various rules of procedure.
Constitution and Standing Orders
The proceedings of any formal meeting are generally governed by
the constitution of the committee or board, etc. – which states what
it is allowed to do – and written rules of procedure, usually known
as standing orders. The constitution and procedural rules of some
bodies are governed by legal regulations, which may lay down
specific requirements.
The constitution of the body, as we have seen, is fundamental, in
that it defines the terms of reference of any meeting and, thus,
conditions what powers and duties may or must be exercised. The
constitution also sets out the framework of meetings in terms of
their timing and frequency and also, possibly, the establishment of
certain roles.
Standing orders are concerned specifically with the way in which
meetings are run.
These rules are essential if meetings are to be conducted properly
since they cover such matters as:
• the number of members who must be present in order for the
meeting and its decision to be valid (the quorum);
• how and when question may be put;
• how motions and amendments may be moved;
• the length of debates;
• the methods of voting;
• control over the behavior of members.
Here we have a very clear example of the inter-relationship
between the written and spoken word. Written standing orders
exist to promote the effectiveness of oral communication.
Activity:
Why is it important to have a quorum at a meeting?
Interviews and Meetings
6.2.6 Within Meetings
As we have seen, there are a number of specific roles within all
meetings.
At the meeting itself, it is the chairperson who actually controls the
proceedings. This is the key role in any meeting, setting its tone
and style and generally ensuring that the business of the meeting is
efficiently and effectively conducted. E.g.: The chairperson usually
has to be a neutral person of authority, hence to be able to control
the participant and to be able to utilize time effectively.
His/her role can be summarized as being:
• To ensure that the meeting is properly constituted and that there
s a quorum;
• To control the meeting in accordance with the standing orders
and any other legal requirements that apply;
• to take the business in the order that it appears on the agenda
unless the committee determines otherwise), by opening the
discussion and guiding the debate such that all those who wish
to peak may do so.
• to ascertain the sense of the meeting at the conclusion of the
discussion on an item (by reaching common agreement or by
opting on a specific motion) and ensure that the decision
reached properly recorded.
In all these matters, the chairperson is assisted by the committee
secretary. This is certainly not the same as an office secretary.
He/she is likely to be a senior officer in the organization and will
be responsible for:
• advance notice of the meeting, agenda preparation, and general
housekeeping and administration (room bookings, resources
required), etc.,:
• Advising on the application of standing orders and any legal
matters (such as statutory provisions and common law
requirements) during the course of the meeting.
• Recording the proceedings accurately, distributing the minutes
and following-up any decisions after the meeting.
In many meetings, the secretary is not a formal member of the
body itself and, therefore, has no voting rights or any formal role in
discussions. However, as a senior officer, his/her contribution is
likely to be sought (or provided) on the issues involved in agenda
items and the implications of proposal and decisions.
Activity:
Give examples of the various levels of authoritative powers
possessed by the chairperson at a meeting?
6.2.7 General Rules of Procedure
All members have a general responsibility to participate actively in
the proceedings of the body. This requires a commitment to the
work of the committee and careful preparation by all concerned so
that each member is knowledgeable about the topics under
discussion.
It also means that each member has a responsibility to other
members to allow contributions to be heard and to enable
discussion to flow freely and positively. Thus, order is not just the
responsibility of the chairperson – it resides in all participants!
In order to ensure that chaos does not reign, there are a number of
conventions – general rules of behavior – which need to be
followed, including:
• acknowledging that the chairperson is in charge;
• speaking through the chair – waiting for permission to speak,
and always addressing remarks to the chairperson, not directly
to other members (although this may not be so necessary in less
formal, smaller meetings);
• keeping to the point – avoiding digression or pursing one’s own
particular agenda to the detriment of consideration of the items
before the meeting;
• interrupting other speakers only for procedural reasons – for
example, to seek clarification through a “point of order” or to
seek to give a “point of information”.
Obviously, the degree of regulation of formal committee or board
meetings is far in excess of that applying to most other types of
meeting.
However, the principles discussed here apply to all meetings.
There will always be some formal or informal rules about what the
meeting is competent either to discuss or to decide, and how it
should go about it.
Such rules may be extant and clear to all participants (or may be
clarified in the course of the meeting), or they may need to be
considered and determined during its course – as may be the case
with informal meetings of work groups. There will always be a
chairperson with a role to ensure the proper conduct of the meeting
in accordance with the points outlined above. And there will
always be someone responsible for planning the meeting and
recording the proceedings.
6.2.8 Effectiveness in Meetings
Let us now take a little more time to consider how these general
rules and conventions actually apply within meetings. Although
the procedures followed for meetings and committees will vary
from one organization to another, the existence of these “rules”, in
whatever form, will go a long way towards ensuring that the
business is conducted in a coherent and professional way, using
time and resources efficiently, and minimizing the risk of
personality clashes which would be counter-productive.
As a structured interaction, meetings can be held to confirm to the
same basic principles as any other form of structured
communication – they need to be properly planned and should
have a beginning, a middle and an end.
(a) Planning
We have seen that the start point for any meeting is the preparation
of the agenda and its circulation to members. However, whilst this
sets out the structure of items for discussion, it does not constitute
a detailed plan of the way in which the meeting may go. As with
all forms of interaction, it is advisable to prepare carefully
beforehand – considering the objectives of the interaction, the
participants involved and the information required.
Accordingly, before the meeting itself, there is invariably some
kind of prior consideration of the agenda by the chairperson,
together with the secretary and, possibly, other officers. This will
concentrate on identifying the various issues involved in each item
of business, together with any desired outcome. This process of
considering how best to handle the discussion and to achieve
objectives is always useful for any type of meeting. Time for most
meetings is likely to be restricted, so it is essential that there is
clarity about what needs to be covered, and the best way of
achieving it. These pre-meeting briefing do not, however, take
decisions about the outcomes of agenda items.
(b) Opening the meeting
The introductory phase of any meeting should outline the business
to be conducted and set the proceedings in the context of previous
meetings, as well as covering any particular administrative
arrangements (such as time constraints, etc.). This is very much
the responsibility of the chairperson.
The chairperson will first call the meeting to order, to ensure that
everyone present is giving full attention, and will formally declare
the meeting open, usually stating the time of the start of business.
A check may be made that everyone has received the agenda and
any supporting papers, and is clear about the business to be
conducted and any administrative arrangements.
The first agenda item to be taken will be “Apologies for absence”
to establish a formal record of attendance. Apologies are normally
read out by the secretary and will be recorded in the minutes.
The minutes of the last meeting need to be approved as a true and
accurate record, and signed by the chairperson. At this stage, the
responsibility lies with every member to have checked the minutes,
and to be prepared to speak up to correct any inaccuracies. This is
of particular importance if the minutes have legal significance.
Adjustments can then be made before the minutes are signed.
It is likely that action will have been taken on the basis of
decisions made at the previous meeting, or that there will be issues
arising from the discussion then which need clarification in the
light of present circumstances. The opportunity to consider such
matters, where they are not specifically covered elsewhere on the
agenda, is provided by the agenda item “Matters arising form the
minutes”. The chairperson him/herself, or any other member, may
seek information, usually from the secretary, in order to complete
the picture presented by the minutes. The chairperson needs to
ensure that there is no duplication here – the purpose is not to go
over old ground, but merely to clarify any issues arising
subsequently. Even if certain members were not present at the
original discussion, the temptation to allow them to ask a lot of
question should be resisted!
Interviews and Meetings
(c) Main business of the meeting
Having completed the introductory phase, the meeting can move
on to the substantive business before it, according to the agenda.
Discussion of each item generally follows a set pattern – again
reflecting the beginning, middle and end structure we have seen in
all forms of communication.
• Introduction to the item
This will be done by the chairperson, one of the members, or an
office or other person attending specifically to provide information
about the particular item. The intension is to focus attention on the
key issues about the subject, in order to direct the following
discussion.
It is often the case that agenda items are supported by reports or
other documents which provide background information. It is
customary for the report’s author to introduce it by means of a
short presentation. The requirements of this are the same as have
been covered extensively above – careful and detailed preparation
and delivery. It is not appropriate to read verbatim from the report
or other paper9s), and the level of detail does not need to be that
great where the material ahs been circulated in advance. Rather,
the introduction should concentrate on the key issues and pick out
specific points, expanding and clarifying them as necessary, on
which the discussion should focus.
• Discussion of the item by members
It is likely that a good many members of the meeting will have
points to make in respect of the issues under consideration. The
purpose of the procedural rules is to facilitate them doing so, such
that they can put their thoughts to the meeting and have them heard
and considered. This requires some degree of formality and order
to the discussion.
It is the chairperson’s duty to take control and impose such order.
Normally, all comments should be addressed through the
chairperson. This means that individual members do not address
each other directly and get involved in personal, potentially
acrimonious, debates across the meeting. It also helps to ensure
that only one person is speaking at a time. In order to make a
contribution to the discussion, members need to attract the
attention of the chairperson and signal their desire to speak. This,
in turn, means that the chairperson must be aware of members’
intentions at all times. The power to bring individual members into
the discussion can allow the chairperson to exercise considerable
control over the discussion, and it should, therefore, be exercised
fairly and even-handedly. It can be a source of friction where
members feel excluded, particularly if their views are opposed to
the chairperson’s.
As a sanction to maintain order in the face of members flouting the
rules and conventions of discussion, the chairperson has the power
explicitly to exclude individuals from speaking – ruling their
contribution “out of order” – or even to banish them from the
meeting.
Discussion of many items in formal meetings often takes place
around specified proposals to be adopted as decisions of the
meeting. We shall consider the details of this below.
• Conclusion of the discussion by means of taking a decision
The purpose of discussing a particular item is to come to some sort
of conclusion about it which reflects the views of the meeting.
This may take the form of adopting a specific decision, or it may
simply be a mater of the chairperson summarizing the key points
of agreement. However, even such a summary constitutes a
decision of sorts in that it is likely to form the basis of further
action, sanctioned by the meeting.
Formal decisions taken within a meeting need to be based on a
motion proposed by one member and supported (“seconded”) by
another member. Such motions may be simply to adopt the
recommendations set out in a report, or they may be detailed
suggested courses of action put forward at the time by a member
(including the chairperson), based either on a perceived consensus
of opinion at the meeting, or their own particular viewpoint.
The wording of a motion can be very important, as it may establish
policy or commit resources. They need, therefore, to be clear and
unambiguous. For example, the following would meet this
requirement:
“That the committee authorizes the expenditure of £5,000 to
G.Gnomes & Co. to carry out landscaping work on the HQ
grounds in accordance with the proposals made in their tender
document.”
On a motion being put to the meeting, and following appropriate
discussion, the chairperson will take a vote among those present as
to whether it should be agreed and become a decision of the body.
The rules about voting are normally set out in the standing orders,
and they are likely to include provision for the chairperson’s
“casting vote” – a second vote available for the chairperson to use
in the event of tie between those for and those against the motion.
It is open for any member to put forward amendments to a motion.
An amendment is a suggested change in the wording which will
alter, to some degree, the meaning of the proposal. Amendments
which negate the intention of the original motion are not allowed –
the same effect may be had by simply voting against it.
So, for example, the following amendment to the above motion
would be acceptable.
That the additional sentence “Payment to be made in two equal installments, based on
completion of works on the front and rear of the premises” be inserted at the end of the
proposal.
However, the following amendments would be ruled out of order:
That the word “not” be inserted before the word “authorize”.
Any amendments also need to have a formal proposer and
seconder, and should be voted on before the initial motion, so that,
if carried, the revised motion can then be considered and voted on.
All decisions made by a meeting need to be recorded precisely by
the committee secretary and included in the minutes.
• Conclusion of the meeting
The final phase of the meeting is entered when all the substantive
items on the agenda have been considered.
There is always an item of “Any other business” on the agenda in
which members can raise issues of significance which are not
covered elsewhere. Sometimes, this is put on the agenda as “Any
other urgent business, and this is really the key to this item. It is
not intended that important and substantial new business should be
brought up at this stage of the proceedings. Members should
usually clarify with the secretary or the chairperson in advance if
they have items they wish to raise here, and the chairperson may
need to take a decision about what can and cannot be accepted,
perhaps suggesting a full discussion at the next meeting instead.
The last element is to agree the date and time of the next meeting,
after which the chairperson declares the meeting closed, noting the
exact time of closure.
7 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
7.2 B. THE INTERNET
Background
You may ask: ‘What is the Internet?’ In reality, it is nothing more
than an enormous network of computer networks. It is
thousands of computers connected together.
The Internet originated with the United States military and their
fear of nuclear attack following the Soviet Union’s launch of
Sputnik, the first satellite, in 1957. To protect vital
communications within the university based technical and research
facilities of the Department of Defense, four universities in the US
west (Stanford University, UC in Los Angeles and Santa Barbara
and the University of Utah) were connected together via a
dedicated line. By 1969, four other US networks were connected
in so was born the internet. Once connections were expanded into
the normal telephone dial-up system, it became possible to bring in
computers across the world. Local comparable set-ups were
developed in many places and whole groups of computers were
connected into the system. It did not take long before we reached
the stage that we now know in which the Internet stretches to every
part of the world and, using cell or mobile phones, to places remote
from the actual computer.
Electronic Communication System 430
____________________________________________________________
_________
E.g. The internet is the greatest revolution of the 20th century and
communication will never be the same as our daily lives and
timelines are have shortened. Imagine still going to the library to
look for information. Do they have Google Search?
The basic component of the Internet is a computer network. At
this stage, there are two types of network of interest to us.
1. A LAN (Local Area Network) is, as you would expect, a group
of computers, which are geographically close to each other,
connected together. Typically, computers within a business or
part of a business will be connected in a LAN.
There are two principal ways (or protocols) in which data is
transmitted around a LAN:
• The Ethernet standard requires the sending computer to first
check whether the network is busy or not. If it is not, the
packet of data (we shall define a packet later) being sent is
dispatched to every computer in the LAN, but only the
computer to which it is addressed will take receipt of it. Others
just ignore it. If the network is busy, or if two computers send
out a data packet at the same time causing a collision, then the
sending computers wait a random amount of time and try again.
Electronic Communication System 431
____________________________________________________________
_________
Figure 7.3
• The token ring standard involves signals or tokens continuously
traveling around the network (see Figure 7.4). The sending
computer waits until a token is passing by and, if the token is
not already carrying a data packet, attaches the data packet it
wants to send, to the token. As the token passes each of the
other computers, each checks the token and the address of any
attached packet. If it is addressed to that computer the packet is
accepted and the token is then free to accept another packet.
11 22 33 44 55
The next point we need to consider is how the data is actually sent.
As some of the message can be very large, such as a video or other
multimedia message, to send the message intact would clog up the
whole network. We have only to think of a very large load
traveling up a motorway. The police escorting the load require
everyone else using the motorway to wait behind, much to their
frustration. It would be the same across the network if entire
messages were sent intact. Instead, the message is divided up into
sections called packets.
2. A WAN (Wide Area Network) is more or less the same as a
LAN except the geographical restriction does not apply. A
packet switching protocol, as for a LAN, is used in the same
way. A WAN will probably consist of several LANs connected
together. To co-ordinate the delivery of resources across the
WAN, a server machine will be used. A server is a computer
wholly dedicated to a specific task. There are several different
tasks that servers provide.
• Some will store resources such as files and application software
which they can then serve, on demand, to the various computers
within the WAN. In those kinds of systems, the individual
computers do the processing, the server simply holds the files.
• With application servers, the server does the processing on
behalf of the client computers. It will be provide with more
powerful processing facilities in order to do this.
• In some other cases, the server is in charge of the routing of the
messages around the WAN.
Servers can fulfill a number of different tasks within the network,
but the common feature is that they are all accessible from the
individual computers and they provide some kind of service on
behalf of individual computers.
The Internet will rank as the world’s largest WAN! However, the
Internet lacks the control and cohesiveness of a WAN. At the level
of the Internet, however, much more than simple servers are
required.
Activity:
What is the main difference between WAN and LAN?
What are the alternatives to communication if there is a server
breakdown?
8. IT AND PRESENTING INFORMATION
The value of numerical data may be increased many times by
effective tabulation. Tabulation is the systematic arrangement of
numerical data which has been collected, so that a reasoned
account of its interpretation can be facilitated. It depends on a
logical classification of the data into clearly defined groups, each
with characteristics of its own (for example, customers by men or
women, or by different age groups, etc.). The information is the
set out clearly in the minimum space and with the minimum
wording. The following rules should be observed in the preparation
of statistical tables:
• each table should serve a single purpose – attempting to show
more than one group of relationships in the same table tends to
obscure the message;
• the table itself should have a title or caption, and each grouping
of information must have a heading, all of which should be as
short as possible and self-explanatory;
• tables should not contain figures with a large number of digits –
rounding number is acceptable since a high degree of accuracy
is not usually that important (it is the relationships which are),
and expressing all figures in, say, thousands is better than
writing them all lout in full;
• the number of columns and headings should be kept to a
minimum – a multiplicity of headings etc. prevents the proper
emphasis being given to the key facts and tendencies shown by
the table;
• units must always be stated (pounds, 000’s, age, etc.);
• figures showing relationships such as percentages, ratios, etc.
should be placed as near as possible to the figures from which
they are derived.
The following examples (figure 5.6) show these essential features.
Other common examples are sales against changes in price (as in
demand and supply graphs used extensively in economics) or
health indicators such as levels lung cancer against, say, levels of
smoking.
There are some general rules to remember when planning and
using graphs:
• All graphs must be given clear but brief titles.
• The axes of graphs must be clearly labeled, and the scales of the
values marked. The origins of scales should generally be
included.
• Wherever necessary, gridlines should be inserted to facilitate
reading.
Bar Charts
The bar chart is one of the most common methods of presenting
information in a visual form. They are similar to graphs in that
they display the incidence of one variable in relation to another
(for example sales against time), but are more flexible in that
greater amounts of information can be incorporated – for example,
showing breakdowns of components of a variable.
There basically, three types of such chats:
• Simple bar charts – which are equivalent to line graphs, but
provide a stronger visual image;
• Component bar charts – which are equivalent to a series of pie
charts; and
• Histograms – which display grouped frequency data.
Activity:
When are simple bar charts used?
(a) Simple Bar Charts
A simple bar chart is a chart consisting of a series of bars
representing the amount of one variable in relation to another.
Usually, a small space is given between each bar to allow them to
stand out from each other. The length of each bar corresponds
with the magnitude of the item it represents. In Figure 5.8, the
height of the bars relates to revenue from theatre ticket sales in a
certain month.
ar charts can be enhanced by the use of 3D effects, although you
would need to use a computer presentation package to display this
effectively (an example is shown below).
In addition, you can add figures for comparative purposes and
display these as bars next to each other. Figure 5.9 shows the
information on car rental sales from Figure 5.7 as a composite
simple bar chart.
(b) Component Bar Charts
A Component bar chart can be used to give a breakdown of the
total amount within each bar of the chart. Thus, in the simple
example above, we could divide the monthly figures into the
revenue generated by different types of ticket – perhaps showing
the number of pound 20 tickets, pound 10 tickets and stand-by
pound 5 tickets that are sold in each month.
Figure 5.10 shows a component bar chart, with a 3D effect added,
for tractor sales over four years by three different areas.
Although histograms appear to be the same as bar charts, there are
important differences. They are used to display grouped frequency
data – for example, information relating to the numbers of people
in different age groups.
Pie Charts
These diagrams are used to show the relative sizes of component
elements of a total. They are so called because they have the shape
of a round pie, with the component parts appearing as slices. They
are used to display only very simple information.
Consider the following table of market shares in the UK car rental
market:
Pictograms
A pictogram is a statistical diagram in which quantities are
represented by pictures or symbols. The appropriate use of a
picture or symbol can be a powerful tool in communicating a
message, but their use is confined to the simplified presentation of
statistical data for the general public, rather than for specialists in
the field.
For example, the imports of oil in a particular year may be
represented by a number of drawings of barrels, and the imports
for another year by a different number of barrels, as in Figure 5.14.
If you were showing pig sales, you could use drawings of pigs, or
to show sales of satellite TVs you could use pictures of satellites –
and so on.
(Source: Hypothetical data, 1994-1996)
It is important that there is a clear key, which shows what the
symbol represents.
5.5 DESIGN AND CORPORATE IDENTITY
What is good design? This is not easy to answer, since it is very
much down to personal taste. It is essentially a subjective matter.
However, there are a number of principles which can be identified.
At the heart of design is the attempt to communicate, visually, with
an audience. An understanding of the characteristics of the
audience and of the object of the design is, therefore, essential.
Given that, it may be said that good design should be:
• functional;
• reflect the purpose of the object or organization to which it is
applied; and
• be unique to that application.
There is an immense range of application to which design is
applied, but we shall be concerned here with corporate identity –
principally in respect of company branding through the use of
logos. Before we consider these applications, though, we shall
review certain common aspects of design which you can use.
Visual Communication
5.5.1 Lettering
Typefaces, typestyles, lettering style or fonts are all terms for the
type of lettering used by designers and printers.
Typefaces can facilitate the reader’s ability to read text easily.
They can also convey a personality or mood, and some convey
formality or modernity.
There is literally hundreds of lettering styles or fonts, and we
illustrate just a few in Figure 5.15. Each font can itself be made
larger, smaller, heavier, lighter or italicized. Computer graphics
packages are introducing new fonts on what seems like a monthly
basis.
Emphasis and impact can be created not only by the use of
different typefaces , but also by the size of type, use of headings,
line spacing, capitals or underlining, and by the weight and
boldness of the type. In fact the layout of the page, with the use of
margins, ruled lines, and the use of white space all contribute to the
impact of the actual words being used.
Activity:
Typefaces convey personality or mood and formality or modernity.
Cite examples.
How can we exploit lettering styles and fonts during a
presentation?
5.5.2 Reading and Interpreting Signs and Colours
Visual communication which does not include text has the
advantage that it can be understood in any language. International
labeling for garments, road signs and we electrical goods are all
examples of the efficiency of such purely visual communication.
A sign or visual image can summarise a whole body of text and is
much easier to “read”, so that its impact is immediate. Reading
written text is a longer process in that its messages need to be
internalized, understood, reflected upon and summarized. They
may then need to be translated into oral or written language
themselves.
The following are excellent examples of the efficacy of signs and
symbols:
Figure 5.16: Instantly recognizable signs
Color psychology is an integral factor in visual image design and
interpretation. Traditionally colours have many associations, as
shown in the following table:
Table 5.1: Colour associations
______________________________________________
Blue: cold, restful, calming, sad,
conservative.
Red: vibrant, young, angry, passionate.
Green: envy, environmentally friendly,
naivety.
Yellow: sunshine, brightness, new life,
cowardice.
Black: evil, night, darkness, sexy.
Brown: muddy, nondescript.
Grey: dull, boring, depressing, and dirty.
White: clean, bright, pure, clinical, peace.
Colours are seasonal and reflect emotions or attitude; they are not
merely the absence or presence of light. The shade and tone of a
colour can change our perception of the same logo. However,
remember that different colours have different meanings in
different cultures.
5.5.3 Corporate Image
The purpose of a corporate image or identify is to distinguish the
organization in the market place and to communicate
values/attributes to various audiences. The most common facet
associated with corporate image is the company logo, but this is
not the only element involved. Rather, it encompasses the use of
typestyle, lettering, symbols, colour, pictures, slogans or any
combination of these, and is used to maintain consistency of style
throughout all forms of communication, whether text, oral
presentations or purely visual forms such as in packaging.
The potential list of applications is vast. We note some of these
below as a guide to the range and diversity available. It also helps
us to recognize how repetition of the corporate logo/slogan
reinforces corporate image and that the best corporate identity is
established through clear design, is instantly recognizable (i.e.
legible) and is always the same in essence (colour backgrounds
may change).
• Stationery
• Forms
• Publications
• Products
• Packaging
• Advertising
• Promotions/give-aways
• Vehicles
• Interiors/exteriors
• Signs
• Clothing
Activity:
How can we create corporate identity or image?
If we are serious about corporate image, then it has to be applied
wholesale, not selectively. If we take the example of stationery, the
range of users will cover all internal and external correspondence,
and its application should be rigorously enforced – scrappy internal
memos undermine the purposefulness of well produced headed
notepaper. The range of stationery applications includes:
• Letterheads
• Continuation sheets
• Envelops
• Compliment slips
• Business cards
• Memos
• Reports
In fact, any item of company material can have the logo
represented on one or all of its surfaces.
5.5.4 The Basis of Corporate Identity
The purpose of the corporate image design is for potential and
actual customers to:
• Associate the product (s) services(s) offered by the company
with the logo.
• Recognize instantly and be familiar with the company.
• Adopt some of the values and benefits of the company in the
products(s) /service(s) it offers by association with the design.
One of the major problems in considering corporate image is
merely to determine it in design terms. All too easily it becomes a
new logo, a new slogan, and the introduction of particular colours
or a uniform. These elements certainly make up corporate image,
and there are numerous image consultants specializing in just that
– a design package which is standardized for every possible
application. However, the factors which determine the design for
the corporate image and which give an organization its internal and
external “personality” can be referred to as the corporate culture
or company ethos. This is the real starting point for the
development of the various facets of corporate image design.
Activity:
What is the main purpose for the corporate image design?
How does the corporate culture or company ethos affect the
corporate image or identity?
Thus, if the design is truly going to reflect the desired image of an
organization, then we need some detailed answers to the following
questions:
• What are the name, location, size and function (i.e.
product/service areas, range) of the organization?
• What existing promotional activities are there?
• Is there an existing logo/slogan/corporate colours/ How and
where are these applied?
• Is a new corporate image required, an update, or a more
uniform approach/understanding necessary?
• What are the company’s perceived markets?
• What image does the company wish to convey? Key words
may include: up-market, sophisticated, wide audience, and
specialist.
• Are there any preferences as to style, colour, etc.?
• Who will sanction any change/implementation?
• What steps will be taken to introduce a new / updated corporate
image? Is transition period necessary? How will the internal
market be informed?
• What potential applications will there be of any design? Even
if, in the first instance, only a stationery pack (letterheads
business cards, compliment slips, etc.) is required, the design
and colors may need also to be applied to other non-paper
media, such as mouse mats and T-shirts.
The answers to these questions often form the basis of a brief
which can be given to a designer to assist the development of the
image/identity.
5.6 CONCLUSION
There is no doubt that audio visual communication plays a large
part in relaying information to the masses. While audio only
communication forces the listener to conjure up his or her own
images, visual communication is more in control of what the media
wants to convey to their public. The use of audio and visual or
even just visual can communicate so much more in mass media.
The phrase 'a picture is worth a thousand words' is one that is
extremely accurate in the world of information processing.
Questions
1. What are the criterion that must be met when using AV aids?
2. Make comparisons between the OHP, slide projector, flip chart and
the whiteboard. What similarities do they have?
3. Identify the disadvantaged of product demonstration.
4. What are statistical tables and list down the rules when using
them?
5. “If we are serious about corporate image, then it has to be applied
wholesale and not selectively.” Explain this.
Case Study: MCCormic Group of Companies
The McCormic Group is a construction company. The following
extracts from its literature, reproduced by kind permission, show
how corporate image is designed and give an indication of the
company ethos.
Figure 5.17: McCormic Company Logo
The company logo is on a racing green background with white
lettering. It appears on all McCormic divisional notepaper and
business cards, on building site hoardings where McCormick is
building, and on all company vehicles and workers’ uniforms.
The design is particularly effective as it allows different divisions
to have their own identity as part of the corporate identity (see
Figure 5.18).
Figure 5.18: McCormick Divisional Logos
The Group produces a folder designed as a company portfolio
rather than a throw-away glossy leaflet. It contains separate sheets
of information (see Figures 5.19 to 5.22) about each of the Group’s
four divisions, which allows a sense of integration and harmony
within the company’s publicity materials. The inside covers of the
folder, which enclose the separate sheets, bears the text shown in
Figure 5.23, illustrating the effectiveness of design in the
presentation of text.
5.0 INTRODUCTION
The written or spoken word are just one means of communication,
albeit the most important. On their own, through, they can tend to
be somewhat boring – too many pages of text to wade through,
listening to a speaker for too long, etc. Can turn off the best
recipient no matter how good the form of presentation. One way
of alleviating this is the use of visual or graphical effects within
reports, booklets, manuals, information brochures and oral
presentations.
We start by following up our examination of presentations and
presentational skills by looking at the role of audio and visual aids.
In many forms of face-to-face interaction, it is very helpful to use
visual displays to assist in getting your message across – for
example, jotting down a diagram to help explain the way a system
works to a colleague. The same principle applies in presentations,
except that the way in which such visual aids are used needs to be
carefully integrated with the rest of the presentation. Here, then,
we shall examine the nature and purpose of audio and visual aids,
and how you can use them to enhance the giving of a presentation.
Our second area of study here is the presentation of statistical
information. Figures on their own- particularly lengthy tables –
convey little to the average eye, and it is usually very difficult to
pick out the important relationships between various items without
a thorough examination of the figures. Graphs, bar charts, pie
charts, etc. present the information in a more accessible form,
enabling the whole range of the subject and particular relationships
to be seen at a glance. We shall, and then examine the way in
which such visual representations can be used to draw attention to
the key points.
Activity:
Give examples of audio visual aids.
What are the disadvantages of using AV aids in presentations?
Finally, we shall consider issues of design in general and of its
application to the corporate image which companies project in
particular. Good design is essential in today’s competitive
business environment, as the expectations of the public are now
very high in this respect. We shall, then, review the contribution
of design to good business communications and examine some of
the many vehicles for conveying corporate image.
5.1 NATURE AND PURPOSE OF AUDIO AND VISUAL AIDS
This study unit is concerned with the effective use of audio and
visual aids. Although such aids can greatly enhance a presentation,
not every presentation will need them or be more effective because
of them. Using audio and visual aids in order to appear more
professional but without reflecting the purpose of the presentation
is time-wasting, costly and can make you appear more concerned
with the trivia rather than the detail of your presentation. They can
also detract from, rather than enhance, your performance – unless
they are well produced and relevant, they are a waste of everyone’s
time. The more sophisticated the technology, the worse the
disaster if anything goes wrong.
So, what is the point of using audio and visual aids at all? (Note
that we need to include the effective use of audio – the notion that
we only use visual aids in a presentation is incorrect.)
Appropriate audio or visual aids, if used selectively (with regard to
timing, format, complexity) and designed to a standard expected of
the presentation, can enhance a good presentation and increase its
effectiveness through:
• creating awareness;
• encouraging interest;
• retaining involvement;
• achieving instant result/responses;
• describing in one image an entire proposal or concept;
• being memorable;
• complementing the spoken word;
• reinforcing corporate identity.
Activity
Give instances when AV aids would be advantages during
presentations.
What would be the most effective AV aids?
What are the issues to be considered before using AV aids?
If you are planning a presentation, you nee to ask yourself:
(a) Would this presentation be improved by using
audio- visual aids?
(b) What would be the most appropriate format?
Do not ask yourself “What audio-visual aids shall I use?” The
difference is a subtle one but the message is clear. Only use audiovisual
aids if they will enhance your presentation and are
appropriate. E.g.: During highly scientific presentations a visual
aid is appropriate, however an audio aid is unnecessary.
If, after appropriate consideration, you do decide to use them to
make more effective presentations, then you must determine:
• The range of audio-visual aids available and their advantages
and disadvantages.
• How to design audio-visual aids.
• How to make the best use of all audio-visual aids at your
disposal.
These are they key issues with which we shall be concerned in the
rest of this unit.
5.1.1 What Are Audio-Visual Aids?
Quite simply, visual aids are those items which make use of
pictures or visual images (including the written word) in support of
an oral presentation. We also need to include audio aids because,
Increasingly, music or sound effects can be used to add impact to a
presentation, and some (such as video) combine visual and audio.
The range of AVA available is illustrated in Figure 5.1
Figure 5.1; Audio-Visual Aids
5.1.2 Using Audio-Visual Aids Effectively
Before deciding to use audio-visual aids as part of a presentation,
you need to be certain that they will:
• Enhance the presentation
• Not detract from its effectiveness.
• Be professionally product and presented
One of the best reasons for not using audio-visual aids is a lack of
confidence in using them. In every instance you need to be
familiar with the equipment you are going to use and to have a fallback
position of the unexpected (like a power cut) should happen.
Remember that audio-visual aids support and enhance
presentations. Presentations are not showcases for the most
technically advanced or best produced audio-visuals.
Activity:
What are the reasons for using Av aids?
Never forget that you have included audio-visuals in your
presentation of the benefit of your audience. It does not matter
what type of audio-visual you use, the following criteria must be
met:
• Language or images are selected which reflect the nature of the
presentation and represent a dimension of the subject under
discussion/being presented.
• Care is taken not to use offensive images, phrases or music.
(Do semi-clothed people actually sell cars?)
• The seating arrangements/room layouts are designed (and
double-checked by you) so that everyone can hear or see what’s
going on.
• There is sufficient technical back-up.
• You do not use effects which could upset your audience (e.g.
Loud bangs, flickering lights, strobe lights, fireworks) or even
endanger them.
• You opt for simplicity and clarity rather than complexity and
confusion.
• Always make reference to a visual.
• Don’t turn away from the audience to operate audio-visuals;
either use technical support or arrange for your and the
audience’s convenience.
• Try not to obscure visuals by standing in front of them.
• To keep attention, use audio-visuals at low attention periods
such as after lunch, before a break or towards the end of a
session.
• Rehearse.
Figure 5.2 provides more details about the effective use of
particular aids.
Activity:
What are the key points to consider when designing an AV aid?
What are the advantages and disadvantages of using words as
visuals?
Type of Audio-Visual
Using Them Effectively Additional Requirements
Prepared flip charts Usually too small for a large
audience. Very useful in small
internal presentations, including
interview presentations
Need to be clearly written. Useful
for cartoon-like illustrations.
Use non-smudge pens.
Flip chart Particularly useful in seminartype
presentations. Be careful
not to be obscure what you are
writing.
Sufficient paper; non-smudge,
bright-colored working felt-tip
pens. Can refer to previous sheets
Whiteboards
Best in teaching situation. In
formation has to be constantly
erased. Need clear, straight,
handwriting.
Similar to blackboards. Only really
useful in small training sessions.
Overhead projectors Prepare transparencies in
advance.
Keep slides in order.
Have back-up photocopies in
the even of disaster.
Check projector working. Check
your slides fit projector and are
right shape, otherwise you lose
detail.
Projector Assume this will go wrong.
Prepare slides beforehand and
check equipment
Use hand-held remote-control
model.
Build-up visuals Need to be big enough to have
an impact. Can create audience
tension.
Need careful rehearsing or
preplanning.
Physical objects Must be visible and relevant.
Attracts immediate attention.
If samples, you need sufficient for
1 1/2 times your audience.
Working models Can make or break a
presentation. Test and retest.
Good at exhibitions. Excellent
for product launches.
Always have a”spare/one that I
made earlier” if making a
demonstration. Speaks for itself.
Tape recordings Check equipment for adequate
amplification. Best for music
rather than speech unless in
classroom.
Video Well-presented video is a
presentation in itself .Try to
keep it short and relevant.
Check equipment.
Film Useful if presenting a new
film instead of video. Check
equipment.
Be interested in visual display.
Don’t distract by fiddling,
moving
Off stage or making notes.
Participate with the audience.
Introduce video, etc. as to
reason
for showering it, summarise;
Invite comments.
Satellite link-up Fraught with danger for the
novice. See most news
programmes
You may find videoconferencing
more effective for in-house
presentations.
5.2 DESIGNING
5.0 INTRODUCTION
The written or spoken word are just one means of communication,
albeit the most important. On their own, through, they can tend to
be somewhat boring – too many pages of text to wade through,
listening to a speaker for too long, etc. Can turn off the best
recipient no matter how good the form of presentation. One way
of alleviating this is the use of visual or graphical effects within
reports, booklets, manuals, information brochures and oral
presentations.
We start by following up our examination of presentations and
presentational skills by looking at the role of audio and visual aids.
In many forms of face-to-face interaction, it is very helpful to use
visual displays to assist in getting your message across – for
example, jotting down a diagram to help explain the way a system
works to a colleague. The same principle applies in presentations,
except that the way in which such visual aids are used needs to be
carefully integrated with the rest of the presentation. Here, then,
we shall examine the nature and purpose of audio and visual aids,
and how you can use them to enhance the giving of a presentation.
Our second area of study here is the presentation of statistical
information. Figures on their own- particularly lengthy tables –
convey little to the average eye, and it is usually very difficult to
pick out the important relationships between various items without
a thorough examination of the figures. Graphs, bar charts, pie
charts, etc. present the information in a more accessible form,
enabling the whole range of the subject and particular relationships
to be seen at a glance. We shall, and then examine the way in
which such visual representations can be used to draw attention to
the key points.
Activity:
Give examples of audio visual aids.
What are the disadvantages of using AV aids in presentations?
Finally, we shall consider issues of design in general and of its
application to the corporate image which companies project in
particular. Good design is essential in today’s competitive
business environment, as the expectations of the public are now
very high in this respect. We shall, then, review the contribution
of design to good business communications and examine some of
the many vehicles for conveying corporate image.
5.1 NATURE AND PURPOSE OF AUDIO AND VISUAL AIDS
This study unit is concerned with the effective use of audio and
visual aids. Although such aids can greatly enhance a presentation,
not every presentation will need them or be more effective because
of them. Using audio and visual aids in order to appear more
professional but without reflecting the purpose of the presentation
is time-wasting, costly and can make you appear more concerned
with the trivia rather than the detail of your presentation. They can
also detract from, rather than enhance, your performance – unless
they are well produced and relevant, they are a waste of everyone’s
time. The more sophisticated the technology, the worse the
disaster if anything goes wrong.
So, what is the point of using audio and visual aids at all? (Note
that we need to include the effective use of audio – the notion that
we only use visual aids in a presentation is incorrect.)
Appropriate audio or visual aids, if used selectively (with regard to
timing, format, complexity) and designed to a standard expected of
the presentation, can enhance a good presentation and increase its
effectiveness through:
• creating awareness;
• encouraging interest;
• retaining involvement;
• achieving instant result/responses;
• describing in one image an entire proposal or concept;
• being memorable;
• complementing the spoken word;
• reinforcing corporate identity.
Visual Communication
281
Activity
Give instances when AV aids would be advantages during
presentations.
What would be the most effective AV aids?
What are the issues to be considered before using AV aids?
If you are planning a presentation, you nee to ask yourself:
(a) Would this presentation be improved by using
audio- visual aids?
(b) What would be the most appropriate format?
Do not ask yourself “What audio-visual aids shall I use?” The
difference is a subtle one but the message is clear. Only use audiovisual
aids if they will enhance your presentation and are
appropriate. E.g.: During highly scientific presentations a visual
aid is appropriate, however an audio aid is unnecessary.
If, after appropriate consideration, you do decide to use them to
make more effective presentations, then you must determine:
• The range of audio-visual aids available and their advantages
and disadvantages.
• How to design audio-visual aids.
• How to make the best use of all audio-visual aids at your
disposal.
These are they key issues with which we shall be concerned in the
rest of this unit.
5.1.1 What Are Audio-Visual Aids?
Quite simply, visual aids are those items which make use of
pictures or visual images (including the written word) in support of
an oral presentation. We also need to include audio aids because,
Increasingly, music or sound effects can be used to add impact to a
presentation, and some (such as video) combine visual and audio.
The range of AVA available is illustrated in Figure 5.1
Figure 5.1; Audio-Visual Aids
Visual Communication
5.1.2 Using Audio-Visual Aids Effectively
Before deciding to use audio-visual aids as part of a presentation,
you need to be certain that they will:
• Enhance the presentation
• Not detract from its effectiveness.
• Be professionally product and presented
One of the best reasons for not using audio-visual aids is a lack of
confidence in using them. In every instance you need to be
familiar with the equipment you are going to use and to have a fallback
position of the unexpected (like a power cut) should happen.
Remember that audio-visual aids support and enhance
presentations. Presentations are not showcases for the most
technically advanced or best produced audio-visuals.
Activity:
What are the reasons for using Av aids?
Never forget that you have included audio-visuals in your
presentation of the benefit of your audience. It does not matter
what type of audio-visual you use, the following criteria must be
met:
• Language or images are selected which reflect the nature of the
presentation and represent a dimension of the subject under
discussion/being presented.
• Care is taken not to use offensive images, phrases or music.
(Do semi-clothed people actually sell cars?)
• The seating arrangements/room layouts are designed (and
double-checked by you) so that everyone can hear or see what’s
going on.
• There is sufficient technical back-up.
• You do not use effects which could upset your audience (e.g.
Loud bangs, flickering lights, strobe lights, fireworks) or even
endanger them.
• You opt for simplicity and clarity rather than complexity and
confusion.
• Always make reference to a visual.
• Don’t turn away from the audience to operate audio-visuals;
either use technical support or arrange for your and the
audience’s convenience.
• Try not to obscure visuals by standing in front of them.
• To keep attention, use audio-visuals at low attention periods
such as after lunch, before a break or towards the end of a
session.
• Rehearse.
Figure 5.2 provides more details about the effective use of
particular aids.
Activity:
What are the key points to consider when designing an AV aid?
What are the advantages and disadvantages of using words as
visuals?
Type of Audio-Visual
Using Them Effectively Additional Requirements
Prepared flip charts Usually too small for a large
audience. Very useful in small
internal presentations, including
interview presentations
Need to be clearly written. Useful
for cartoon-like illustrations.
Use non-smudge pens.
Flip chart Particularly useful in seminartype
presentations. Be careful
not to be obscure what you are
writing.
Sufficient paper; non-smudge,
bright-colored working felt-tip
pens. Can refer to previous sheets
Whiteboards
Best in teaching situation. In
formation has to be constantly
erased. Need clear, straight,
handwriting.
Similar to blackboards. Only really
useful in small training sessions.
Overhead projectors Prepare transparencies in
advance.
Keep slides in order.
Have back-up photocopies in
the even of disaster.
Check projector working. Check
your slides fit projector and are
right shape, otherwise you lose
detail.
Projector Assume this will go wrong.
Prepare slides beforehand and
check equipment
Use hand-held remote-control
model.
Build-up visuals Need to be big enough to have
an impact. Can create audience
tension.
Need careful rehearsing or
preplanning.
Physical objects Must be visible and relevant.
Attracts immediate attention.
If samples, you need sufficient for
1 1/2 times your audience.
Working models Can make or break a
presentation. Test and retest.
Good at exhibitions. Excellent
for product launches.
Always have a”spare/one that I
made earlier” if making a
demonstration. Speaks for itself.
Tape recordings Check equipment for adequate
amplification. Best for music
rather than speech unless in
classroom.
Video Well-presented video is a
presentation in itself .Try to
keep it short and relevant.
Check equipment.
Film Useful if presenting a new
film instead of video. Check
equipment.
Be interested in visual display.
Don’t distract by fiddling,
moving
Off stage or making notes.
Participate with the audience.
Introduce video, etc. as to
reason
for showering it, summarise;
Invite comments.
Satellite link-up Fraught with danger for the
novice. See most news
programmes
You may find videoconferencing
more effective for in-house
presentations.
5.0 INTRODUCTION
The written or spoken word are just one means of communication,
albeit the most important. On their own, through, they can tend to
be somewhat boring – too many pages of text to wade through,
listening to a speaker for too long, etc. Can turn off the best
recipient no matter how good the form of presentation. One way
of alleviating this is the use of visual or graphical effects within
reports, booklets, manuals, information brochures and oral
presentations.
We start by following up our examination of presentations and
presentational skills by looking at the role of audio and visual aids.
In many forms of face-to-face interaction, it is very helpful to use
visual displays to assist in getting your message across – for
example, jotting down a diagram to help explain the way a system
works to a colleague. The same principle applies in presentations,
except that the way in which such visual aids are used needs to be
carefully integrated with the rest of the presentation. Here, then,
we shall examine the nature and purpose of audio and visual aids,
and how you can use them to enhance the giving of a presentation.
Our second area of study here is the presentation of statistical
information. Figures on their own- particularly lengthy tables –
convey little to the average eye, and it is usually very difficult to
pick out the important relationships between various items without
a thorough examination of the figures. Graphs, bar charts, pie
charts, etc. present the information in a more accessible form,
enabling the whole range of the subject and particular relationships
to be seen at a glance. We shall, and then examine the way in
which such visual representations can be used to draw attention to
the key points.
Activity:
Give examples of audio visual aids.
What are the disadvantages of using AV aids in presentations?
Finally, we shall consider issues of design in general and of its
application to the corporate image which companies project in
particular. Good design is essential in today’s competitive
business environment, as the expectations of the public are now
very high in this respect. We shall, then, review the contribution
of design to good business communications and examine some of
the many vehicles for conveying corporate image.
5.1 NATURE AND PURPOSE OF AUDIO AND VISUAL AIDS
This study unit is concerned with the effective use of audio and
visual aids. Although such aids can greatly enhance a presentation,
not every presentation will need them or be more effective because
of them. Using audio and visual aids in order to appear more
professional but without reflecting the purpose of the presentation
is time-wasting, costly and can make you appear more concerned
with the trivia rather than the detail of your presentation. They can
also detract from, rather than enhance, your performance – unless
they are well produced and relevant, they are a waste of everyone’s
time. The more sophisticated the technology, the worse the
disaster if anything goes wrong.
So, what is the point of using audio and visual aids at all? (Note
that we need to include the effective use of audio – the notion that
we only use visual aids in a presentation is incorrect.)
Appropriate audio or visual aids, if used selectively (with regard to
timing, format, complexity) and designed to a standard expected of
the presentation, can enhance a good presentation and increase its
effectiveness through:
• creating awareness;
• encouraging interest;
• retaining involvement;
• achieving instant result/responses;
• describing in one image an entire proposal or concept;
• being memorable;
• complementing the spoken word;
• reinforcing corporate identity.
Activity
Give instances when AV aids would be advantages during
presentations.
What would be the most effective AV aids?
What are the issues to be considered before using AV aids?
If you are planning a presentation, you nee to ask yourself:
(a) Would this presentation be improved by using
audio- visual aids?
(b) What would be the most appropriate format?
Do not ask yourself “What audio-visual aids shall I use?” The
difference is a subtle one but the message is clear. Only use audiovisual
aids if they will enhance your presentation and are
appropriate. E.g.: During highly scientific presentations a visual
aid is appropriate, however an audio aid is unnecessary.
If, after appropriate consideration, you do decide to use them to
make more effective presentations, then you must determine:
• The range of audio-visual aids available and their advantages
and disadvantages.
• How to design audio-visual aids.
• How to make the best use of all audio-visual aids at your
disposal.
These are they key issues with which we shall be concerned in the
rest of this unit.
5.1.1 What Are Audio-Visual Aids?
Quite simply, visual aids are those items which make use of
pictures or visual images (including the written word) in support of
an oral presentation. We also need to include audio aids because,
Increasingly, music or sound effects can be used to add impact to a
presentation, and some (such as video) combine visual and audio.
The range of AVA available is illustrated in Figure 5.1
Figure 5.1; Audio-Visual Aids
5.1.2 Using Audio-Visual Aids Effectively
Before deciding to use audio-visual aids as part of a presentation,
you need to be certain that they will:
• Enhance the presentation
• Not detract from its effectiveness.
• Be professionally product and presented
One of the best reasons for not using audio-visual aids is a lack of
confidence in using them. In every instance you need to be
familiar with the equipment you are going to use and to have a fallback
position of the unexpected (like a power cut) should happen.
Remember that audio-visual aids support and enhance
presentations. Presentations are not showcases for the most
technically advanced or best produced audio-visuals.
Activity:
What are the reasons for using Av aids?
Never forget that you have included audio-visuals in your
presentation of the benefit of your audience. It does not matter
what type of audio-visual you use, the following criteria must be
met:
• Language or images are selected which reflect the nature of the
presentation and represent a dimension of the subject under
discussion/being presented.
• Care is taken not to use offensive images, phrases or music.
(Do semi-clothed people actually sell cars?)
• The seating arrangements/room layouts are designed (and
double-checked by you) so that everyone can hear or see what’s
going on.
• There is sufficient technical back-up.
• You do not use effects which could upset your audience (e.g.
Loud bangs, flickering lights, strobe lights, fireworks) or even
endanger them.
• You opt for simplicity and clarity rather than complexity and
confusion.
• Always make reference to a visual.
• Don’t turn away from the audience to operate audio-visuals;
either use technical support or arrange for your and the
audience’s convenience.
• Try not to obscure visuals by standing in front of them.
• To keep attention, use audio-visuals at low attention periods
such as after lunch, before a break or towards the end of a
session.
• Rehearse.
Figure 5.2 provides more details about the effective use of
particular aids.
Activity:
What are the key points to consider when designing an AV aid?
What are the advantages and disadvantages of using words as
visuals?
Type of Audio-Visual
Using Them Effectively Additional Requirements
Prepared flip charts Usually too small for a large
audience. Very useful in small
internal presentations, including
interview presentations
Need to be clearly written. Useful
for cartoon-like illustrations.
Use non-smudge pens.
Flip chart Particularly useful in seminartype
presentations. Be careful
not to be obscure what you are
writing.
Sufficient paper; non-smudge,
bright-colored working felt-tip
pens. Can refer to previous sheets
Whiteboards
Best in teaching situation. In
formation has to be constantly
erased. Need clear, straight,
handwriting.
Similar to blackboards. Only really
useful in small training sessions.
Overhead projectors Prepare transparencies in
advance.
Keep slides in order.
Have back-up photocopies in
the even of disaster.
Check projector working. Check
your slides fit projector and are
right shape, otherwise you lose
detail.
Projector Assume this will go wrong.
Prepare slides beforehand and
check equipment
Use hand-held remote-control
model.
Build-up visuals Need to be big enough to have
an impact. Can create audience
tension.
Need careful rehearsing or
preplanning.
Physical objects Must be visible and relevant.
Attracts immediate attention.
If samples, you need sufficient for
1 1/2 times your audience.
Working models Can make or break a
presentation. Test and retest.
Good at exhibitions. Excellent
for product launches.
Always have a”spare/one that I
made earlier” if making a
demonstration. Speaks for itself.
Tape recordings Check equipment for adequate
amplification. Best for music
rather than speech unless in
classroom.
Video Well-presented video is a
presentation in itself .Try to
keep it short and relevant.
Check equipment.
Film uUseful if presenting a new
film instead of video. Check
equipment.
Be interested in visual display.
Don’t distract by fiddling,
moving
Off stage or making notes.
Participate with the audience.
Introduce video, etc. as to
reason
for showering it, summarise;
Invite comments.
Satellite link-up Fraught with danger for the
novice. See most news
programmes
You may find videoconferencing
more effective for in-house
presentations.
Figure 5.2: Effective use of selected audio-visual aids
5.2 DESIGNING
Interviews and Meetings
354
6. INTERVIEWS AND MEETINGS
OBJECTIVES
Upon completing this section you should be able to:
• Understand the types of interview in an organization.
• Illustrate the underlying process of an interview.
• Examine the principles and practices involved in interviewing.
Interviews and Meetings
355
6.0 INTRODUCTION
If you were asked to identify the various work situations involving
the conscious exercise of oral communication, it is likely that you
would include interviews in your list.
The existence of formal meetings – for example, boards or
committees – as a means of expediting business in many
organizations brings with it its own particular forms of
communication. The second part of the unit presents an overview
of the role of meetings in business and of the way in which they
function, before going on to consider the requirements for effective
communications in respect of both the procedure and
documentation.
Activity:
What is the role of an interviewer?
List down the objectives of a selection interview?
6.1 INTERVIEWS
6.1.1 Types of Interviews
As we have emphasized throughout this course, the purpose of an
interaction is crucial to determining the communication which
takes place. We can see this in respect of a number of different
types of formal interview, thereby distinguishing the particulars of
each.
It is important to remember, at the outset, that there are two parties
to any interview – the interviewer and the interviewee – and that,
in most circumstances, the purpose must be considered from both
sides, irrespective of the particular side you are on at the time.
However, it is always the case that the interviewer has “control” of
the process, and there is a responsibility on him/her to ensure that
the process allows both parties to meet their objectives.
Not also that, whilst interviews generally represent examples of
one-to-one interaction, it is by no means uncommon for the
interviewer side to comprise a panel.
However, in essence, the interaction that takes place continues to
be one-to-one. E.g.: A panel of interviewers is most common
during an interview for high positions like by the board of
directors.
(a) Selection interviews
Recruitment and promotion interviews are the most common
perception of the interview, and are the one type of which you will
almost certainly have experience – either as an interviewer or as an
interviewee.
The objectives of any selection interview are to:
• find out whether the candidate is suitable for the job and the
organization; and
• Find out whether the job and the organization are suitable for
the candidate.
The first objective is well understood and forms the basis of most
questioning, designed to allow the candidate the opportunity to
demonstrate his/her abilities in relation to the requirements of the
post. The second objective is less well acknowledged, but should
be clear if you consider the interview from the perspective of the
candidate – he/she will not only want to show the capability to do
the job effectively, but also to find out more about it and assess
whether he/she does actually want it. As a result, the interviewer
has to provide the scope within the interview to allow the
candidate the opportunity to explore his/her concerns.
(b) Appraisal interviews
Appraisal interviews are less well-understood and, if the objectives
are not clearly stated, have the potential, to become the opposite of
their purpose.
Activity:
List down the objectives of a selection interview?
If the objectives of an appraisal interview are not clearly stated, the
entire session has the potential to become the opposite of it
purpose. Explain.
The intention of appraisal interviews is to provide a focus for
employee development, usually as part of an on-going system
which includes the provision of development opportunities. The
interview is not, therefore, a one-off event, but one of a series
between the employee and his/her manager (or other designated
appraiser). The purpose is two-fold:
• to review past and current performance in the job, form both the
appraiser and appraisee’s points of view; and
• to plan the future development of the individual
It has, therefore, a positive focus which should condition the
interview process. If conducted in a careful and sensitive way,
appropriate to this central focus, the appraisal interview can be a
positive experience, and will be of benefit to the individual and the
organization.
© Disciplinary interviews
Disciplinary interviews are held to consider whether disciplinary
action should be taken against an employee, usually in accordance
with the organization’s disciplinary procedure. This can have very
serious consequences. It is crucial, therefore, to be clear about the
objectives of the formal interaction.
The most important point is that the interview must aim to
establish the truth about what has occurred. As such, it can not be
regarded as one-sided, but rather must be a two-way process to
tease out the facts of the situation. The principles of natural justice
demand that the employee concerned must have the opportunity to
put his/her case properly, and issues of personal prejudice and
partiality have to be very carefully dealt with.
The need for careful preparation is paramount in this situation. In
particular, it should be the culmination of a process which has
included a thorough a thorough and impartial investigation of all
the issues.
Activity:
What are some of the criterion when conducting disciplinary
interviews?
In disciplinary interviews, it is usually the case that the interviewee
is able to be accompanied by a representative or “friend” – to
advise, support and possibly speak on his/her behalf, as well as
acting as a witness to the proceedings.
(d) Grievance interviews
These interviews also form part of a broader procedure – the
organization’s grievance procedure – which structures the way in
which an employee may raise complaints about his/her treatment at
work (by the organization in general or by an individual member
of it) and the steps which are to be taken to deal with the
complaint.
On the face of it, the aim of the interview is to resolve the
grievance. However, having said that, it isn’t necessarily the
solution which is the most important outcome. Often the way in
which the solution is arrived at can be just as important – even an
ideal solution may be ineffective if it leaves the participants still
feeling aggrieved (for example, because it was arrived at only after
bitter argument, accusation and counter-accusation).
This indicates that the way in which the grievance is handled is
every bit as important as the solution itself. Employees arrive at
grievance interviews with a sense of injustice. They should leave
with at least the feeling that they received a fair hearing and
consideration. The aim, therefore, in handling a grievance
interview is to arrive at a solution through a discussion which, as
far as possible, provides a satisfactory conclusion to all parties.
Activity:
What do employees hope to achieve from the organization in a
grievance interview?
6.1.2 Principles and Practice of Interviewing
Although the contexts for these interview situations are different,
we have established a number of common themes to them all – the
need for the process to be two-way, acknowledgement of the
objectives of both parties to the process, etc., We can, then, look at
them in the same way when it comes to understanding the way in
which interviews are conducted.
The principles and practice of interviewing derive directly from the
basic two-stage process we considered earlier – preparation and
delivery. We can work this through in respect of the particular
requirements of interviewing.
(a) Preparation
Each type of interview has its own general aims, as we saw above.
In preparing for a specific interview, it is important to identify the
particular objectives which apply within these. Thus, in respect of
a job interview, the particulars of the job itself – and the
knowledge, skills and attitudes required for it – will inform the
framing of the desired outcomes and the structuring of the
interview to achieve them. Similarly, the particulars of an
individual case will condition the approach in a grievance
interview.
Gathering and organizing relevant information means ensuring you
are fully conversant with the subject area of the interview – for
example, the job requirement, the employee’s appraisal records
and employment history, the details of the disciplinary or
grievance case. Picking out the salient points is likely to provide
the structure for the interview. Thus, a selection interview can be
built around the details of the job description and person
specification, or an appraisal interview planned around the
employee’s recent work experience and development activities.
It is surprising how often interviewers do not really inform
themselves about the person or persons they are interviewing. It
necessitates considering the background information available
about the interviewee to form a picture of the specific person, such
that the interview itself can be tailored to him or her in particular.
Thus, for selection interviews, the candidates’ application forms
will provide details of education and employment background,
together with some indication of experience and skills. These can
be used develop the general lines of questioning in respect of the
job description and person specification, which should be common
to all candidates, into specific questions appropriate to each
Activity:
When a panel of interviewers is involved, why should they
strategize before the interview?
Arranging the venue and setting means getting administration of
the process right – notification of times (and keeping to them),
reception arrangements if necessary, etc. – and establishing an
environment for the interview itself which will be supportive of the
objectives and help, rather than hinder, the interaction. Thus, there
should be a comfortable, private room available, with no
distractions in or around it. This may mean arranging for phone
calls to be re-directed, warnings to prevent interruptions, etc. The
physical layout needs some thought – it is usual to make the setting
informal, with no barriers between the interviewer and the
interviewee (such as an imposing desk), although some people find
that a complete lack of formality makes them feel somewhat
exposed.
Finally, most good interviewers – even very experienced ones –
generally run through what they are going to say. This can take the
form of actually rehearsing questions, particularly in respect of the
style and intonation used, or simply talking through the planned
structure with a colleague to ensure that it is correct. Clearly,
where there is a panel of interviewers (i.e. more than one), this
process is essential so that all participation are aware of the
proposed procedure.
(b) Conduct of the interview
It is important for the interview to be structured in order to keep
the process focused on the key points and to avoid irrelevant
discussion and time wasting. Remember too that the interviewer is
responsible for conducting the process and ensuring its successful
outcome.
The interview itself can be seen as a four-part event, characterized
by the acronym WASP.
W Welcome – greetings and introductions, each party to the other,
with the objective of establishing rapport and relaxing the
participants. Particular points include:
• putting the interviewee at ease;
• explaining the purpose of the interview and outlining the way in
which it will be structured;
• explaining, if appropriate, about taking notes.
A Ask – the process of questioning whereby information is sought
from the other party in relation to the objectives of the interview.
We shall be considering questioning techniques in detail in the
next unit, but other points include:
• using questions prepared in advance, based on the general aims
and specific objectives of the interview and the particular
circumstances of the interviewee;
• using open questions (which encourage developed responses
and further discussion), working from relatively general and
easy ones to more specific and difficult ones;
• listening to, and probing the interviewee’s responses.
S Supply – providing full and honest responses to questions
which will show the respondent in the best possible light,
according to their objectives. Particular points include:
• Backing up assertion with examples wherever possible;
• Being reasonably concise, particularly in the case of the
interviewer (the interviewer should only do 20 – 30% of the
talking).
P Parting - ending the interaction on a positive and cordial note,
with a clear idea of what has happened and what will happen next.
Particular points include:
Interviews and Meetings
368
Summarizing conclusions, where appropriate; Identifying when,
what and how any action arising from the interview will be
communicated.
6.2 MEETINGS – AN OVERVIEW
Note that, whilst the discussion here will be mainly focused on
committee or other formal meetings, the principles apply generally
to most types of meeting.
6.2.1 The Role of Meetings
The main functions of any of these meetings may be summarized
as:
• providing for a dialogue between members, allowing the
exchange of information, views and opinions;
• generating ideas or solutions to problems;
• monitoring and evaluating performance or progress;
• making policy and other decisions.
These general functions hold true for the meetings of informal
working groups, a school’s parent-teacher association, and
company boards and governmental bodies. There are, clearly,
differences in scale and the issues considered, but the general
purpose is the same.
6.2.2 Constitution
The particulars of the meetings of a body are determined by the
nature of the body itself and this will be laid down in its
constitution. The constitution of a body will cover such
fundamental matters as:
• Membership – who is entitled to be a member and how
membership may be determined, numbers, length of service,
etc.;
• Terms of reference – the powers and duties of the body (what it
can and cannot do and what it must do), so for example, it may
have the power to make proposals and suggestions, but not
actually to commit the financial resources of the organization;
• Timing and frequency of meetings – this will vary according to
the functions and purposes of individual bodies, so for example,
a company AGM will be an annual event, but a school
governing body may meet once a terms, or a finance committee
may meet every six weeks.
All bodies holding meetings have a constitution of some sort.
Formal committees will certainly have a written constitution,
sometimes governed by legal regulations, which spell out in detail
all these issues. However, even informal groups will have an
implicit understanding of these matters – whether they are
discussed and agreed among the members or simply taken granted.
Activity:
What are the main functions of any meeting?
What elements makeup the constitution of a meeting?
6.2.3 The Organization of Meetings
• Meetings don’t just happen – they have to be organized. This
can be considered in three stages;
• Before the meeting – the planning of what will happen;
• At the meeting – the conduct of business during the course of
the meeting itself;
• After the meeting – wrapping up the proceedings by producing
the record of the meeting and following up on the issues
discussed and decisions made.
E.g.: Never hold a meeting unless the objectives are clear. Meeting
without clear objectives are always a waste of everybody’s time.
We shall review these in very general terms now, and then go on to
look at specific aspects of the procedures and documentation in the
next two sections.
Activity:
When organizing a meeting, what are the three stages involved?
(a) Preparation for meetings
Meetings have to be planned. Efficient undertaking of the
necessary work prior to any meeting – whether it is for the AGM
of a public company, a local government committee, or a work
group – will invariably smooth the conduct of business at the
meeting itself.
The starting point is the preparation of an agenda. This is
fundamental to any meeting as it sets out, in order, the business to
be transacted. It provides, then, not only the statement of what the
meeting will consider – its content – but also defines its structure.
However, prior to that, perhaps the first step is to determine if the
meeting is really necessary! Many of us will have felt the
frustration of spending two or three hours in a meeting where no
progress ahs been made, or there was nothing of substance to
discuss, or even where it was evident that decisions had already
been taken elsewhere. Meetings are an expensive way of using
staff time and effort, so they need to be cost –effective. Therefore,
if it is not a required meeting of a formal committee, its
appropriateness or necessity should be questioned and alternatives
considered for achieving the desired outcomes
(b) The conduct of business
The proceedings of a meeting may be considered as a sort of
structured discussion. The structure is partly provided by the
agenda, but the way in which the discussion is conducted is
governed by rules of procedure. Again, formal bodies will have
very specific rules of procedure, usually codified and written down
as standing orders, but even informal groups will have some
generally understood rules about how the meeting will be
conducted.
There are a number of specific roles within all meetings. Some of
these are implicitly agreed, but more often there is a deliberate
appointment to these positions – either by election, or as a
consequence of holding a particular post in the organization. Two
of these roles are particularly important:
• the chairperson; and
• the committee secretary/clerk.
At the meeting itself, it is the chairperson who actually controls the
meeting. This is the key role in any meeting, setting the tone and
style of the meeting and generally ensuring that the business of the
meeting is efficiently and effectively conducted. However, this
role is not simply one of a passive, neutral referee of proceedings.
It is invariably a very powerful position, giving the holder the
ability to control what is discussed and how that discussion
progress.
The secretary’s role is to ensure the effective administration of the
meeting, including all work before and after the proceedings, and
to advise the meeting on the application of the rules of business.
This is a key role and, for formal committees and boards, will be
fulfilled by a senior officer of the organization. He/she will have a
close working relationship with the chairperson to ensure that the
proceedings go smoothly and the desired outcomes are achieved.
In informal meetings it is often the case that the secretary and
chairperson’s role are held by the same person.
The clerk’s role is essentially that of carrying out the work of
agenda preparation and writing the minutes, including (of
necessity) taking notes of proceedings at the meeting itself. In
many smaller bodies, this work is actually carried out by the
secretary.
Activity:
How would you make a meeting cost effective?
What role do following parties play in a meeting?
a) Chairperson
b) Committee secretary
It is worth pointing out that these roles – committee secretary and
clerk – should not be confused with the general office positions of
secretary and clerk. They are specialized and very important
positions in relation to meetings specifically.
(c) Work after meetings
This breaks down into two areas – the preparation of the record of
the meeting, and ensuring that decisions taken at the meeting are
subsequently implemented.
The particular requirements of the formal minutes of proceedings
go much further than the recording needs for most business
meetings. In essence, all is required is:
• A record of all essential information, particularly what has been
decided;
• A statement of who has to take what action.
This preserves a record of salient information and can be circulated
to all participants and others involved or interested. It is important
to remember that the information must reach all those who need to
know – either for general awareness or because action is required -
rather than just those who were present. It is helpful, though, to
direct the recipient’s attention to the relevant items in what may
often be very large reports or minutes.
Finally, it is worth noting that meetings exist to facilitate the
execution of work. It is sometimes tempting to think of them as
talking shops which have to be serviced, but have no relevance
after the event. However, if they are to have any meaning, the
discussions and decisions must be followed up and put into effect.
They then form a key participative element in the decision making
and operating processes of the organization, rather than a
distraction.
6.2.4 DOCUMENTATION FOR MEETINGS
The Agenda
The main purpose of the agenda is to set out, in order, the business
to be transacted at the meeting. As such, for formal committees
and boards, it will usually be the subject of some discussion
between a number of interested parties – the committee
chairperson, senior officers and the committee secretary. For other
types of meeting, preparation of the agenda may be the sole
responsibility of the person who will chair the meeting, but advice
may be sought on what items of business should be included.
An agenda should normally include the following elements:
• The time and place of the meeting.
• Apologies for absence.
• Provision for confirmation of the minutes of any previous
meeting, and for consideration of matters arising from them
(where the issues are not included as items elsewhere on the
agenda);
• Provision for the reporting and consideration of any
correspondence received (where the issues are not covered by
items elsewhere on the agenda);
• A subject heading for each item of business to be transacted,
together with a brief explanatory comment, if necessary (often
by reference to attached reports, correspondence, etc.);
• A final item of “any other business” to allow for discussion of
any issue which has arisen since the production of the agenda;
and
• A final, final item to determine the date of the next meeting.
E.g.: Always set agenda based on time available for the meeting
with the most important ones taking priority.
For most formal committee or board meetings, it is job of the
committee secretary (or administrator or clerk, however the post is
termed) to prepare the agenda. He/she will usually maintain a file
of items which may potentially require the committee’s attention.
These items may be derived from:
• correspondence received;
• matters referred by other committee, etc.;
• circulars and directives from other bodies (particularly
government);
• matters – usually policy issues and usually in the form of
“motions” referred by members or officers for discussion
and/or resolution.
Although it is usual for items for formal committees to be
submitted in writing, in practice there will often be the need for
discussion between the secretary and individual members, perhaps
also with the involvement of the chairperson, to clarify how items
will be presented on the agenda.
It is important to remember that, if a meeting is to be effective in
its deliberations and decision-making, members will need time to
familiarize themselves with the agenda and any supporting papers.
This means that the agenda must be sent out some time prior to the
actual date of the meeting.
When exactly will vary. The required notice of business to be
transacted may be formally stated in the constitution or standing
orders of some formal bodies. Local authority committees, for
example, have a statutory duty to have the agenda and relevant
report, etc., available for public perusal three clear days before the
date of the meeting.
Activity:
Why is it important to circulate a record of all essential
information obtained in a meeting?
In some organizations, notice of the meeting may be sent out
separately – prior to the agenda itself. In others, notice of the
meeting and the agenda may be combined.
Agenda may appear in a variety of formats, depending on the
conventions of the organization in question. The example in
Figure 6.1 combines the notice of the meeting with the agenda, and
the agenda contains all the usual necessary elements.
You should note the following points about this example:
• The headed paper gives clearly the contact number for the
secretary, so that apologies for absence can be sent, and
discussion about items of urgent business can take place.
• The prior notice provided by the date of dispatch of the agenda
in this case, almost four weeks.
• The date, time, and place of the meeting are clearly set out.
Here, they are included in the letter which gives notice of the
meeting. If the agenda was sent on its own, this would need to
be included at the top of the agenda.
• Members are specifically reminded about considering “any
other business” in advance of the meeting.
• The first four items are usually fixed for all regular meetings
and generally appear in this order. Items 7 and 8 are also fixed.
• The items which form the variable subject matter of any
meeting should have sufficient detail to enable members to
understand the nature of the item. Where appropriate, there
should be a reference to any relevant documentation.
HAMSHIRE ASSICIATION OF PARISH COUNCILS
SALEM AREA COMMITTEE
Chairman: Mr.J.Tobey Hon.Sec.:Mrs.J Pride
Bragdale Farmhouse 16, High Street
Bragdale Road Lower Allwood
Feversham LX53 8XY Settingly LX95 7DY Tel:01878
555555 Tel: 01878 888888
7 February 200X
Dear Sir/Madam,
The next meeting of the Salem Area Committee will be held on Monday
March 2nd 200X, at 7.30 pm in the Council Chamber, Salem House,
Settingly.
The agenda and supporting papers are appended. If you have items for
inclusion under “any other business”, they should be with the Secretary
no later than 5.00 pm on Friday 27 February.
Yours sincerely,
J Pride
Secretary
AGENDA
1. Apologies for absence.
2. Minutes of the last meeting.
3. Matters arising.
4. Correspondence.
5. Reports from representatives on:
(a) Police Consultative Committee
(b) Executive Committee
6. Rural Lanes Survey – Report AB/123 refers
7. Any other business.
8. Date and topic for next meeting.
Figure 6.1: Example of an agenda
E.g.: New item to the agenda especially sensitive issues like
termination and retrenchment should not be brought up without
notice.
Minutes
It is generally the case that, after any meeting, a record of what
transpired at the meeting is made. This may be in the form of a
few hand-written notes, a memorandum, a note for filing or a
report of some kind, possibly with notes for action. The
appropriate form will vary with the type of meeting and the
importance of what took place.
The situation with regard to formal meetings of a committee or
board is rather different. The proceedings of such meetings are
recorded by the minutes.
Minutes are the factual record of the proceedings and
resolutions of a meeting. They constitute a true and impartial
record of the events.
The prime function of minutes is to place on record the
proceedings of a meeting as the basis for subsequent action. The
minutes constitute the authorization for such action to be taken.
Activity:
Why is it important to circulate a record of all essential
information obtained in a meeting?
What do you believe is the right format to display minutes on
paper?
(a) The format of minutes
The way in which the events at a meeting are recorded in the
minutes is likely to vary between organizations. Each has its own
particular conventions about what should be recorded and how
they are set out.
However, there are a number of general principles which can be
identified.
As noted above, the primary purpose of the minutes is to provide
authorization for actions to be taken. As such, then, the key
element which must be recorded is the decisions taken at the
meeting.
This may be done by simply stating the motions passed by the
meeting, using the exact words of the motions as voted on. For
example:
Resolved: That the Treasurer’s Report (ref.FD.045) be adopted,
subject to the assumed Government funding becoming available
for development of the new site by the end of the financial year.
This may mask considerable debate about the issue, including the
proposing of, and voting on, various motions and amendments.
However, at the simplest level, the only important point is the final
decision at which the meeting arrived.
Whilst this is the essential element of minutes, it is often the case
that they need to go further than this in order to accurately convey
the sense and meaning of a meeting. Indeed, this may be necessary
since, in the event of a dispute as to what transpired or was agreed,
the minutes may be cited as legal evidence.
Thus, it is quite possible that the minutes will record all motions
and amendments put to the meeting (with their propose and
seconder), together with brief details of discussion and the
subsequent vote. It is also sometimes necessary to record details
about the voting on particular motions – either as totals “for” and
“against”, with abstentions, or even the way individual members
voted.
Finally, in addition to decisions taken by the meeting, it is normal
for the minutes to record events in respect of each item on the
agenda, including:
• Those members present, together with absences for which
apologies were made at the time;
• Agreement about the minutes of the previous meeting(s),
together with any changes made to them;
• Brief notes about items or issues introduced to the meeting, but
not specifically referred to on the agenda or supporting papers –
as in the case of reports or discussion about matters arising
from the previous minutes, correspondence and any other
business;
• The start and finish times.
(b) Minute writing
The production of clear and accurate minutes is an exercise
requiring many of the communication skills we have considered
previously. It is important to listen effectively and consistently, to
take accurate notes, and then to translate these into a coherent and
comprehensible written statement.
There are a number of points of good practice in minute writing, as
follows:
• The essence of minutes is that they are a brief note – i.e. a
condensed statement – of the proceedings at a meeting. As
such, they are not the same as a report. They are designed,
basically, to record the decisions taken, and that is all. On the
other hand, they need to be sufficiently detailed and complete to
convey what transpired at the meeting and to provide clear
instructions and authorizations for action.
• Where it is accepted practice that minutes should record, in
some detail, the discussions which take place, this should not
become unwieldy and over-long. It should not obscure the
central point about the decisions made.
• The minutes – as a whole and in each individual statement –
should be positive, free from ambiguity and capable of standing
on their own. For example, resolutions should not merely say
“resolved accordingly” or “resolved as agreed”, but state
precisely what the decision was, using the exact wording on
which voting took place.
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• Minute writing requires accurate and concise language,
involving objectivity and the absence of ambiguity. The
minutes should be written in third person – i.e. using “he/she”,
“they”, “them”, etc. – and in the past tense.
• It is important to emphasize the word “factual” in the definition
above. Minutes must not express opinions or give
interpretations of what has been said. They should be simple
statement of fact.
Thus, it would be wrong to write:
“The Treasurer displayed such excellent persuasive skill in putting forward her
argument that she took all the members with her.”
This should be expressed as:
“There was unanimous agreement to accept the Treasurer’s report.”
E.g.: The tone of the minutes taken has to be neutral – not
emotional, overly authoritative or accusatory – but clear enough
for action to be taken.
• Minutes should be completed as soon as possible after the
meeting. It is surprising how quickly your understanding of
your own notes can fade, and your memory of a certain
discussion grows cloudy.
• It is normal practice in many organizations for the accuracy of
the minutes to be checked with the chairperson before
circulation.
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The following example (Figure 6.2) of an extract from the minutes
of a meeting illustrates many of the points made above.
SALEM PARISH COUNCIL- GENERAL PURPOSES COMMITTEE
Minutes of the meeting held on 9 January 200X, between 7.00 pm and 9.00 pm in
The Assembly Room at SalemHouse.
1. Members present: Councillor Green (in the chair); Councillors
Brown, Black, Cyan, Grey, Maroon, Purple, Red, Tan and White.
2. Apologies were received from Councillor Jones
3. The minutes of the meeting held on 12 December 200V were
approved and signed as a true record.
4. Pay rise
After a full discussion, it was proposed by Cllr. Red and seconded
By Cllr. White that the opinions of all employees be sought by
Means of a questionnaire. An amendment that the questionnaire
Should also ask if employees would prefer a one-off or staged
Arrangement was proposed by Cllr. Cyan and seconded by
Cllr. Black. This was passed by six votes to three, and the
Motion that the questionnaire be produced and circulated
Was then passed unanimously.
Figure 6.2: Example of minutes (extract)
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Activity:
Minutes constitute a true and impartial record of the events at the
meeting. Explain.
What are the key elements to be recorded at any meetings?
6.2.5 Procedure in meetings
The proceedings of a meeting may be considered as a sort of
structured discussion. The issues for discussion, and their order,
are structured by the agenda, but the way in which the
discussion itself and general interaction of the participants is
conducted is structured by the various rules of procedure.
Constitution and Standing Orders
The proceedings of any formal meeting are generally governed by
the constitution of the committee or board, etc. – which states what
it is allowed to do – and written rules of procedure, usually known
as standing orders. The constitution and procedural rules of some
bodies are governed by legal regulations, which may lay down
specific requirements.
The constitution of the body, as we have seen, is fundamental, in
that it defines the terms of reference of any meeting and, thus,
conditions what powers and duties may or must be exercised. The
constitution also sets out the framework of meetings in terms of
their timing and frequency and also, possibly, the establishment of
certain roles.
Standing orders are concerned specifically with the way in which
meetings are run.
These rules are essential if meetings are to be conducted properly
since they cover such matters as:
• the number of members who must be present in order for the
meeting and its decision to be valid (the quorum);
• how and when question may be put;
• how motions and amendments may be moved;
• the length of debates;
• the methods of voting;
• control over the behavior of members.
Here we have a very clear example of the inter-relationship
between the written and spoken word. Written standing orders
exist to promote the effectiveness of oral communication.
Activity:
Why is it important to have a quorum at a meeting?
6.2.6 Within Meetings
As we have seen, there are a number of specific roles within all
meetings.
At the meeting itself, it is the chairperson who actually controls the
proceedings. This is the key role in any meeting, setting its tone
and style and generally ensuring that the business of the meeting is
efficiently and effectively conducted. E.g.: The chairperson usually
has to be a neutral person of authority, hence to be able to control
the participant and to be able to utilize time effectively.
His/her role can be summarized as being:
• To ensure that the meeting is properly constituted and that there
s a quorum;
• To control the meeting in accordance with the standing orders
and any other legal requirements that apply;
• to take the business in the order that it appears on the agenda
unless the committee determines otherwise), by opening the
discussion and guiding the debate such that all those who wish
to peak may do so.
• to ascertain the sense of the meeting at the conclusion of the
discussion on an item (by reaching common agreement or by
opting on a specific motion) and ensure that the decision
reached properly recorded.
In all these matters, the chairperson is assisted by the committee
secretary. This is certainly not the same as an office secretary.
He/she is likely to be a senior officer in the organization and will
be responsible for:
• advance notice of the meeting, agenda preparation, and general
housekeeping and administration (room bookings, resources
required), etc.,:
• Advising on the application of standing orders and any legal
matters (such as statutory provisions and common law
requirements) during the course of the meeting.
• Recording the proceedings accurately, distributing the minutes
and following-up any decisions after the meeting.
In many meetings, the secretary is not a formal member of the
body itself and, therefore, has no voting rights or any formal role in
discussions. However, as a senior officer, his/her contribution is
likely to be sought (or provided) on the issues involved in agenda
items and the implications of proposal and decisions.
Activity:
Give examples of the various levels of authoritative powers
possessed by the chairperson at a meeting?
6.2.7 General Rules of Procedure
All members have a general responsibility to participate actively in
the proceedings of the body. This requires a commitment to the
work of the committee and careful preparation by all concerned so
that each member is knowledgeable about the topics under
discussion.
It also means that each member has a responsibility to other
members to allow contributions to be heard and to enable
discussion to flow freely and positively. Thus, order is not just the
responsibility of the chairperson – it resides in all participants!
In order to ensure that chaos does not reign, there are a number of
conventions – general rules of behavior – which need to be
followed, including:
• acknowledging that the chairperson is in charge;
• speaking through the chair – waiting for permission to speak,
and always addressing remarks to the chairperson, not directly
to other members (although this may not be so necessary in less
formal, smaller meetings);
• keeping to the point – avoiding digression or pursing one’s own
particular agenda to the detriment of consideration of the items
before the meeting;
• interrupting other speakers only for procedural reasons – for
example, to seek clarification through a “point of order” or to
seek to give a “point of information”.
Obviously, the degree of regulation of formal committee or board
meetings is far in excess of that applying to most other types of
meeting.
However, the principles discussed here apply to all meetings.
There will always be some formal or informal rules about what the
meeting is competent either to discuss or to decide, and how it
should go about it.
Such rules may be extant and clear to all participants (or may be
clarified in the course of the meeting), or they may need to be
considered and determined during its course – as may be the case
with informal meetings of work groups. There will always be a
chairperson with a role to ensure the proper conduct of the meeting
in accordance with the points outlined above. And there will
always be someone responsible for planning the meeting and
recording the proceedings.
Activity:
What happens in the following phases of a meeting?
a) The chairperson calling the meeting to order
b) Apologies for absence
c) Minutes of the last meeting
6.2.8 Effectiveness in Meetings
Let us now take a little more time to consider how these general
rules and conventions actually apply within meetings. Although
the procedures followed for meetings and committees will vary
from one organization to another, the existence of these “rules”, in
whatever form, will go a long way towards ensuring that the
business is conducted in a coherent and professional way, using
time and resources efficiently, and minimizing the risk of
personality clashes which would be counter-productive.
As a structured interaction, meetings can be held to confirm to the
same basic principles as any other form of structured
communication – they need to be properly planned and should
have a beginning, a middle and an end.
(a) Planning
We have seen that the start point for any meeting is the preparation
of the agenda and its circulation to members. However, whilst this
sets out the structure of items for discussion, it does not constitute
a detailed plan of the way in which the meeting may go. As with
all forms of interaction, it is advisable to prepare carefully
beforehand – considering the objectives of the interaction, the
participants involved and the information required.
Accordingly, before the meeting itself, there is invariably some
kind of prior consideration of the agenda by the chairperson,
together with the secretary and, possibly, other officers. This will
concentrate on identifying the various issues involved in each item
of business, together with any desired outcome. This process of
considering how best to handle the discussion and to achieve
objectives is always useful for any type of meeting. Time for most
meetings is likely to be restricted, so it is essential that there is
clarity about what needs to be covered, and the best way of
achieving it. These pre-meeting briefing do not, however, take
decisions about the outcomes of agenda items.
(b) Opening the meeting
The introductory phase of any meeting should outline the business
to be conducted and set the proceedings in the context of previous
meetings, as well as covering any particular administrative
arrangements (such as time constraints, etc.). This is very much
the responsibility of the chairperson.
The chairperson will first call the meeting to order, to ensure that
everyone present is giving full attention, and will formally declare
the meeting open, usually stating the time of the start of business.
A check may be made that everyone has received the agenda and
any supporting papers, and is clear about the business to be
conducted and any administrative arrangements.
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The first agenda item to be taken will be “Apologies for absence”
to establish a formal record of attendance. Apologies are normally
read out by the secretary and will be recorded in the minutes.
The minutes of the last meeting need to be approved as a true and
accurate record, and signed by the chairperson. At this stage, the
responsibility lies with every member to have checked the minutes,
and to be prepared to speak up to correct any inaccuracies. This is
of particular importance if the minutes have legal significance.
Adjustments can then be made before the minutes are signed.
It is likely that action will have been taken on the basis of
decisions made at the previous meeting, or that there will be issues
arising from the discussion then which need clarification in the
light of present circumstances. The opportunity to consider such
matters, where they are not specifically covered elsewhere on the
agenda, is provided by the agenda item “Matters arising form the
minutes”. The chairperson him/herself, or any other member, may
seek information, usually from the secretary, in order to complete
the picture presented by the minutes. The chairperson needs to
ensure that there is no duplication here – the purpose is not to go
over old ground, but merely to clarify any issues arising
subsequently. Even if certain members were not present at the
original discussion, the temptation to allow them to ask a lot of
question should be resisted!
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(c) Main business of the meeting
Having completed the introductory phase, the meeting can move
on to the substantive business before it, according to the agenda.
Discussion of each item generally follows a set pattern – again
reflecting the beginning, middle and end structure we have seen in
all forms of communication.
• Introduction to the item
This will be done by the chairperson, one of the members, or an
office or other person attending specifically to provide information
about the particular item. The intension is to focus attention on the
key issues about the subject, in order to direct the following
discussion.
It is often the case that agenda items are supported by reports or
other documents which provide background information. It is
customary for the report’s author to introduce it by means of a
short presentation. The requirements of this are the same as have
been covered extensively above – careful and detailed preparation
and delivery. It is not appropriate to read verbatim from the report
or other paper9s), and the level of detail does not need to be that
great where the material ahs been circulated in advance. Rather,
the introduction should concentrate on the key issues and pick out
specific points, expanding and clarifying them as necessary, on
which the discussion should focus.
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• Discussion of the item by members
It is likely that a good many members of the meeting will have
points to make in respect of the issues under consideration. The
purpose of the procedural rules is to facilitate them doing so, such
that they can put their thoughts to the meeting and have them heard
and considered. This requires some degree of formality and order
to the discussion.
It is the chairperson’s duty to take control and impose such order.
Normally, all comments should be addressed through the
chairperson. This means that individual members do not address
each other directly and get involved in personal, potentially
acrimonious, debates across the meeting. It also helps to ensure
that only one person is speaking at a time. In order to make a
contribution to the discussion, members need to attract the
attention of the chairperson and signal their desire to speak. This,
in turn, means that the chairperson must be aware of members’
intentions at all times. The power to bring individual members into
the discussion can allow the chairperson to exercise considerable
control over the discussion, and it should, therefore, be exercised
fairly and even-handedly. It can be a source of friction where
members feel excluded, particularly if their views are opposed to
the chairperson’s.
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As a sanction to maintain order in the face of members flouting the
rules and conventions of discussion, the chairperson has the power
explicitly to exclude individuals from speaking – ruling their
contribution “out of order” – or even to banish them from the
meeting.
Discussion of many items in formal meetings often takes place
around specified proposals to be adopted as decisions of the
meeting. We shall consider the details of this below.
• Conclusion of the discussion by means of taking a decision
The purpose of discussing a particular item is to come to some sort
of conclusion about it which reflects the views of the meeting.
This may take the form of adopting a specific decision, or it may
simply be a mater of the chairperson summarizing the key points
of agreement. However, even such a summary constitutes a
decision of sorts in that it is likely to form the basis of further
action, sanctioned by the meeting.
Formal decisions taken within a meeting need to be based on a
motion proposed by one member and supported (“seconded”) by
another member. Such motions may be simply to adopt the
recommendations set out in a report, or they may be detailed
suggested courses of action put forward at the time by a member
(including the chairperson), based either on a perceived consensus
of opinion at the meeting, or their own particular viewpoint.
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Activity:
What is a motion?
How is it dealt with in a meeting?
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The wording of a motion can be very important, as it may establish
policy or commit resources. They need, therefore, to be clear and
unambiguous. For example, the following would meet this
requirement:
“That the committee authorizes the expenditure of £5,000 to
G.Gnomes & Co. to carry out landscaping work on the HQ
grounds in accordance with the proposals made in their tender
document.”
On a motion being put to the meeting, and following appropriate
discussion, the chairperson will take a vote among those present as
to whether it should be agreed and become a decision of the body.
The rules about voting are normally set out in the standing orders,
and they are likely to include provision for the chairperson’s
“casting vote” – a second vote available for the chairperson to use
in the event of tie between those for and those against the motion.
It is open for any member to put forward amendments to a motion.
An amendment is a suggested change in the wording which will
alter, to some degree, the meaning of the proposal. Amendments
which negate the intention of the original motion are not allowed –
the same effect may be had by simply voting against it.
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So, for example, the following amendment to the above motion
would be acceptable.
That the additional sentence “Payment to be made in two equal installments, based on
completion of works on the front and rear of the premises” be inserted at the end of the
proposal.
However, the following amendments would be ruled out of order:
That the word “not” be inserted before the word “authorize”.
Any amendments also need to have a formal proposer and
seconder, and should be voted on before the initial motion, so that,
if carried, the revised motion can then be considered and voted on.
All decisions made by a meeting need to be recorded precisely by
the committee secretary and included in the minutes.
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• Conclusion of the meeting
The final phase of the meeting is entered when all the substantive
items on the agenda have been considered.
There is always an item of “Any other business” on the agenda in
which members can raise issues of significance which are not
covered elsewhere. Sometimes, this is put on the agenda as “Any
other urgent business, and this is really the key to this item. It is
not intended that important and substantial new business should be
brought up at this stage of the proceedings. Members should
usually clarify with the secretary or the chairperson in advance if
they have items they wish to raise here, and the chairperson may
need to take a decision about what can and cannot be accepted,
perhaps suggesting a full discussion at the next meeting instead.
The last element is to agree the date and time of the next meeting,
after which the chairperson declares the meeting closed, noting the
exact time of closure.
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Activity:
To what extent can amendments be made to a motion?
Illustrate the importance of the end of meeting session. Why is it a
generative element of the meeting?
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6.3 CONCLUSION
The purpose of an interaction is crucial to determining the
communication which takes place. We can see this in respect of a
number of different types of formal interview, thereby
distinguishing the particulars of each.
Formal meetings of committees and boards, sub-committees,
steering groups and working groups are widely used in both public
and private sector organizations. In addition, all sorts of different
groups, within and outside business organizations, hold formal or
informal meetings on a regular or ad hoc basis. Thus, it may be
said that all organizations have a committee or meetings structure
of some sort.
Questions
1. What do employers prepare when conducting the following
interviews;
• Selection
• Grievance
2. What are an agenda and its importance?
3. There have been grievances regarding overtime payment and
claims. The managers have called for a meeting to resolve these
problems. As the committee secretary, prepare the notice and
agenda for this meeting.
4. What is a standing order?
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7 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
OBJECTIVES
Upon completing this section you should be able to:
• Examine some of the principal ways in which we can
communicate electronically.
• Understand how these communication methods can help us in
business.
• Illustrate how electronic communication caused business people
to change not only how they communicate, but also how they
actually work.
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7.0 INTRODUCTION
Although people refer to the present time as the “age of
communication”, communication has been important whatever the
century because people have always found the need to convey
information to each other. This has been true from the Stone Age
through to the computer age. The big difference now, of course, is
that we have the means to convey vast quantities of information at
great speed.
It is important to be aware that this is what computers have enabled
us to do. In other words, computers are a tool allowing us to
communicate much more efficiently than in the past.
How we choose to convey that information content will depend
upon:
• The nature of the information:
• The quantity;
• The need for accuracy; and
• Added features such as emphasis for clarity and
understanding.
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In this study unit, we will examine some of the principal ways in
which we can communicate electronically. Nowadays, the use of
Internet and email are prevalent. So we will be interested in how
these communication methods can help us in business. There is
much more to the story however as electronic communication will
cause business people to change not only how they communicate,
but also how they actually work.
Activity
What is meant by non electronic communications?
How has the advent of electronic communication modified the
current practices of communications?
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7.1 MODES OF COMMUNICATION
7.1.1 Non-Electronic Communication
Before we consider electronic communication, it will be useful to
look again at some of the basic features of more traditional
methods. This provides a contrast with electronic communication.
Face-to-face interaction
We are all very familiar with face-to-face situation.
Communication is immediate and any response or feedback is also
immediate. In addition, we are able to use body language and
voice tone in the communication to help and extra emphasis to
particular points or to convey doubts and feelings. As there is no
other form of communication where we can make this claim, this
sets face-to-face communication apart as being special. There are
disadvantages. Most of us are quite poor at expressing what we
mean, and so this form of communication can easily lead to
ambiguities. However the speed of response makes immediate
clarification possible. The biggest disadvantage of all is that both
the communicator and the receiver must be in the same place at the
same time. E.g.: When complex information needs to be conveyed
especially involving the emotion electronic communication is not
the choice.
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Telephone
This method fulfils many of the advantages of face-to-face
interaction in that there is immediacy both in conveying the
information and the response, and voice tone can be used to
enhance the message. But there are also many of the
disadvantages.
The possibility of misunderstanding is probably even greater as
there is no body language to clarify meaning. Whilst both
communicator and receiver are not in the same place, they must
both be present at the same time. Answer machines give some
flexibility in this respect, but only to a very limited extent. We
will shortly see that the telephone features strongly in most
electronic communication.
Letters
This traditional method of getting information to people without
being in the same place at the same time is also the slowest form of
communication and is only really suited to formal communication
such as initial introduction, contracts and specifications. Letter
formats have little to offer very fast electronic communication.
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Memos
This means of communication allows people to get basic
information to others within organisations. The assumption is that
the recipient will understand the full context. Nowadays, memos
have been replaced by email (electronic mail).
Fax or facsimile
A forerunner of email, it is just a method of sending a hard (paper)
copy of some document over the telephone. It allows letter type
communication without the built-in-delay of carrying the specific
piece of paper from the communicator to the recipient. You could
include fax communication within the section on electronic
communication as fax does depend on computing facilities
although it is an older form of communication. The original
document needs to be read electronically and it is the electronic
version that is transmitted over the telephone system. At the
receiving end, the electronic document is printed onto paper before
becoming accessible to the recipient.
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7.1.2 Electronic Communication
Electronic communication is the basis of our Information Society
as it gives everyone ready and easy access to vast quantities of
information.
There are several forms of electronic communication, but they all
involve the conversion of the information to a format suitable for
transmission over a particular medium. No matter which format
the original information is in, be it on paper as words or graphics,
or be it spoken, it is converted, by a computer, to the binary form
of 1s and 0s. It is digitalized. It is not necessary for you to
understand exactly how this is done or even what it means, but you
should be aware that computers use digitalized data consisting of
groups of 1s and 0s representing the two states of off and on, of
any electrical circuit.
We are familiar with the normal undulating wave format of sound,
light and radio. This is known as the analogue format. The
digitalized wave format consists of discrete values so that the
waveform appears in a square format.
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Figure 7.1
Electronic communication relies on a communications
infrastructure consisting of telephone lines, fiber-optic and other
types of cable, microwave and radio links, satellite links and
computer networks, which we call the communications medium.
If the information is being transmitted over the traditional
telephone system it will first be converted back to analogue form,
as this is the form the telephone system was originally designed to
handle. Speech is in analogue form. If it is to be transmitted
through modern fibre optic cables, it will be converted to light
waves. And, of course, radio involves radio waves. We will refer
to these format changes as coding.
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Activity:
How does electronic communication ease the flow of information?
What is meant by digitalised information?
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It is then a relatively straightforward process to transmit the data
from computer to computer. The first machine codes the
information into the required format and the second reassembles it
into the form we wish to view it.
Transmission noise
Figure 7.2
The main problem in the above scenario is the interference of the
transmission noise. This is anything that interrupts or distorts the
signal. Allowance must be made to check for this and to correct
any distortions. If, at any time, you have attempted to connect
your computer to a computer network via the telephone system you
will have heard a series of sounds. These are the computers
‘speaking’ to each other. Typically you will hear something such
as:
Information
Sources encode encode Information
receiver
Translation
Beeeeep are you there ?
Peeeep Yes , I ‘m here
Chuuusssh I’m sending a message
Burrrrr not understood
Whaaaan do you understand this ? Noise interference here
Zzzhuussst too fast for me!
Burrrzzzzz what about this ?
Chirp OK, go ahead
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Whatever communications medium we are using, it provides a
communications channel for the transmission. The capacity of
the channel depends upon its bandwidth. This is just a measure of
how much data the channel can carry. Coaxial (TV style) cable
has the lowest bandwidth whilst fibre-optic cable has the highest.
We must not confuse bandwidth with speed of transmission.
They are related, but not necessarily directly. The speed of
transmission will depend directly on the amount of data being sent
through the channel. The more informative we transmit, the
slower it travels as the channel becomes congested. On the other
hand, with a greater bandwidth, the channel is less likely to
become congested. At the other end of the scale, if only small
amounts of data are being transmitted, they can travel equally fast
over a narrow bandwidth as congestion is not an issue. The usual
metaphor used here is an airport carousel. It is moving speed
(bandwidth) remains constant. If the aircraft is half full, your bags
appear sooner and possible all together! If the aircraft a full 747,
the bags will be all jumbled up and can take a long time to appear.
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Activity:
In electronic communication, what is meant by communication
medium?
In most of these communication mediums, what are some of the
problems one might encounter?
What is the difference between band width and speed of
transmission?
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The communications medium will always allow information to be
transmitted in both directions. This then leads to problems in cocoordinating
the two-way communication link so that messages in
one direction do not interfere with messages in the other. You
need to be familiar with the following terms, as you will certainly
come across them.
• Simplex communication: only travels in one direction (i.e.
Radio transmitter).
• Half-duplex communication: allows in both directions, but
only one at a time.
• Full-duplex (or just duplex) communication: allows
transmission in two directions simultaneously. The telephone
system uses this system and so do computers.
It follows that any system we are interested in will be full duplex.
This then leads to another problem – how to maintain a separation
of the messages.
• Synchronous transmissions are co-ordinated by transmitted
data being sent at a fixed rate and the received data arriving at
the same fixed rate. Each message is then recognized as it all
arrives at this specific rate. Internal computer communication
is made this way.
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• Asynchronous transmissions use a recognized marker at the
start of the message and another at the end. This is the method
used in computer-to-computer communication.
• Parallel Transmissions involve breaking the message into
separate chunks, which are then sent by different routes to the
receiver where the chunks are reassembled into the message.
This technique is fast and is used between the computer and its
printer or a network.
Activity:
How do we maintain a separation of the messages in a full-duplex
communication?
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Finally in this section, we will look at way in which telephone
companies are meeting the demand for more transmission capacity.
• The first requirement is for a dedicated or leased line. This is
just a permanent connection between two points in contrast to
the normal telephone system, which routes the connection
through a dial-up switching telephone exchange. A dedicated
line is clearly more reliable and the connection, considerably
faster. There is also much higher security for the information.
• In conjunction with the dedicated line, the service will offer
ISDN (integrated Services Digital Network) transmission.
ISDN is also available over normal dial-up facility. As its
name suggests, ISDN enables the information to be transmitted
in digital format. Not only does this cut out the need for
encoding the information before transmission, it also offers
greatly enhanced transmission speed and accuracy.
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7.2 B. THE INTERNET
Background
You may ask: ‘What is the Internet?’ In reality, it is nothing more
than an enormous network of computer networks. It is
thousands of computers connected together.
The Internet originated with the United States military and their
fear of nuclear attack following the Soviet Union’s launch of
Sputnik, the first satellite, in 1957. To protect vital
communications within the university based technical and research
facilities of the Department of Defense, four universities in the US
west (Stanford University, UC in Los Angeles and Santa Barbara
and the University of Utah) were connected together via a
dedicated line. By 1969, four other US networks were connected
in so was born the internet. Once connections were expanded into
the normal telephone dial-up system, it became possible to bring in
computers across the world. Local comparable set-ups were
developed in many places and whole groups of computers were
connected into the system. It did not take long before we reached
the stage that we now know in which the Internet stretches to every
part of the world and, using cell or mobile phones, to places remote
from the actual computer.
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E.g. The internet is the greatest revolution of the 20th century and
communication will never be the same as our daily lives and
timelines are have shortened. Imagine still going to the library to
look for information. Do they have Google Search?
The basic component of the Internet is a computer network. At
this stage, there are two types of network of interest to us.
1. A LAN (Local Area Network) is, as you would expect, a group
of computers, which are geographically close to each other,
connected together. Typically, computers within a business or
part of a business will be connected in a LAN.
There are two principal ways (or protocols) in which data is
transmitted around a LAN:
• The Ethernet standard requires the sending computer to first
check whether the network is busy or not. If it is not, the
packet of data (we shall define a packet later) being sent is
dispatched to every computer in the LAN, but only the
computer to which it is addressed will take receipt of it. Others
just ignore it. If the network is busy, or if two computers send
out a data packet at the same time causing a collision, then the
sending computers wait a random amount of time and try again.
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Figure 7.3
• The token ring standard involves signals or tokens continuously
traveling around the network (see Figure 7.4). The sending
computer waits until a token is passing by and, if the token is
not already carrying a data packet, attaches the data packet it
wants to send, to the token. As the token passes each of the
other computers, each checks the token and the address of any
attached packet. If it is addressed to that computer the packet is
accepted and the token is then free to accept another packet.
11 22 33 44 55
55
Sender Not mine Not mine Not mine mine
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Figure 7.4
The next point we need to consider is how the data is actually sent.
As some of the message can be very large, such as a video or other
multimedia message, to send the message intact would clog up the
whole network. We have only to think of a very large load
traveling up a motorway. The police escorting the load require
everyone else using the motorway to wait behind, much to their
frustration. It would be the same across the network if entire
messages were sent intact. Instead, the message is divided up into
sections called packets.
Token
for 33
Free
Token
11
44
22
33
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Each packet is given the destination address of the whole message
and any other information necessary such as the sender’s address.
The packets are then sent out individually. If alternative routes are
available, then each packet will take whichever route is available
and convenient. When all the packets for the message have arrived
at their destination, and they need not arrive in order, the message
is reassembled.
The complete message individual packets The complete message
Packets sent by separate routes the message is reassembled
A
7 1
7 2
7 3
7 4
7 5
7 6
7 7
7 8
7 9
7 1
A
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2. A WAN (Wide Area Network) is more or less the same as a
LAN except the geographical restriction does not apply. A
packet switching protocol, as for a LAN, is used in the same
way. A WAN will probably consist of several LANs connected
together. To co-ordinate the delivery of resources across the
WAN, a server machine will be used. A server is a computer
wholly dedicated to a specific task. There are several different
tasks that servers provide.
• Some will store resources such as files and application software
which they can then serve, on demand, to the various computers
within the WAN. In those kinds of systems, the individual
computers do the processing, the server simply holds the files.
• With application servers, the server does the processing on
behalf of the client computers. It will be provide with more
powerful processing facilities in order to do this.
• In some other cases, the server is in charge of the routing of the
messages around the WAN.
Servers can fulfill a number of different tasks within the network,
but the common feature is that they are all accessible from the
individual computers and they provide some kind of service on
behalf of individual computers.
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The Internet will rank as the world’s largest WAN! However, the
Internet lacks the control and cohesiveness of a WAN. At the level
of the Internet, however, much more than simple servers are
required.
Activity:
What is the main difference between WAN and LAN?
What are the alternatives to communication if there is a server
breakdown?
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Operations
Now we will have a look at the Internet itself and how it works.
As we have already seen, it is a network of networks of computers.
The following illustration of a segment of the Internet, shows that,
as well as various LANs connecting together, there is a central
connection known as the backbone. This is a connection specially
designed to move information around the Internet at very high
speeds and it connects all the principal serves on the Internet.
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Key = Internet = LAN or WAN computer
Figure 7.6
We have already discussed the packet switching protocol used to
move information around networks. In the following discussion, I
freely refer to messages, as that is what we are sending. But in
reality, as we have seen, the message is broken up into packets.
The particular version of this protocol used by all computers on the
Internet is called TCP/IP. This status for Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol. This is just the label given to the set of
rules followed for sending messages across the Internet.
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The address of anything on the Internet is known as a Uniform
Resource Locator (URL). Both email and web addresses are
known as URLs. The crucial part of any URL is the domain. This
identifies the computer at the \receiving end of the transmission.
For instance, the domain or destination address is given by the user
with an extension such as:
name.com,
name.co.uk,
name.edu,
name.ac.uk,
name.gov.uk.
If there is no country extension such as uk, fr, de, ir etc., then the
address is registered in the United States.
• The first thing the computer does is convert the address that we
type in, into a unique IP number. (You will sometimes see the
IP number used in the address, especially in error messages).
All such addresses are held on domain name server or DNS
server. These servers hold groups of addresses in the dot.com
style. For instance, a DNS may hold all the .gov.uk addresses
of the UK Government.
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• Whenever a message is sent to such an address, the name server
used by the sender’s computer (the ISP’s computer referred to
below) will consult the .gov.uk DNS for the IP address
required.
• Each network has at least one router connected to its own
network and to one adjoining.
• A sent message first goes to the router, which then determines
the path the message should follow across the Internet. The
message is first directed to the backbone, and then is sent at
high speed across the backbone to the point closest to the ISP
computer. From there it goes to the ISP and then on to the
designated recipient.
• Frequently used paths are held in store by the router to save
time.
• If the path to the address is not known, the message is passed to
a higher level router, and so on.
The success of the Internet is due to its ability to reroute the path
followed by a message should the normal or obvious path be
unavailable for any reason. Messages can even be stored for a
short time until a path becomes available.
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Individual users gain access to the Internet via an Internet Service
Provider (ISP). This is a specialist company that provides a host
computer into which the user can dial and make a connection with
their own computer. At this point the user will be requested for a
user name and a password, both of which having been registered
on making the agreement with the ISP. Once these are checked
and accepted, a full connection is made with the ISP computer and
the user’s computer becomes part of the Internet for as long as it
remains dialed in.
Now we return to the final two types of network referred to some
pages ago.
1) An intranet is a closed network uses the TCP/IP packet
switching protocol and whose visible pages will look just like
Web pages. The network is, however, only accessible by those
with authorization, typically within one organization. In other
words, it is like a private mini Internet.
2) An extranet is a secure extension to an intranet that has a
constantly open link to persons outside of the Intranet
authorization. These are likely to be customers, suppliers,
trading partners and so on. Of course, an extranet will not give
access to the whole of the intranet.
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Activity:
What is intranet and extranet?
What are the uses of the intranet?
Can a URL communicate the status and type of an organization?
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Intranets are developing extremely quickly as businesses realize
their potential. Basically, where a business has operated a LAN,
by the addition of web servers, it can readily be turned into an
Intranet By creating a common interface across the internal
network in this way, there is a possibility of all kinds of uses.
Typically these will include:-
• email (which will already have been available over the LAN);
• pages of company, product and market information;
• on-line conferences and discussion points;
• bulletin boards, which we discuss later,
• and, through a connection to the Internet, all that is available
there.
Should the intranet be connected to the Internet, and most are, a
secure interface is required. This will prevent outside unauthorized
access to the intranet and the import of certain web pages into the
intranet.
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Activity:
What is a URL?
What is a domain?
Explain the process of how the internet looks for a message?
What is the responsibility of an ISP?
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A ‘Firewall’ is used to provide the secure interface. This is
special software designed for this purpose, as its name implies.
Most large organizations use the Internet to provide the
communication connections between their various site centered
intranets and so firewalls are used to protect the intranets (see
Figure 8.7).
The company internet firewall software
the internet
Figure 7.7
There must be no other external connection other than through the
firewall. Not only does the firewall protect the company networks
from outside threats, it also allows the company to monitor all
communications between the internal and external networks.
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Electronic Mail (e-mail)
E-mail or electronic mail has become common place in recent
years. It is simply correspondence between two or more users over
a network. Where the network is a LAN, WAN or intranet, the
network is tightly controlled and the email correspondence will be
virtually direct. E-mail is also sent over the Internet using a
version of the TCP/IP protocol for addressing. This will then
involve the services of an ISP and their router.
When an e-mail message arrives at its destination server, it is
stored in an area of that server which the user calls their mailbox.
It will wait there until the actual recipient logs into their ISP’s email
system. There are two types of system used for mailboxes;
• Messages can be retrieved to the users’ own computer where
they can be opened, read, edited and so on.
• Messages remain on the ISP’s server and the user opens and
then reads them there. This method has the advantage of
making the mailbox accessible from any computer when the
correct user name and password are entered.
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An e-mail address or URL has the form:
My-name @ my-ISP.com
first part second part extension
The first part of the address is the user name. The @ symbol is
just a separator. The second part of the address is the name of the
ISP server to which the use is registered. It ha a unique IP number.
The final part of the address is the domain name that designates the
DNS server holding the address registration.
Activity:
Describe the process the e-mail goes through before it reaches the
recipient.
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When an e-mail message is sent, the local mail server first
examines the second part of the address to identify the ISP server
to which the message is addressed. If this is the same as the local
mail server then the message is forwarded directly to the
appropriate mailbox. All other messages are sent out over the
Internet. As we saw previously, this means the message will be
forwarded to a server on the Internet backbone and the by any
available route over the backbone to the nearest point to the ISP
server. It is then directed to the ISP server and to the recipient’s
mailbox at that server.
Videoconferencing
Videoconferencing enables two or more people in different
locations to see and hear each other at the same time, sometimes
even sharing computer applications. A communications technology
as rich as this offers new possibilities for a variety of purposes.
E.g.: Videoconferencing though popular is not liked by many as
visual display of the participant may not be acceptable especially
where time zones are involved.
Placing a video call is like making a phone call. After you
connect, you see the other person in colour video and you may be
able to transfer files.
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A videoconference system must have audio-visual equipment
such as a screen monitor, a camera, a microphone and an output
speaker. The system also needs a communications link. A
broadband satellite link with studio-quality equipment gives an
excellent full-motion video connection. However, this is very
expensive. Modern communications have generated an interest in
video systems that transmit information via the Internet, which are
more realistically priced.
A very realistic solution is to make the connection using ISDN
technology. It is economical and gives high-quality
videoconferencing. ISDN works over the normal phone lines and
provides enough bandwidth for smooth audio and video
transmission. This is typically 15-30 frames per second. In
contrast, an Internet-based connection has to share bandwidth with
other Internet data and this can cause some loss of audio and
produce a jerky video.
Activity:
What are the advantages of ISDN?
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Videoconferencing connections may be limited to a closed network
such as a LAN or they may use dial-up phone links.
It is the way in which these two systems transmit the data that
marks out the difference between videoconferencing systems.
ISDN has most of the advantages:
• It adheres to standards, so systems created by different vendors
can still connect together.
• It works over regular phone lines, so no special wiring is
necessary.
• Once a connection is made, the bandwidth is available and the
quality is predictable.
• In most systems, bandwidth can be extended by increasing the
number of ISDN lines.
On the other hand, it is even more inexpensive to use the Internet.
As always, it comes down to making a choice based on the way the
videoconferencing is used. If it is just to make brief phone calls,
then the Internet is fine. But if a number of people are involved in
a technical conference, then ISDN technology will be best. Only
in the biggest organizations will a satellite connection be feasible.
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Videoconferencing over normal phone lines requires a piece of
equipment called a codec (short for coder-decoder). The codec
takes the analogue video signal, digitizes it and then compresses it.
The codec also has to decode the received transmission, and this
can take its toll on the video and sound quality. The most obvious
consequence of a slow codec or low-bandwidth connection is a
jerky picture and an audio time delay.
As you will have noted, I have mentioned that the signal is
compressed. The reason is simply that without compression, a
digitalised video requires far too much storage. In fact it would
require a large computer to store and play a full-length feature film
without compressing the size of the file. This is achieved by losing
some of the data. For instance, as we noted above, the normal
video frame rate is about 30 frames per second. Whilst more than
this is required for television quality, a lesser rate would take less
storage. This is where the jerkiness comes from.
Another, more satisfactory, technique is to only store any changes
from one frame to another. For instance, a video of a person
talking will have a fairly static background. It is therefore not
necessary to transmit the background with every frame. Even
more can be achieved in such a case as it is likely that only the
person’s mouth and eyes move to any great extent.
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Not even all the person’s face features need be transmitted with
every frame. All of this allows a great deal of compression to be
achieved without significant loss to the picture. Another technique
is jut to reduce the size of the displayed picture!
With audio, other compression techniques are used. The basic
technique here is to take a cross-section sample of the signal at
regular intervals. The number of such samples obviously affects
the play-back quality. Low quality systems use about 8000 samples
per second, whereas music quality takes about 44000 samples per
second. More than this is not practical for the normal PC
computer.
There are two principal types of videoconferencing systems, the
normal PC computer systems which display the video in a small
section of the computer screen and room sized systems which have
one or two large screens and usually display all the local audience
as well as the remote audience. The camera can be anything from
a tiny camera on top of the computer to a high-quality camera with
remote pan and zoom features. The controls available allow user
to adjust the volume, and sometimes even pan and zoom the
camera.
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The benefits of a videoconferencing system are fairly self-evident.
As a communication medium, it stands out in a number of ways,
a) First of all, it’s almost like being there. The visual connection
and interaction between participants enhance understanding and
helps participants feel connected to each other. This goes a
long way toward building relationships in a way that e-mail or
the telephone cannot. A videoconference system can be further
improved by including video or audio clips, graphics,
animations and computer applications.
b) It has also been found to heighten the motivation of learners.
c) It will improve the participant’s communication and
presentation skills as each participant is very aware of the
person at the other end.
d) It increases Connections with the Outside World, especially
where a live visit is not possible except on rate occasions.
Videoconferencing is usually easier than visiting, so
communications can be more frequent, saving time and
resources.
3. WRITTEN COMMUNICATION
3.1 THE WRITTEN WORD
3.1.1 Written Compared with Oral Communication
Written correspondence within or between organizations may take
many forms. The crucial difference between oral and written
communications will be the importance attributed to each. Oral
communication will be the basis for almost all negotiations,
liaison, team briefings and project management, but written
communication will be viewed as an endorsement of oral
statements, as having a permanence and contractual status.
Written communication can be used as evidence of previous
discussions and arrangements. It provides the history of a project
or collaboration. It justifies an activity and provides back-up and
proof.
E.g.: Written communication in an organisation is usually
considered to be more conclusive and binding compared to oral
communication.
We attach an enormously high value to written text. Once written
down, words are themselves pinned down, selected, representative,
deliberate, permanent and important in their own right in a way
that effective oral communication can never be.
If we consider graffiti, for example, it has a real permanence that a
joke or throw-away comment could never have. Words are
tangible, independent of their authors. We pay more attention to
even poorly expressed words in textual form than we would ever
give if they were spoken to us. The act of writing renders words
“true”. It is no wonder that copyright law and libel are major
issues of our time.
Written text makes information immediately available to an almost
unlimited audience simply by dint of reproduction. Photocopying
or printing processes can bring news media into our homes every
day which can be referred to again and again.
Whereas oral communication needs to be succinct and clear of
purpose, written communication has the scope to elaborate, to
justify and to manipulate information deliberately into particular
phrases to that many versions are available. When we write to
confirm arrangements, we have an opportunity to rephrase and
reinterpret meetings or oral communications in a way which we
feel is most suitable. There is a distance between the act of
speaking and the act of writing.
Similarly, in responding to oral communications we have been
influenced by body language, tone and appearance of the speaker,
and may not remember all the words spoken but gain an overall
impression of the success of the communication and have noted the
key points. A written communication is benefit of those
interpersonal skills and allows us to judge and interpret the actual
words in order to make a considered response.
3.1.2 Purpose of Written Communications
We use written communications most frequently to:
• Summarise key issues.
• Invite a response.
• Respond to other written/ oral communications.
• Establish a formal basis for the communication.
• Record the process of the communication.
• Provide a source of historical data.
• Express corporate strategy and ideology.
• Lend credibility to our utterances.
• Indicate our intent that the communication be viewed as
relevant/important.
• Access a wider audience.
• Ensure the accuracy of the message to all parties concerned.
• Share goals, visions, understanding.
• Present information/data independently of interpersonal skills.
3.1.3 Forms of Written Communication
There is a whole range of formats where information is written
down:
• Memoranda
• Letters
• Notes
• Magazine and newspaper articles
• Instruction
• Labeling
• Databases
• Books
• Directories ( including telephone directories )
• Pamphlets
• Wills and legal documents
• Company literature
• Postcards
• Signs
• Briefs
• Reports
• Business plans
There is a notion of “inter-textuality” where behind every text is
another text and that there is no such thing as an original word or
article or idea as everything has already been phrased in some way
before.
Certainly every time you write a report, letter, make notes or send
a memo you will have made reference to pervious written
correspondence.
For the purpose of written communications within the business
context, the forms that you need to make best use of are:
(a) Letters
(b) Memoranda (plus notes);
(c) Briefs; and
(d) Reports.
As letters, memos and briefs are the most frequent form of written
correspondence/communication within or between organizations,
we shall start by examining these formats.
3.2 GENERAL APPROACH TO BUSINESS
CORRESPONDENCE
In the next two sections we will concentrate on the design,
implementation and evaluation of business correspondence or,
more simply:
• What information should be included?
• How should it be presented most effectively?
• What is the purpose of the communication?
• Who else needs access to it?
• When should it be sent?
• How should it be sent?
• What type of response do we expect?
• What is the most appropriate format?
3.2.1 Letters – First Impressions
A letter is much more than the text it contains. It is a physical
document and will be judged by the recipient as such.
It is worth first considering the actuality or physicality of a letter.
What is it? Usually, sheets of paper presented within a paper or
card envelope. Note the following, however:
(a) Paper Quality
The weight, colour and texture of the paper used will make a
statement about the person or organization that sent the letter and
how they view the recipient. For example, poor quality, dirty or
even coloured paper will reflect a lack of interest in, or
commitment to, the correspondence. Is it folded to fit the envelope
or does it appear to be shoved in?
(b) Envelope
• Does the envelope match the letter?
• Does it have window?
• Was it franked or stamped?
• Is the sender’s address printed on the back of the envelope?
Bills and invoices are more likely to arrive in envelopes with the
sender’s address on the Reverse.
incorrectly folded.
(c) Logos and Corporate Image
Is the company logo represented on the letter and envelope?
(d) Typeface
• Is the typeface easy to read?
• Is the letter hand-written?
• Is the signature hand-written?
(e) General Impressions
• Does the letter appear to be one of thousands?
• Is it correctly addressed?
• Are names and places spelt correctly?
• What is the postmark?
• Was the letter sent first – or second – class?
• Is the envelope addressed in the appropriate language for the
recipient?
3.2.2 Purpose of Letters
In what circumstances are letters most used as a form of business
correspondence? I would suggest that they are used for:
• External communications
• Introductions/prospecting to new clients or potential clients
• Describing the purpose of other enclosures within the
correspondence such as product launches, dinner/function
invitations, relevant media articles, questionnaires
• Responding to complaints
• Summarising key or salient points made at a previous meeting
• Arranging future meetings, perhaps including possible agendas
• Updating or mini progress reports
• Job applications
Written Communication
3.2.5 Sending a Fax
Modern technology allows us to communicate world-wide in a
matter of minutes either by telephone or fax. The quality of fax
paper can be the determining factor as to its reception and may
lead to faxes being used selectively.
Activity:
What are advantages and disadvantages of using fax in business
correspondence?
For example, even if your fax machine can reproduce colour logos
and uses letter quality paper, the recipients of your faxes may not
have such machines. What they receive may be a blurred logo and
complicated document or important letter on shiny, flimsy fax
paper.
Activity:
Is there an advantage mailing the letter after faxing it to the
recipient?
Written Communication
If faxes are to be as effective as letters/posted or hand-delivered
written communications, then the following points are worth
considering:
(a) Is your logo/letterhead fax-friendly, i.e. will it reproduce
well in black and white?
(b) Do you ensure that you send your faxes on headed paper
and continuation sheets?
(c) Do you number all pages of the correspondence?
(d) Is your fax number clearly printed on your letterhead?
(e) Have you “blocked” the correspondence so that all text
will be faxed and you won’t lose the top/bottom or words
on the right or left?
Try to leave at least 1.5 cm margin around the entire text
on each page.
(f) How urgent is the correspondence? Would it be better to
send a good copy by post or even to hand-deliver it?
(g) Keep your copy:
o As a record of the correspondence as you would all
other correspondence; and
o For amendments over the telephone which can occur
in design briefs, advertising layout, job descriptions
and presentation details.
(h) Remember that it’s impossible to make notes or
corrections on the flimsy fax paper – you have to go to
the trouble of photocopying it first onto better quality
paper or rewriting/typing.
o Is it cost-effective to send a 40-page brief by fax?
o A fax is excellent in the following circumstances:
o For confirmation of details/booking/orders.
o As an external memo system.
o To send initial drafts or proposals.
o As an immediate written response to an external
request for data.
Activity:
Under what circumstances is it best to send information by fax?
3.2.6 Keep It Straightforward and Simple (KISS)
E.g.: A letter of complaint does not have to be worded harshly as it
may backfire or even not responded to. The objective of a
complain letter to get a positive response which will benefit you.
Dealing with written correspondence is often an underrated
function in organisations; yet in a marketing-oriented organization
it is recognized as crucial for effective and ongoing relationships
with actual and potential customers.
Marketing correspondence is not just about carefully phrased mail
shots or sales literature, but what responses are made to customers.
Letters of praise are wonderful to receive and may require an
acknowledgement to the sender and careful internal
communications to those praised and those not praised. Letters of
enquiry or complaint need to be dealt with even more sensitively
and should reflect internal communication procedures for dealing
with all information received by the organization.
3.3.3 Dealing with Complaints
(Note that we are considering the text, not layout, in these
instances. Obviously these would be produced on appropriate
letterheads.)
27 June 20.
Dear Mr. Green,
Re: telephone conversation Wednesday 24 June 19…-non-delivery of Wardrobe
It would seem that you have been unable to trace my wardrobe in your warehouse as
a further three days have elapsed since our last telephone conversation and my
wardrobe has not arrived.
I have now waited for six weeks and frankly, was it not for the fact that it forms part
of a fully fitted (matching) bedroom, would have preferred to cancel my order.
At this stage I would like a guaranteed date of delivery and recompense for the inconvenience
you have caused me. I have had to take three days’ holiday to date to
wait delivery of the aforesaid wardrobe.
I would appreciate your earliest attention to this matter.
Yours sincerely,
Mrs. J. Brown
(b) Response
28 June 20…
Dear Mrs. Brown,
Thank you for your letter dated 27 June 20...
Your wardrobe will, I’m happy to say, be delivered on Tuesday 7 July
20... At 10.00 a.m. Unfortunately there was a design fault and the
manufacturers recalled all existing wardrobes until this fault could be
rectified.
I enclose a gift voucher for Lbs.30 for use in any of our stores.
Please don’t hesitate to contact me should you require more information.
Yours sincerely,
Mr. W. Green
Activity:
Based on the response letter, analyse the suitability of the text.
3.3.4 Letters of Application – Standard Format
Activity:
In a letter of application, what are the various elements to be
included?
letter of application should:
(a) Be correctly addressed, dated, etc.
(b) Acknowledge the source of the advertisement.
(c) Make a formal application statement and refer to relevant
enclosures (e.g. curriculum vitae, application form).
(d) Link the advertised position with your own current
position and aspirations.
Activity:
Assuming you are applying for a job, come up with the
introductory paragraph of the letter?
If the letter is in place of an application form, and you have been
sent a detailed job description, answer the points in the job
description in turn, showing how you are the appropriate
candidates for this position.
If it is a covering letter, outline your experience, qualifications and
personal qualities which you feel appropriate for the position.
Finally, indicate your availability for interview.
3.3.5 Internal Communications – Memoranda
(a) Formats
Memoranda do not require an inside address, salutation, such as
“Dear Bill”, or a complimentary close, such as “Yours sincerely”.
The format using To, From, and Date is standard but the order in
which these items appear can vary. A reference (Ref) or subject
heading may not always be used. Although organizations often
have pre-printed memoranda stationery, you should remember to
us the MEMORANDUM heading for any memo that you draft for
examination purposes.
Memoranda should not be long and should be written in a concise
style. Ideally they should relate to one topic only
Here is an example of a memorandum sent to staff in one company
located on two different sites.
MILESTONE MARKETING MEMORANDUM
To : All Staff
From: Chris Weber
Managing Director
Date: 19 May 199.
Subject: Fire Drill Procedure
Last week’s fire drill was not carried out successfully. In fact many staff ignored it
and carried on with their work.
The correct procedure must be adhered to and any member of staff who does not
comply with this instruction will be disciplined.
Not only is it a legal requirement that all organizations carry out regular fire drills, but
it is also an essential safety procedure organized to ensure the safety of staff in the
event of fire.
The next fire drill will take place on Monday 20 June and on hearing the continuous
bell staff must:
(a) Stop work immediately.
(b) Close all windows and the last person leaving a work area should close doors as
they vacate the area.
(c) Leave the building quickly and calmly through the nearest fire exit.
(d) Not use the lifts.
(e) Congregate at the designated meeting points outside the building.
It is imperative that all employees follow these instructions and familiarize themselves
with the fire procedure notices in their section which identify fire exits and meeting
points.
(b) Purpose
Memos are ideal for interdepartmental correspondence where a
formal response needs to be noted and acted upon.
Usually they are requests for information required in a short time
period, or may issue orders or changes in procedures.
As a formal channel, it is perfectly acceptable to refer to memos,
dated such and such, regarding such and such a matter, in other
forms of correspondence.
They must always include the date sent, name(s) of the
recipient(s), the sender's name, the purpose of the memo and action
required.
3.4 REPORTS AND REPORTING
3.4.1 The Reporting System
E.g.: Report can be short and brief like the minutes of a meeting or
an executive summary of a proposal.
Much internal business communication will be characterized by its
reporting procedures as determined by the channels within the
organisation and the type of organizational structure used.
Activity:
What is the use of a business report?
Every employee will have to report to someone whether it is:
• A section head
• A department head
• A senior manager
• A colleague
• An auditor
There are also occasions requiring reporting such as:
• Team briefings
• Presentations
• Meetings with shareholders, directors or the chief executive
The business report is the document used for the formal
dissemination of specialist, researched information.
The commission and production of reports is crucial to the
achievement of the objectives which organizations set themselves.
Reports are likely to reflect issues, which affect personnel, finance,
production, marketing, managing the business or external political
or economic factors which could determine changes for running
the business effectively.
Not all reports arrive on your desk the size of the Yellow Pages
and just as interesting. The success of a report is reliant on the
report writer being given a clear remit and brief for the context and
content.
There has to be an agreed process for the dissemination and
evaluation of the report once it has been written. There must be an
evaluatory mechanism for dealing with any recommendations
which are made.
Reports are not always written – sometimes brief oral reports or
summaries of meetings are all that is required as the reporting
mechanism.
3.4.3 Business Report Formats
The usual format of a business report is as set out Figure 3.3.
following.
For very lengthy reports, an executive summary may be circulated
with the report, prior to the report or as an alternative to the final
report. It is often the basis for an oral presentation of the report
and allows for discussion as to its main features and
recommendations rather then wading through every page. The
executive summary would contain an outline only of the following
elements: E.g.: The audience of an executive summary are usually
top level managers and decision makers, hence the language,
content and the length of the summary has to be customised based
on the interest of the reader. The executive summary could make
or break the purpose of the business report.
• title, author and aims of the report;
• methodology and findings;
• main recommendations.
Activity:
What would be the content of an executive summary?
A short formal report is usually three-part and probably no longer
than 20 pages. It will include:
• Introduction – aims, objectives, background.
• Findings – sources.
Conclusions and recommendations.
Activity:
When would the general format of a business report?
(Introduction)
1. Title.
2. Author (name, title, status as necessary).
3. Identity of the person who commissioned the report.
4. Date report presented.
(The date it is commissioned or the date it was actually completed will not be the
same as the published or presented date. A report “comes into being” on its
presentation as live document. Prior to that date it is a draft or work in progress.)
5. Acknowledgements.
6. Table of contents, pagination.
7. Status, e.g. confidential.
(Main Body of Report)
1. Background/history/introduction/terms of reference/aims and objectives.
2. Methodology/procedure.
3. Findings, statistical data, etc.
4. Conclusions.
5. Key summary.
6. Recommendations.
7. Footnotes (if appropriate).
8. Appendices (including copies of questionnaires, standard letters, etc.)
9. Index.
10. Bibliography.
11. Circulation list (this may also appear at the end of the Introduction section
depending on the status of the report).
(b) Memorandum Report
Written Communication
MEMORANDUM
To:
Lisa Edwards
Personnel Manager
From:
Hilary Humphries
Personnel Administrator
Date: 19 October 200X.
Ref NR/BL
Subject: Pilot Flexi-time System
The following observations were made with regard to the flexi-time system
which was piloted over the last three months.
Use of the System
(a) Most staff has taken advantage of the flexi-time system during the last three
months.
(b) None of the staff using the system exceeded their limit of days owing.
Implications of the System
(a) The rules relating to the core time have meant that neither customers nor
the general flow of work has been disrupted in any way.
(b) Staff morale has improved due to the flexibility of the system. There has
been a significant decrease in absences amongst staff during the period of the
pilot scheme.
(c)The administration of the system has involved more work for Mrs.
Graves in the administration section than was originally planned.
4. ORAL COMMUNICATION
4.1 ORGANISING A PRESENTATION
We shall, in this first section of the unit, assume your role is as the
organizer, co-coordinator, facilitator or conveyor of a presentation.
Thus, a deliberate distinction is drawn between the roles of
organizer and presenter, because you need to be aware of the
different communication skills applied in each context. Although
sometimes organizers of presentations may also be requested to be
active participants in the presentation itself, the majority of
presentations are more effective if this does not occur. A presenter
does not or should not need to worry about the arrangements
surrounding a presentation, and an organizer does not or should not
need to worry about making an effective presentation.
The organizer is the only person who can have an effective
overview of the success of the proceedings and implement minor
adjustments as necessary. Similarly, the organizer is the best
person to evaluate the presentation untrammeled by concerns as to
his or her performance.
4.1.1. Organization and Planning
Whatever the context or proposed content of your presentation, it
will require careful planning. All of the following elements will
form part of the planning process – some will run sequentially,
others concurrently, so you may well be arranging speakers at the
same time as booking the venue.
Activity:
What is the role of a) organiser b) presenter?
(a) Preliminary considerations
• What is your status as an organizer (e.g. total control, reporting
to superiors, reporting to presentation team)? What sort of
organization are you working for?
• What type of presentation are you organizing? Is it fee-paying,
paid for, part of an existing public relations calendar, a meeting,
a conference, a seminar?
• By whom and how will the objectives be set? What are they?
Who determines the budget? Who reports to whom?
E.g.: An organizer is usually a support staff such as a secretary or
assistant manager. The presenter is usually a person of authority on
the subject matter.
(b) Work before the event
• Attend all necessary team briefings and meetings.
• Make up a file summarizing all the activities you will need to
organize, who your contacts are, time-scale, and deadlines and
budgeting.
• Check that you understand the requirements of your audience.
Who are they? Where are they?
Oral Communication
• Location:
Book the venue according to the requirements and budget.
Confirm the arrangements.
Check whether there are any potential sponsorship/advertising
opportunities.
Check the travel arrangements.
• Arrange speakers.
• Invite the audience.
• Special arrangements for the day itself.
Floral displays.
Audio–visual aids.
Music.
Lighting.
Sponsorship.
Food and refreshments.
Media coverage.
Press release.
Advertise event in relevant medium/media.
Access and cloakroom facilities.
Arrange supporting material/presentation packs.
Arrange signs, name badges.
Caretaking.
• Discuss potential follow-up activities at team briefings and
make arrangements.
Oral Communication
(b) At the presentation
• Meet/greet the speakers and audience.
• Double-check all previous arrangements.
• Keep a time check on the speakers.
• Liaise with catering staff.
• Remain a point of contact for all speakers and audience
members to deal with any eventuality.
• Distribute supporting material/presentation packs.
• Arrange photocopying facilities for speakers’ material in case
copies are required.
(c) Work after the event
• Ensure all parties have been paid, invoices received, etc.
• Circulate any necessary follow-up documentation to
participants (this may include evaluation questionnaires).
Thank speakers and participants for attending, etc.
• Present the final budget sheet.
• Attend post-presentation briefing and report back to teams as
necessary.
• Throughout the planning process and then, subsequently, keep
the internal market aware of the purpose of the event, its
success and the future implications (if any) for the organization.
It is important to be aware of a number of general principles about
presentations as these affect the approach to their organization.
For example, you can safely assume that you have
interesting/relevant information which needs to be communicated
to others, and that the communication will be pat of a formal
process (internally or externally).
However, there are a number of important points about
presentations which you cannot assume and which must, therefore,
be specifically addressed in the organization and planning leading
up to the event.
• All presentations are of a standard length.
• All presentations are directed at an audience of five people.
• All presentations take place externally.
• All presentations require sophisticated audio and visual aids.
• All presentations are successful.
• All presenters are equally prepared/skilled at presenting.
• Your material speaks for itself.
• Your personalities, choice of language and style have no
bearing on the effectiveness of your presentation.
• The audience is eagerly awaiting your every word.
• You have an unlimited budget.
• All presentations take place in exclusive hotel conference
suites.
• You are, or you superior is, the best person to make the
presentation.
• You have the support of your internal market.
• Advertisers and sponsors will be falling over themselves to
participate.
Finally, we can note a number of points about which you can be
certain and which, again, you will need to address in the
organization and planning.
• Presentations make use of a wide variety of communication
skills.
• No two presentations will be the same.
• Individual style has a tremendous influence on the reception of
a presentation.
• Organising presentations is extremely hard work!
4.2 PRESENTATIONAL SKILLS
Presenting information, proposals or ideas to someone else should
be easy. After all, you just need to talk to them, reach agreement
and take appropriate action. If only it were that simple! AS you
have seen from previous study units, there are many barriers to
effective communication and the most important one is ourselves.
Too often we assume that because we understand the
importance/relevance of our plans or proposals, then so does
everyone else. We forget to introduce the stages or processes of
our thinking, which would illustrate how we reached the
conclusions we are presenting. We get bogged down in a mass of
detail which disguises the simplicity of an idea.
Sometimes we are overawed by our audience, or lack commitment
in our ideas or judgement.
Activity:
What is the criterion in choosing an effective presenter?
Oral Communication
In order to present ourselves and our information effectively, we
need to show evidence of what might be termed the 6 Ps of
presentation:
• Planning
• Purpose
• Political sensitivity
• Personal commitment
• Personal commitment
• Personal communication skills (ability to persuade)
• Polish
We shall examine these in detail later, but first we shall look at
some of the key elements of making a presentation and the
different demands of different types of presentation.
4.2.1 Key Presentational Elements
The main elements which make up an effective presentation may
be summarized as in the list below. You should consider this as a
checklist to be directly and carefully addressed when planning the
delivery of any presentation.
• Understanding the difference between written and spoken
communications
• Oral communication skills (style, delivery, rapport)
• Using non-verbal techniques
Oral Communication
• Understanding your audience’s requirements
• The ability to interact with an audience
• Preparation and planning
• Knowing your subject
• Presenting enough, but not too much, information/data
• Careful selection of information/data
• Summarizing salient points
• Using appropriate visual aids
• Timing
• Reflecting corporate objectives accurately.
• Working in a team with other presenters, presentation
organizers and/or senior management.
We shall be concerned, in the following part of this section, with
illustrating these skills and how you can make your presentations
more effective by paying particular attention to them.
4.2.2 Types of Presentation
Not only does the size of the audience, the subject matter, timescale
or location vary from presentation to presentation, but also
the purpose – which determines those factors – will vary
enormously. The key to making a successful presentation is
understanding this context and you need to ask yourself:
• What is the purpose?
• Who is it for?
• What is my role in this?
• Who are the audience?
• How will it be judged? By whom?
• Are there any specific requirements/criteria which have to be
met?
4.2.3 The 6 Ps of Presentations
(a) Planning
Being well prepared for a presentation affects how the audience
perceives you and your organization, and how confident you feel
about your presentation. It will result in your using any technical
equipment more effectively and in your being able to react quickly
and accurately to any questions posed by the audience. Presenters
who apparently “think on their feet” and engage in an almost social
interaction with their audience, usually do so as a result of very
careful and detailed planning.
So, what are the elements of a presentation which you are giving
that require planning?
• Background
You will need to know the location, the timing, the running order,
and the position from which you will be presenting (e.g. on a stage,
in a meeting room, etc.). What technical equipment will be
available to you? Who will be co-coordinating the presentation
should you require additional assistance? Who are the other
presenters? What are their subjects? Who are their audience?
Why and how have they been selected? What is your role, status
and what is expected of your in this context?
• Personal Preparation
Is it necessary to adopt a particular dress code?
Are you physically prepared with relevant data as well as spare
pens, etc.?
Do you need to rehearse in the chosen location to maximize your
impact and to feel comfortable with your surroundings?
• The Presentation Itself
Does your argument follow a logical sequence?
Is the language clear enough and appropriate for your audience?
Have you researched all your data/information thoroughly? Are
your “facts” facts or fiction?
Have you timed the length of your presentation?
Will your presentation be lively and varied or delivered in a dull
monotone?
Will you make reference to the audience? (Ask questions, allow
questions.)
Do you understand what you are presenting?
Have you considered all the potential implications or perceptions
that there may be to your material? This will ensure that you can
respond to any criticism or query adequately as opposed to
defensively.
Are any visual aids produced easily visible, relevant and properly
produced?
Check who will be available to offer technical support if necessary.
The planning should allow you to take control of your
presentation. In fact, you can even set the scene by preparing
information about yourself and your presentation, with which the
co-coordinator can introduce you.
(b) Purpose
The first element of the planning stage is concerned with
identifying the purpose of the presentation being given and your
role in fulfilling that purpose.
Clearly the purpose varies from presentation to presentation, but
some presentations are for the benefit of internal audiences and
others for external audiences. In every case they are a medium for
corporate strategy, objectives or ideas to be revealed, discussed
and communicated .
(c) Political Sensitivity
Why political sensitivity? Quite simply, presenters need to be
aware of the potential impact and ramifications of the content of
their presentations. Some issues are of political sensitivity in the
largest sense (e.g. nuclear waste, closing hospitals or schools). In
other instances there could be internal politics which need to be
considered (e.g. reallocating workloads from one department to
another). There include:
• Political presentations which represent local or national politics
(e.g. party conferences, union meetings, local government
meetings).
• Presentations which are politically sensitive and need to take
account of legislation or political change in the external sense
(e.g. new processes for food production, chemical emissions,
education).
• Presentations which in their planning and execution need to
reflect sensitivity to internal political issues.
(d) Personal Commitment
If a presenter has no interest in the planning, writing or presenting
of the material then the presentation will be a disaster.
However, too great a commitment to the subject matter may result
in an inability to see the potential pitfalls or problems, and cause
the presentation to be seen as overzealous and of the preaching
type.
Too great a personal involvement in the presentation and your role
can result in an excess of nerves and over planning which destroys
the impact of the presentation.
Your commitment should be to extensive and relevant preparation,
professional delivery and your own sanity!
(e) Personal Communication Skills
It is extremely important to be able to establish a rapport with your
audience and fellow presenters. Obviously you can’t retain eye
contact with a hundred people, but you can make sure that your
physical appearance, body language and style of presentation
contribute to, rather than detract from, what you are trying to
communicate.
The following tips may come in useful:
• Wear clothes which are smart (and clean) in which you feel
comfortable. Avoid being fussily dressed or too formal.
• Try to control your nerves and the general nervous “tics” which
we all have – fiddling with pens, scratching, etc.
• Use the space you have available to you; move around it so that
the audience have to follow you and stay attentive.
• Look directly at your audience, not at your notes, the floor or
the ceiling. This is actually easier with a large audience. As
before, if you are not comfortable looking people in the eye,
look at the space between their eyebrows. This gives the
appearance that you are looking directly at them.
(f) Polish
This is the most difficult element to achieve; it rarely comes
naturally and is usually a result of practice, rehearsal and
experience. A truly polished presenter can attain professionalism
with friendliness. Don’t mistake being polished for being slick or
over-rehearsed. (“it sounds like he’s said this a million times
before.”)
Even if you have to give the same information to a variety of
audiences, vary your presentation. Remember to present the
identified benefits to each particular audience. Avoid clumsy
phrasing, jargon or rambling.
It’s worth looking at news bulletins to see how professional
presenters use their material and respond to the unexpected. Live
morning shows are an even greater test of presenters and reflect
polish to varying degrees. E.g.: Knowing and understanding the
subject matter and all its issues is one key aspect of being polished.
4.2.11 Non-verbal Communication
Body language is very important in delivering presentation, as this
conditions the rapport you establish with the audience. You need
to adopt an open stance and style which engages with the audience,
rather than distances you from them. You also need, as far as
nerves may permit, to be as natural as possible.
Depending on the particular situation (formality, size of audience,
size of room, etc.), you may be able to make a decision about
whether you should stand or sit to make your presentation.
Whichever way you do it, do not hide yourself away behind a desk
or lectern, or feel that you have to retain the same stance and
remain motionless throughout the session – a certain amount of
movement will be more natural. For example, if you are using a
lectern, it is quite acceptable to move away from it, and indeed,
such movement may help to engage the audience.
If you are the sort of person who would naturally use your hands as
you express yourself, feel free to do so, but beware of overexpansive
gestures, as this will detract from what you are saying.
It is important to maintain eye contact with the audience as a
whole. This helps to show interest in, and engagement with, your
audience. Let your eyes move over the audience and avoid fixing
your gaze on one particular individual. This is where you will see
the importance of using only cue cards rather than a full script –
you will be able to glance at your notes without losing the impact
of eye contact.
Eye contact is also important because you should all the time be
watching for feedback from the audience, and assessing people’s
level of concentration. Try to vary the intensity of your delivery to
take into account the need for individuals to refocus.
In using any visual aids, it is important to remember that you need
to maintain contact with your audience as you write. Do not turn
your back for too long, and never speak without turning to face the
front.
4.2.12 Participation
The final point in considering the delivery of a presentation lies in
respect of the way in which you interact with the audience. Oral
communications is essentially a two-way process, and although in
a presentation you will have a lot of one-way presenting of
information to do, do not lose track of the need for some degree of
participation.
At the least, you need to consider how you deal with questions.
There are, basically, two alternatives:
• leave them until the end, when you can set some time aside for
them – which provides you will more control over the running of
the session, but can be very uninvolving for the audience at the
time; or
• take them as you go along – which as the advantage of
resolving any issues at the time they arise, but can be difficult to
handle as it may throw out your timing or disrupt your planned
order of dealing with topics. This method allows for a higher
degree of audience involvement and works best with smaller, less
formal groups. However, even in larger, formal presentations, it is
best to allow some degree of questioning on points as they arise,
but do not be afraid to cut short discussion and defer consideration
of particular points to a later stage of the presentation or the end.
Whichever method you use, you need to take control over it and
explicitly state the way in which you intend to handle questions in
your introduction.
Allied to this is the question of allowing for audience response and
feedback to what you have to say. Depending on the type of
presentation, it is quite possible that people will want to discuss
issues you raise. Again, you may want these to be aired as they
arise and encourage participation and involvement from your
audience. However, in anything more than small, informal groups,
this can be very hard to control. Remember that you have a
presentation to give, not a discussion group to run! The best time
for discussion is at the end, when you done your bit and can allow
time for the audience to make their contribution.
E.g.: To control the audience, it is best to let them know that there
would be a question and answer session at the end of the
presentation
Do not, though, ignore your audience. Very often, they can make a
valuable contribution to the development of your presentation by
providing examples from their own experience and contributing
their own ideas. Obtaining their input at certain points is a useful
device for involving them, as well as bringing in real issues of
concern to them. Thus, in developing a list of, say, safety
problems encountered at the workplace, you could usefully solicit
examples from your audience, rather than just presenting your
own.
In doing this, you need to ensure that you can keep control over
what is said. It is easy to get deflected from the central line of your
presentation by the issues that may be raised. You need, therefore,
to know the types of responses you want to get, so that you can
classify the actual responses to fit in with the way you want to
develop your argument. It is important, then, that you are prepared
for such an aspect to your presentation. Just because you are going
to get the audience to contribute something, doesn’t mean that you
don’t have to plan for it.
It is helpful to record the responses you get by writing them onto a
flipchart or marker board. In doing so, you can respond yourself to
the input and perhaps put the specific instance raised into a
classification which suits you. (Remember, whenever you write
anything up during the course of the presentation, that you have to
write legibly and in large letters!).
4.3 USING THE TELEPHONE
4.3.1 Purpose of Telephone Calls
There is no area of business that is not affected by the use of the
telephone. Using the telephone as an effective communication tool
requires an understanding of the purpose of the communication
and the effect that telephone communications can have on your
audience. The postman may ring twice, but your customers or
colleagues may only ring once.
Using the telephone effectively can result in:
• An increase the level of personal contact and the development
of ongoing “live” relationships – both internally and externally,
crucially with customers/clients.
• Immediate response to issues – which may be particularly
important in maintaining good customer relations.
• Improved information flow within and around your
organization.
• A reduction in time spent writing letters (and awaiting
responses) and consequent reduction in administrative costs.
• An enhanced total quality performance of your business.
Oral Communication
Telephone activity Benefits to organization/audience
Desk research
Identify who to contact in a specific
organization.
Must have clear purpose.
Telemarketing Identify potential markets for
goods/services.
List cleaning Updating databases. Check names, status
and address of contacts.
Direct mail Follow-up call reinforces message.
Additional market research opportunity.
Issuing invitations to
customer events
More likely to gain commitment.
Recipient of call will check diary. Letters
may be filed or destroyed.
Questionnaires If brief and purposeful, useful information
can be gained.
Prospecting Allows initial research. Establishes profile
and referral process.
Appointment making Give outline as to proposal to be
discussed; give alternative dates and times.
Allows recipient to feel in control.
Customer care calls Most effective if timed correctly. 9-9.30
a.m. and 2.30-4 p.m. are often bad times
for clients working from home.
Account management Saves client money as call cost borne by
you rather than lengthy written
correspondence.
Renewing business
contacts
Re-establishes your position.
Selling Requires efficient support systems to deal
with further enquiries, sales and after
sales.
Order taking Tell (sell) what you have in stock, not
what’s unavailable.
Retrieving lost business Re-establish client contact. Client may feel
more important as a result of this selection.
Handling enquiries Key is to stay calm, listen carefully and
respond quickly to
Enquiries. Follow up referrals.
Dealing with complaints
Invoice queries
Credit control
Establish the facts. Ensures that there is a
sense that an individual, not an
organization, is concerned.
Internal calls May be more informal but a lot of
important information exchanges can be
made.
External calls – customers
and suppliers
More effective if you ring at a time which
suits them and when you have all relevant
data and question.
After-sales service/followup
calls
Prospects for future business. Helps
achieve client loyalty.
4.3.2 Successful Calls
Listening is the key to a successful telephone call. People who
communicate well on the telephone are not easily distracted. They
will listen attentively and let the caller know that they are listening
by utilizing phrases like “Yes, I see”, “I understand”. This kind
of feedback is extremely important in using the telephone since
there are not visual clues between the participants as to how the
interaction is going (Have you ever had the experience that there
was suddenly no one on the other end of the line – “are you still
there”?)
Speaking clearly and calmly is far more important than worrying
about an accent or having to use a “telephone voice”. Telephones
are in the majority of homes and nearly all businesses (it is hard to
imagine a business which doesn’t use a phone), and most people
are used to using the telephone socially. In the business context
there is no need to adopt a new persona and voice but you should
be clear as to the purpose of the call, who you are talking to and
what the desired outcome may be.
Business telephone calls often appear casual or informal but will
take place within the context of a need to share, impart or acquire
knowledge or information. Remember that every time you answer
the telephone or make a call, you should be representing the
organization to its fullest advantage. Telephone calls, like all
business communications, must be purposeful.
Callers must have a clear idea as to:
a) Who their audience is.
b) The nature of the organization they are contacting.
c) What information to convey.
d) What questions to ask to elicit desired responses?
e) What action to take as a result of the call.
Making notes prior to and during calls is a useful way of ensuring
that you cover and remember the salient points. Remember that
your attitude to the audience or client is reflected in:
• Your tone of voice.
• They type of language you use.
• The clarity with which you express your ideas.
• How attentively you listen to their responses.
• Your confidence and enthusiasm.
It is possible to write a successful business communication,
however “bloody” you feel towards the recipient. It is not possible
to make a successful telephone call if:
• Your are unsure of the purpose of the call.
• You don’t know who to contact.
• You can’t be bothered. (“I’m so busy. I just managed to fit you
in today.”)
• You feel anger towards the person you will be contacting
• You are unprepared.
Smile when you dial” is more effective than to “groan on the
phone”.
4.3.3 Telephone Technique
An effective telephone call is one when you’ve sent your message
to the audience, received appropriate feedback and are able to take
action. Even complaints can be positive and allow for more
efficiency in services provided. You must welcome calls and
callers whatever the circumstances.
The following guidelines will aid towards all your calls being
positive communications:
(a) Introduce yourself and be introduced to your caller (the
verbal handshake).
(b) Explain why you are calling.
(c) Indicate what you expect to gain from the call.
(d) Use open-ended questions to elicit information and to
gain the confidence of the person you are speaking to.
(e) Respond to any information you receive.
(f) Always reflect the organization you represent favorably
in your own attitude and commitment, even when dealing
with a complaint or difficult negotiation. Whatever your
personal views on a matter, be consistent with company
procedures or views. It may seem friendly to agree with
a client, but it actually makes you seem disloyal and your
organization characterized by fragmentation and lack of
teamwork.
(g) Acknowledge that you are still there if listening for a
longish period of time.
(h) Gain agreement or consensus as to what has been said,
agreed and what future action to take.
(i) Check that you have both drawn the same conclusions.
(j) Offer alternative options.
(k) Close by thanking the person for his or her time and taste
that you look forward to speaking to him or her again
soon.
Every call made from your organization says as much about your
company as any other area of activity can do.
4.3.4 Using Answer phones to Your Advantage
Answer phones allow organisations to get on with their business
without interruption at key moments, mean that there is always a
voice at the other end of the phone, and allow for 24-hour
communication worldwide.
They are at their most effective as a communications medium if:
(a) The answer phone message is clear, announces the name of the
company or individual, and repeats the telephone number so
that the caller is certain that her or she ahs rung the right
number.
(b) The answer phone message requests name, company name,
message or date and time called (unless digitally recorded) from
the caller.
© Messages are responded to quickly and approximately.
(d) Instructions as to when to leave the message are given (after the
long or short tone).
The caller must be able to leave his or her details clearly and
suggest an appropriate time for a return call.
It is better to hang up before leaving a message if you feel unable
to do so clearly, than to leave a bumbling, incoherent one. The
most confident telephone callers can be caught out by answering
machines – be prepared, have notes as to the purpose of your call
and leave a clear, concise message.
Oral Communication
4.3.5 Message Taking
If you answer a telephone call and take a message for someone else
you must note down certain important details:
• The name of the person the caller wanted to speak to
• Name, organization, telephone number and possibly address of
the caller
• The day, date and time
• The name of the person who took the message
• The message and any action needed, e.g. call back urgently
4.4 CONCLUSION
The role of oral communication is never to be underestimated as it
is increasingly possible to have a live presentation from a distance
through video conferencing.
Therefore before any presentation preparation is the key. By the
time you are finished preparing your written report, you should
know your subject material very well. Therefore, we're going to
concentrate on how to present that material in a speech.
Oral Communication
5. VISUAL COMMUNICATION
5.0 INTRODUCTION
The written or spoken word are just one means of communication,
albeit the most important. On their own, through, they can tend to
be somewhat boring – too many pages of text to wade through,
listening to a speaker for too long, etc. Can turn off the best
recipient no matter how good the form of presentation. One way
of alleviating this is the use of visual or graphical effects within
reports, booklets, manuals, information brochures and oral
presentations.
We start by following up our examination of presentations and
presentational skills by looking at the role of audio and visual aids.
In many forms of face-to-face interaction, it is very helpful to use
visual displays to assist in getting your message across – for
example, jotting down a diagram to help explain the way a system
works to a colleague. The same principle applies in presentations,
except that the way in which such visual aids are used needs to be
carefully integrated with the rest of the presentation. Here, then,
we shall examine the nature and purpose of audio and visual aids,
and how you can use them to enhance the giving of a presentation.
Visual Communication
Our second area of study here is the presentation of statistical
information. Figures on their own- particularly lengthy tables –
convey little to the average eye, and it is usually very difficult to
pick out the important relationships between various items without
a thorough examination of the figures. Graphs, bar charts, pie
charts, etc. present the information in a more accessible form,
enabling the whole range of the subject and particular relationships
to be seen at a glance. We shall, and then examine the way in
which such visual representations can be used to draw attention to
the key points.
Activity:
Give examples of audio visual aids.
What are the disadvantages of using AV aids in presentations?
Finally, we shall consider issues of design in general and of its
application to the corporate image which companies project in
particular. Good design is essential in today’s competitive
business environment, as the expectations of the public are now
very high in this respect. We shall, then, review the contribution
of design to good business communications and examine some of
the many vehicles for conveying corporate image.
5.1 NATURE AND PURPOSE OF AUDIO AND VISUAL AIDS
This study unit is concerned with the effective use of audio and
visual aids. Although such aids can greatly enhance a presentation,
not every presentation will need them or be more effective because
of them. Using audio and visual aids in order to appear more
professional but without reflecting the purpose of the presentation
is time-wasting, costly and can make you appear more concerned
with the trivia rather than the detail of your presentation. They can
also detract from, rather than enhance, your performance – unless
they are well produced and relevant, they are a waste of everyone’s
time. The more sophisticated the technology, the worse the
disaster if anything goes wrong.
So, what is the point of using audio and visual aids at all? (Note
that we need to include the effective use of audio – the notion that
we only use visual aids in a presentation is incorrect.)
Appropriate audio or visual aids, if used selectively (with regard to
timing, format, complexity) and designed to a standard expected of
the presentation, can enhance a good presentation and increase its
effectiveness through:
• creating awareness;
• encouraging interest;
• retaining involvement;
• achieving instant result/responses;
• describing in one image an entire proposal or concept;
• being memorable;
• complementing the spoken word;
• reinforcing corporate identity.
Give instances when AV aids would be advantages during
presentations.
What would be the most effective AV aids?
What are the issues to be considered before using AV aids?
If you are planning a presentation, you nee to ask yourself:
(a) Would this presentation be improved by using
audio- visual aids?
(b) What would be the most appropriate format?
Do not ask yourself “What audio-visual aids shall I use?” The
difference is a subtle one but the message is clear. Only use audiovisual
aids if they will enhance your presentation and are
appropriate. E.g.: During highly scientific presentations a visual
aid is appropriate, however an audio aid is unnecessary.
If, after appropriate consideration, you do decide to use them to
make more effective presentations, then you must determine:
• The range of audio-visual aids available and their advantages
and disadvantages.
• How to design audio-visual aids.
• How to make the best use of all audio-visual aids at your
disposal.
These are they key issues with which we shall be concerned in the
rest of this unit.
5.1.1 What Are Audio-Visual Aids?
Quite simply, visual aids are those items which make use of
pictures or visual images (including the written word) in support of
an oral presentation. We also need to include audio aids because,
Increasingly, music or sound effects can be used to add impact to a
presentation, and some (such as video) combine visual and audio.
The range of AVA available is illustrated in Figure 5.1
5.1.2 Using Audio-Visual Aids Effectively
Before deciding to use audio-visual aids as part of a presentation,
you need to be certain that they will:
• Enhance the presentation
• Not detract from its effectiveness.
• Be professionally product and presented
One of the best reasons for not using audio-visual aids is a lack of
confidence in using them. In every instance you need to be
familiar with the equipment you are going to use and to have a fallback
position of the unexpected (like a power cut) should happen.
Remember that audio-visual aids support and enhance
presentations. Presentations are not showcases for the most
technically advanced or best produced audio-visuals.
Never forget that you have included audio-visuals in your
presentation of the benefit of your audience. It does not matter
what type of audio-visual you use, the following criteria must be
met:
• Language or images are selected which reflect the nature of the
presentation and represent a dimension of the subject under
discussion/being presented.
• Care is taken not to use offensive images, phrases or music.
(Do semi-clothed people actually sell cars?)
• The seating arrangements/room layouts are designed (and
double-checked by you) so that everyone can hear or see what’s
going on.
• There is sufficient technical back-up.
• You do not use effects which could upset your audience (e.g.
Loud bangs, flickering lights, strobe lights, fireworks) or even
endanger them.
• You opt for simplicity and clarity rather than complexity and
confusion.
• Always make reference to a visual.
• Don’t turn away from the audience to operate audio-visuals;
either use technical support or arrange for your and the
audience’s convenience.
• Try not to obscure visuals by standing in front of them.
• To keep attention, use audio-visuals at low attention periods
such as after lunch, before a break or towards the end of a
session.
• Rehearse.
Type of Audio-Visual
Using Them Effectively Additional Requirements
Prepared flip charts Usually too small for a large
audience. Very useful in small
internal presentations, including
interview presentations
Need to be clearly written. Useful
for cartoon-like illustrations.
Use non-smudge pens.
Flip chart Particularly useful in seminartype
presentations. Be careful
not to be obscure what you are
writing.
Sufficient paper; non-smudge,
bright-colored working felt-tip
pens. Can refer to previous sheets
Whiteboards
Best in teaching situation. In
formation has to be constantly
erased. Need clear, straight,
handwriting.
Similar to blackboards. Only really
useful in small training sessions.
Overhead projectors Prepare transparencies in
advance.
Keep slides in order.
Have back-up photocopies in
the even of disaster.
Check projector working. Check
your slides fit projector and are
right shape, otherwise you lose
detail.
Projector Assume this will go wrong.
Prepare slides beforehand and
check equipment
Use hand-held remote-control
model.
Build-up visuals Need to be big enough to have
an impact. Can create audience
tension.
Need careful rehearsing or
preplanning.
Physical objects Must be visible and relevant.
Attracts immediate attention.
If samples, you need sufficient for
1 1/2 times your audience.
Working models Can make or break a
presentation. Test and retest.
Good at exhibitions. Excellent
for product launches.
Always have a”spare/one that I
made earlier” if making a
demonstration. Speaks for itself.
Tape recordings Check equipment for adequate
amplification. Best for music
rather than speech unless in
classroom.
Video Well-presented video is a
presentation in itself .Try to
keep it short and relevant.
Check equipment.
Film Useful if presenting a new
film instead of video. Check
equipment.
Be interested in visual display.
Don’t distract by fiddling,
moving
Off stage or making notes.
Participate with the audience.
Introduce video, etc. as to
reason
for showering it, summarise;
Invite comments.
Satellite link-up Fraught with danger for the
novice. See most news
programmes
You may find videoconferencing
more effective for in-house
presentations.
5.2 DESIGNING AUDIO-VISUAL AIDS
The reasons for using audio-visual aids are to:
• Illustrate the point/concept you are making/introducing.
• Reveal a product or image rather than describe it.
• Engage and/or retain the interest of your audience.
• Add variety to your presentation.
As we have said, there is little point in designing sophisticated
audio-visual aids unless they have relevance to your presentation
and add value to it. Note, too, that badly designed, although well
planned and intentioned audio-visual aids, have a more negative
impact than not using any audio-visual aids at all.
However, not everyone is a graphic designer, cartoonist,
calligrapher, desk top publisher and layout specialist. In this
section we will consider how best to design audio-visual aids
using a variety of formats but always bearing in mind that it may
be necessary to call on the experts to aid in production of the
finished article.
The starting point that you need to be clear about is:
• The purpose of the presentation.
• The need for audio-visuals.
• The most appropriate audio-visuals for this presentation.
• How and when you plan to use the audio-visuals.
5.2.1 Using Words as Visuals
Clearly, many visual aids will include words – indeed, words will
often be the dominant image on overhead projector (OHP)
transparencies, slides and flip charts, etc. you will probably want
to use them to summarise and highlight keywords or phrases.
Whenever you use words in visual displays, always ensure that:
• The text is clear, straight and large enough to be read easily
throughout the room;
• All words are spelt correctly
• Lower and upper case letters have been use properly
• There is a clear margin around the edge of the whole display
and that there is sufficient white space around the words to
enable them to stand out clearly.
It is preferable not to use hand-written text on any pre-prepared
displays (with the exception of flip charts which cannot be used in
any other way), although obviously anything written on to a
display during the course of the presentation will have to be handwritten.
The same points as above apply.
Note, though, that the point of a presentation is not to engage in a
communal reading session. You do not want your audience to be
concentrating so much on assimilating the words that they do not
follow what you are saying or miss the context in which the visuals
are being introduced. Putting words up on display
Also makes people feel that they should be noting them down and
you do not want this to occupy the audience at the expense of
listening or engaging in a dialogue.
5.2.2 Overhead Projector Transparencies
OHPs project an image from a transparent sheet onto a wall or
screen. The projection can be large or small, depending on the
needs of the room size and audience, making them a very versatile
aid in many different circumstances.
It is best not to include too much, or too complex, information on a
transparency. You do not want your audience concentrating on
reading large amounts of text on the screen, or trying to work out a
statistical table, when they should be concentrating on what you
are saying. They are, therefore, best used to display summaries –
either as an introduction to a topic to show the structure of how
you are going to work through it, or at the end as a précis of the
main points covered. They can also be used to present summary
information, such as simple charts or diagrams, or examples to
illustrate the points you are making as you go along. E.g.: OHP
and slide projectors are out dated as AV aids but are relevant in
some instances like using old materials that cannot be transferred
to a multimedia presentation or be presented in third world
countries.
OHPs have the advantage that you can refer directly to the
information being displayed – by pointing to items on the
transparency itself – without having to turn away from the
audience. You can also easily over certain items on the sheet with
a piece of paper so that, for example, a list of points can be
revealed one by one – as shown in Figure 5.3.
Figure 5.3: Revealing points one by one
Being able to prepare OHP transparencies in advance means that
you can obtain a very professional looking finish. (This is in
contrast to producing hand-written material during the presentation
itself.) Materials may be produced on computer – either from
word processing packages or specialist presentation packages –
and printed directly on to transparencies to produce the best effect.
Doing it this way may mean that colour can be used, depending on
the printer available, and that particular styles can be consistently
employed, perhaps including a company logo. However, if you
produce transparencies by hand, effective results can be obtained
by neat, clear handwriting and use of different Colours.
When using OHPs, ensure that the equipment is in working order
and is correctly positioned – both for you to use and for your
audience to see.
Using AVAs
• OHPs
Using AVAs
• OHPs
• Slides
Using AVAs
• OHPs
• Slides
• Flip Charts
Using AVAs
• OHPs
• Slides
• Flip Charts
• Videos
5.2.3 Slide Projectors
These are used mainly to display photographs, but other high
definition images may be produce don film to be presented in this
way. They are particularly useful for providing illustrations of real
items or events – such as a new product or a location.
It is also possible to use tape/slide packages, with a recorded
commentary alongside the slides. However, this can detract from
the relationship you have with your audience, so should be used
with care.
Again, if you are using slides, make sure the projector is in
working order (and that you know how to se it!) and is correctly
positioned. You also need to ensure that your slides are correctly
mounted and in the right order.
5.2.4 Flip Charts
Flip charts are very useful in a small seminar, working group or
brainstorming session, but present real problems of visibility in
larger groups.
They can be used, in a pre-prepared fashion, in a similar way to
OHPs – displaying a framework for the session (or parts of it),
notes of key points, summarise, etc. – although you cannot reveal
points one by one. However, they come into their own as a means
of displaying points during a session, particularly those raised by
participants during discussion, which can then be kept and returned
to for be review.
Activity:
What are the advantaged of the flip chart?
What are some of the principals to be adhered to when using the
flip chart?
In using flip charts, the same principles apply as above in respect
of the use of text generally, and of handwriting in particular. In
addition, you need to ensure the following:
• that you have sufficient pens available, that they all work
properly and do not dry out;
• that there is a sufficient supply of paper;
• that you do not obscure what you are writing;
• that your writing is not too small, not that it trails off the page.
Also, beware the problem of having to keep cross-referencing to
previous sheets which is time-consuming and confusing for your
audience.
5.2.5 Whiteboards
Whiteboards are plain surface display boards on which you write
using a special marker pen, as for flip charts. They may be wall
mounted (as in some purpose built training rooms) or portable.
They are an alternative to flip charts in small presentations as a
means of writing up key points during a presentation, although
they cannot really be pre-prepared.
Visual Communication
There are, though, a number of drawbacks to them:
• They need to be wiped clean when the board is full.
• They can not store material for reference as in flip charts, for
example.
• You must have clear, legible handwriting.
• You need to check that pens and cleaning cloth are available
and in working order.
• If information is left for any time at all, it tends to distract.
• They seem to establish a teacher-pupil relationship rather than a
dialogue between presenter and audience.
5.2.6 Video
Videos are widely employed in training situations and are
increasingly being used in other forms of presentations –
particularly to show the active use of products or different aspects
of situations/locations, or to introduce someone else’s views in
person, etc. There are very many commercially available videos in
most areas of training and it is relatively inexpensive to produce
them oneself on specific topics, although producing in-house
videos to the professional standard that most audiences will expect
is not easy.
Videos can be very effective if used properly – but remember that
they should be a support for your session, not a substitute for your
own input. Thus you need to explain the relevance and purpose of
the video before showing it and give some pointers for the
audience to consider whilst viewing it.
You need to be thoroughly conversant with a video before using it
– exactly how long it is, where the main points are which you want
to emphasize, where you might want to break for discussion, etc.
5.2.7 Physical Objects
It may be very useful to display materials to your audience or
present them with examples of relevant materials – samples of
products, working models, presentation packs, etc. This is
particularly appropriate at trade fairs and exhibitions, but also at
many other types of presentation.
All materials you use in this way must be:
• Easy to control and present.
• Relevant to the presentation.
• Attention – grabbing
• Large enough to be seen by everyone.
You need to be completely familiar with the products you are
handling. If you use working models, check that they do actually
work and have spares of everything just in case. In a
demonstration, “Here’s one that I made earlier” is a useful fallback
position.
Providing samples of products being presented can be very useful
– the feel, smell and look of products you are discussing say so
much more than words describing its values and properties. At a
small presentation you can hand out such samples, but at larger
ones they are best included in a presentation pack… These should
not, generally, be distributed during the presentation, as this will
distract attention from what you want to say, but can be provided
either before – to be picked up by the audience as they arrive, or by
putting them on seats – or after the session.
When handing out materials, do not push them into someone’s
hand or bag – make a gift of them, offer them up to your audience,
and relinquish them slowly so that you can make eye contact with
your audience at the same time.
5.2.8 Using Sound Effectively
In certain circumstances, sound effects may be used on their own
to enhance a presentation. These include tape recordings, live
musicians or actors, or even effects you introduce yourself.
Sound effects may be used to introduce examples of the sounds of
products, contributions by other people (although video is better
for this), etc. into the presentation itself, or to smooth the
transition between sections of the presentation. The intrusion of
external sounds into a presentation is likely to be quite dramatic
and you need, therefore, to ensure that any such effects are fully
integrated into the presentation. They must serve a purpose and
that purpose must be made clear to the audience. Music is quite
often used for the second purpose – transition – with dramatic
themes used for introducing speakers or the unveiling of products,
or suitably soothing music at the end or during a break.
You need to ensure that any technical issues are sorted out in
advance – amplification is loud enough, but not too loud, for the
audience, the quality is crystal clear (no hiss, scratches, etc. on
recordings) – and that you have rehearsed any cues with the tape
operator or live musicians as to when to come in.
One of the most effective ways of using sound in a presentation is
to make use of the silences. Make each pause one of anticipation.
It can be used as a sound effect – for example, “Listen. Can you
hear that” That’s our new model XYZ. Silent as a lamb!”
5.3 PHYSICAL SURROUNDINGS
Whilst not an audio-visual aid in itself, the physical surroundings
in which a presentation takes place can have a dramatic effect upon
its effectiveness. We can consider three such aspects.
(a) Lighting
The most important factor to remember is to check how lighting
affects the audience. Try to see your presentation from their
perspective, not from your own position on the stage or podium. It
may be comforting to feel that you can’t see your audience, but
from their perspective the whole presentation may be leaving them
in the dark.
All visual aids need their light projected from the place that causes
least shadow when they are in use. The lighting must be strong
enough to produce a clear image. General lighting available in a
small presentation will be sufficient. In a large or dramatic
presentation, spot lighting, fading in and fading out, and coloured
lighting might be used.
(b) Decor
When choosing an external location for your presentation, décor
will certainly be a factor. Internally it is more difficult to influence
décor. Use company publications and brochures to create an area
of interest, which will divert attention from hideous curtains or
carpet. Screens and curtains can be used to fence off unsightly
areas.
6.1 INTERVIEWS
6.1.1 Types of Interviews
As we have emphasized throughout this course, the purpose of an
interaction is crucial to determining the communication which
takes place. We can see this in respect of a number of different
types of formal interview, thereby distinguishing the particulars of
each.
It is important to remember, at the outset, that there are two parties
to any interview – the interviewer and the interviewee – and that,
in most circumstances, the purpose must be considered from both
sides, irrespective of the particular side you are on at the time.
However, it is always the case that the interviewer has “control” of
the process, and there is a responsibility on him/her to ensure that
the process allows both parties to meet their objectives.
Not also that, whilst interviews generally represent examples of
one-to-one interaction, it is by no means uncommon for the
interviewer side to comprise a panel.
Interviews and Meetings
However, in essence, the interaction that takes place continues to
be one-to-one. E.g.: A panel of interviewers is most common
during an interview for high positions like by the board of
directors.
(a) Selection interviews
Recruitment and promotion interviews are the most common
perception of the interview, and are the one type of which you will
almost certainly have experience – either as an interviewer or as an
interviewee.
The objectives of any selection interview are to:
• find out whether the candidate is suitable for the job and the
organization; and
• Find out whether the job and the organization are suitable for
the candidate.
The first objective is well understood and forms the basis of most
questioning, designed to allow the candidate the opportunity to
demonstrate his/her abilities in relation to the requirements of the
post. The second objective is less well acknowledged, but should
be clear if you consider the interview from the perspective of the
candidate – he/she will not only want to show the capability to do
the job effectively, but also to find out more about it and assess
whether he/she does actually want it. As a result, the interviewer
has to provide the scope within the interview to allow the
candidate the opportunity to explore his/her concerns.
Interviews and Meetings
(b) Appraisal interviews
Appraisal interviews are less well-understood and, if the objectives
are not clearly stated, have the potential, to become the opposite of
their purpose.
Activity:
List down the objectives of a selection interview?
If the objectives of an appraisal interview are not clearly stated, the
entire session has the potential to become the opposite of it
purpose. Explain.
The intention of appraisal interviews is to provide a focus for
employee development, usually as part of an on-going system
which includes the provision of development opportunities. The
interview is not, therefore, a one-off event, but one of a series
between the employee and his/her manager (or other designated
appraiser). The purpose is two-fold:
• to review past and current performance in the job, form both the
appraiser and appraisee’s points of view; and
• to plan the future development of the individual
It has, therefore, a positive focus which should condition the
interview process. If conducted in a careful and sensitive way,
appropriate to this central focus, the appraisal interview can be a
positive experience, and will be of benefit to the individual and the
organization.
© Disciplinary interviews
Disciplinary interviews are held to consider whether disciplinary
action should be taken against an employee, usually in accordance
with the organization’s disciplinary procedure. This can have very
serious consequences. It is crucial, therefore, to be clear about the
objectives of the formal interaction.
The most important point is that the interview must aim to
establish the truth about what has occurred. As such, it can not be
regarded as one-sided, but rather must be a two-way process to
tease out the facts of the situation. The principles of natural justice
demand that the employee concerned must have the opportunity to
put his/her case properly, and issues of personal prejudice and
partiality have to be very carefully dealt with.
The need for careful preparation is paramount in this situation. In
particular, it should be the culmination of a process which has
included a thorough a thorough and impartial investigation of all
the issues.
Activity:
What are some of the criterion when conducting disciplinary
interviews?
In disciplinary interviews, it is usually the case that the interviewee
is able to be accompanied by a representative or “friend” – to
advise, support and possibly speak on his/her behalf, as well as
acting as a witness to the proceedings.
(d) Grievance interviews
These interviews also form part of a broader procedure – the
organization’s grievance procedure – which structures the way in
which an employee may raise complaints about his/her treatment at
work (by the organization in general or by an individual member
of it) and the steps which are to be taken to deal with the
complaint.
On the face of it, the aim of the interview is to resolve the
grievance. However, having said that, it isn’t necessarily the
solution which is the most important outcome. Often the way in
which the solution is arrived at can be just as important – even an
ideal solution may be ineffective if it leaves the participants still
feeling aggrieved (for example, because it was arrived at only after
bitter argument, accusation and counter-accusation).
This indicates that the way in which the grievance is handled is
every bit as important as the solution itself. Employees arrive at
grievance interviews with a sense of injustice. They should leave
with at least the feeling that they received a fair hearing and
consideration. The aim, therefore, in handling a grievance
interview is to arrive at a solution through a discussion which, as
far as possible, provides a satisfactory conclusion to all parties.
Activity:
What do employees hope to achieve from the organization in a
grievance interview?
Interviews and Meetings
6.1.2 Principles and Practice of Interviewing
Although the contexts for these interview situations are different,
we have established a number of common themes to them all – the
need for the process to be two-way, acknowledgement of the
objectives of both parties to the process, etc., We can, then, look at
them in the same way when it comes to understanding the way in
which interviews are conducted.
The principles and practice of interviewing derive directly from the
basic two-stage process we considered earlier – preparation and
delivery. We can work this through in respect of the particular
requirements of interviewing.
(a) Preparation
Each type of interview has its own general aims, as we saw above.
In preparing for a specific interview, it is important to identify the
particular objectives which apply within these. Thus, in respect of
a job interview, the particulars of the job itself – and the
knowledge, skills and attitudes required for it – will inform the
framing of the desired outcomes and the structuring of the
interview to achieve them. Similarly, the particulars of an
individual case will condition the approach in a grievance
interview.
Gathering and organizing relevant information means ensuring you
are fully conversant with the subject area of the interview – for
example, the job requirement, the employee’s appraisal records
and employment history, the details of the disciplinary or
grievance case. Picking out the salient points is likely to provide
the structure for the interview. Thus, a selection interview can be
built around the details of the job description and person
specification, or an appraisal interview planned around the
employee’s recent work experience and development activities.
It is surprising how often interviewers do not really inform
themselves about the person or persons they are interviewing. It
necessitates considering the background information available
about the interviewee to form a picture of the specific person, such
that the interview itself can be tailored to him or her in particular.
Thus, for selection interviews, the candidates’ application forms
will provide details of education and employment background,
together with some indication of experience and skills. These can
be used develop the general lines of questioning in respect of the
job description and person specification, which should be common
to all candidates, into specific questions appropriate to each
individual.
Finally, most good interviewers – even very experienced ones –
generally run through what they are going to say. This can take the
form of actually rehearsing questions, particularly in respect of the
style and intonation used, or simply talking through the planned
structure with a colleague to ensure that it is correct. Clearly,
where there is a panel of interviewers (i.e. more than one), this
process is essential so that all participation are aware of the
proposed procedure.
(b) Conduct of the interview
It is important for the interview to be structured in order to keep
the process focused on the key points and to avoid irrelevant
discussion and time wasting. Remember too that the interviewer is
responsible for conducting the process and ensuring its successful
outcome.
The interview itself can be seen as a four-part event, characterized
by the acronym WASP.
W Welcome – greetings and introductions, each party to the other,
with the objective of establishing rapport and relaxing the
participants. Particular points include:
• putting the interviewee at ease;
• explaining the purpose of the interview and outlining the way in
which it will be structured;
• explaining, if appropriate, about taking notes.
A Ask – the process of questioning whereby information is sought
from the other party in relation to the objectives of the interview.
We shall be considering questioning techniques in detail in the
next unit, but other points include:
• using questions prepared in advance, based on the general aims
and specific objectives of the interview and the particular
circumstances of the interviewee;
• using open questions (which encourage developed responses
and further discussion), working from relatively general and
easy ones to more specific and difficult ones;
• listening to, and probing the interviewee’s responses.
S Supply – providing full and honest responses to questions
which will show the respondent in the best possible light,
according to their objectives. Particular points include:
• Backing up assertion with examples wherever possible;
• Being reasonably concise, particularly in the case of the
interviewer (the interviewer should only do 20 – 30% of the
talking).
P Parting - ending the interaction on a positive and cordial note,
with a clear idea of what has happened and what will happen next.
Particular points include:
Interviews and Meetings
Summarizing conclusions, where appropriate; Identifying when,
what and how any action arising from the interview will be
communicated.
6.2 MEETINGS – AN OVERVIEW
Note that, whilst the discussion here will be mainly focused on
committee or other formal meetings, the principles apply generally
to most types of meeting.
6.2.1 The Role of Meetings
The main functions of any of these meetings may be summarized
as:
• providing for a dialogue between members, allowing the
exchange of information, views and opinions;
• generating ideas or solutions to problems;
• monitoring and evaluating performance or progress;
• making policy and other decisions.
These general functions hold true for the meetings of informal
working groups, a school’s parent-teacher association, and
company boards and governmental bodies. There are, clearly,
differences in scale and the issues considered, but the general
purpose is the same.
6.2.2 Constitution
The particulars of the meetings of a body are determined by the
nature of the body itself and this will be laid down in its
constitution. The constitution of a body will cover such
fundamental matters as:
• Membership – who is entitled to be a member and how
membership may be determined, numbers, length of service,
etc.;
• Terms of reference – the powers and duties of the body (what it
can and cannot do and what it must do), so for example, it may
have the power to make proposals and suggestions, but not
actually to commit the financial resources of the organization;
• Timing and frequency of meetings – this will vary according to
the functions and purposes of individual bodies, so for example,
a company AGM will be an annual event, but a school
governing body may meet once a terms, or a finance committee
may meet every six weeks.
All bodies holding meetings have a constitution of some sort.
Formal committees will certainly have a written constitution,
sometimes governed by legal regulations, which spell out in detail
all these issues. However, even informal groups will have an
implicit understanding of these matters – whether they are
discussed and agreed among the members or simply taken granted.
6.2.3 The Organization of Meetings
• Meetings don’t just happen – they have to be organized. This
can be considered in three stages;
• Before the meeting – the planning of what will happen;
• At the meeting – the conduct of business during the course of
the meeting itself;
• After the meeting – wrapping up the proceedings by producing
the record of the meeting and following up on the issues
discussed and decisions made.
E.g.: Never hold a meeting unless the objectives are clear. Meeting
without clear objectives are always a waste of everybody’s time.
We shall review these in very general terms now, and then go on to
look at specific aspects of the procedures and documentation in the
next two sections.
Activity:
When organizing a meeting, what are the three stages involved?
(a) Preparation for meetings
Meetings have to be planned. Efficient undertaking of the
necessary work prior to any meeting – whether it is for the AGM
of a public company, a local government committee, or a work
group – will invariably smooth the conduct of business at the
meeting itself.
The starting point is the preparation of an agenda. This is
fundamental to any meeting as it sets out, in order, the business to
be transacted. It provides, then, not only the statement of what the
meeting will consider – its content – but also defines its structure.
However, prior to that, perhaps the first step is to determine if the
meeting is really necessary! Many of us will have felt the
frustration of spending two or three hours in a meeting where no
progress ahs been made, or there was nothing of substance to
discuss, or even where it was evident that decisions had already
been taken elsewhere. Meetings are an expensive way of using
staff time and effort, so they need to be cost –effective. Therefore,
if it is not a required meeting of a formal committee, its
appropriateness or necessity should be questioned and alternatives
considered for achieving the desired outcomes
Interviews and Meetings
(b) The conduct of business
The proceedings of a meeting may be considered as a sort of
structured discussion. The structure is partly provided by the
agenda, but the way in which the discussion is conducted is
governed by rules of procedure. Again, formal bodies will have
very specific rules of procedure, usually codified and written down
as standing orders, but even informal groups will have some
generally understood rules about how the meeting will be
conducted.
There are a number of specific roles within all meetings. Some of
these are implicitly agreed, but more often there is a deliberate
appointment to these positions – either by election, or as a
consequence of holding a particular post in the organization. Two
of these roles are particularly important:
• the chairperson; and
• the committee secretary/clerk.
At the meeting itself, it is the chairperson who actually controls the
meeting. This is the key role in any meeting, setting the tone and
style of the meeting and generally ensuring that the business of the
meeting is efficiently and effectively conducted. However, this
role is not simply one of a passive, neutral referee of proceedings.
It is invariably a very powerful position, giving the holder the
ability to control what is discussed and how that discussion
progress.
The secretary’s role is to ensure the effective administration of the
meeting, including all work before and after the proceedings, and
to advise the meeting on the application of the rules of business.
This is a key role and, for formal committees and boards, will be
fulfilled by a senior officer of the organization. He/she will have a
close working relationship with the chairperson to ensure that the
proceedings go smoothly and the desired outcomes are achieved.
In informal meetings it is often the case that the secretary and
chairperson’s role are held by the same person.
The clerk’s role is essentially that of carrying out the work of
agenda preparation and writing the minutes, including (of
necessity) taking notes of proceedings at the meeting itself. In
many smaller bodies, this work is actually carried out by the
secretary.
It is worth pointing out that these roles – committee secretary and
clerk – should not be confused with the general office positions of
secretary and clerk. They are specialized and very important
positions in relation to meetings specifically.
(c) Work after meetings
This breaks down into two areas – the preparation of the record of
the meeting, and ensuring that decisions taken at the meeting are
subsequently implemented.
The particular requirements of the formal minutes of proceedings
go much further than the recording needs for most business
meetings. In essence, all is required is:
• A record of all essential information, particularly what has been
decided;
• A statement of who has to take what action.
This preserves a record of salient information and can be circulated
to all participants and others involved or interested. It is important
to remember that the information must reach all those who need to
know – either for general awareness or because action is required -
rather than just those who were present. It is helpful, though, to
direct the recipient’s attention to the relevant items in what may
often be very large reports or minutes.
Finally, it is worth noting that meetings exist to facilitate the
execution of work. It is sometimes tempting to think of them as
talking shops which have to be serviced, but have no relevance
after the event. However, if they are to have any meaning, the
discussions and decisions must be followed up and put into effect.
They then form a key participative element in the decision making
and operating processes of the organization, rather than a
distraction.
Interviews and Meetings
6.2.4 DOCUMENTATION FOR MEETINGS
The Agenda
The main purpose of the agenda is to set out, in order, the business
to be transacted at the meeting. As such, for formal committees
and boards, it will usually be the subject of some discussion
between a number of interested parties – the committee
chairperson, senior officers and the committee secretary. For other
types of meeting, preparation of the agenda may be the sole
responsibility of the person who will chair the meeting, but advice
may be sought on what items of business should be included.
An agenda should normally include the following elements:
• The time and place of the meeting.
• Apologies for absence.
• Provision for confirmation of the minutes of any previous
meeting, and for consideration of matters arising from them
(where the issues are not included as items elsewhere on the
agenda);
• Provision for the reporting and consideration of any
correspondence received (where the issues are not covered by
items elsewhere on the agenda);
• A subject heading for each item of business to be transacted,
together with a brief explanatory comment, if necessary (often
by reference to attached reports, correspondence, etc.);
Interviews and Meetings
• A final item of “any other business” to allow for discussion of
any issue which has arisen since the production of the agenda;
and
• A final, final item to determine the date of the next meeting.
E.g.: Always set agenda based on time available for the meeting
with the most important ones taking priority.
For most formal committee or board meetings, it is job of the
committee secretary (or administrator or clerk, however the post is
termed) to prepare the agenda. He/she will usually maintain a file
of items which may potentially require the committee’s attention.
These items may be derived from:
• correspondence received;
• matters referred by other committee, etc.;
• circulars and directives from other bodies (particularly
government);
• matters – usually policy issues and usually in the form of
“motions” referred by members or officers for discussion
and/or resolution.
Although it is usual for items for formal committees to be
submitted in writing, in practice there will often be the need for
discussion between the secretary and individual members, perhaps
also with the involvement of the chairperson, to clarify how items
will be presented on the agenda.
It is important to remember that, if a meeting is to be effective in
its deliberations and decision-making, members will need time to
familiarize themselves with the agenda and any supporting papers.
This means that the agenda must be sent out some time prior to the
actual date of the meeting.
When exactly will vary. The required notice of business to be
transacted may be formally stated in the constitution or standing
orders of some formal bodies. Local authority committees, for
example, have a statutory duty to have the agenda and relevant
report, etc., available for public perusal three clear days before the
date of the meeting.
In some organizations, notice of the meeting may be sent out
separately – prior to the agenda itself. In others, notice of the
meeting and the agenda may be combined.
Agenda may appear in a variety of formats, depending on the
conventions of the organization in question. The example in
Figure 6.1 combines the notice of the meeting with the agenda, and
the agenda contains all the usual necessary elements.
You should note the following points about this example:
• The headed paper gives clearly the contact number for the
secretary, so that apologies for absence can be sent, and
discussion about items of urgent business can take place.
• The prior notice provided by the date of dispatch of the agenda
in this case, almost four weeks.
• The date, time, and place of the meeting are clearly set out.
Here, they are included in the letter which gives notice of the
meeting. If the agenda was sent on its own, this would need to
be included at the top of the agenda.
• Members are specifically reminded about considering “any
other business” in advance of the meeting.
• The first four items are usually fixed for all regular meetings
and generally appear in this order. Items 7 and 8 are also fixed.
• The items which form the variable subject matter of any
meeting should have sufficient detail to enable members to
understand the nature of the item. Where appropriate, there
should be a reference to any relevant documentation.
HAMSHIRE ASSICIATION OF PARISH COUNCILS
SALEM AREA COMMITTEE
Chairman: Mr.J.Tobey Hon.Sec.:Mrs.J Pride
Bragdale Farmhouse 16, High Street
Bragdale Road Lower Allwood
Feversham LX53 8XY Settingly LX95 7DY Tel:01878
555555 Tel: 01878 888888
7 February 200X
Dear Sir/Madam,
The next meeting of the Salem Area Committee will be held on Monday
March 2nd 200X, at 7.30 pm in the Council Chamber, Salem House,
Settingly.
The agenda and supporting papers are appended. If you have items for
inclusion under “any other business”, they should be with the Secretary
no later than 5.00 pm on Friday 27 February.
Yours sincerely,
J Pride
Secretary
AGENDA
1. Apologies for absence.
2. Minutes of the last meeting.
3. Matters arising.
4. Correspondence.
5. Reports from representatives on:
(a) Police Consultative Committee
(b) Executive Committee
6. Rural Lanes Survey – Report AB/123 refers
7. Any other business.
8. Date and topic for next meeting.
Figure 6.1: Example of an agenda
Interviews and Meetings
E.g.: New item to the agenda especially sensitive issues like
termination and retrenchment should not be brought up without
notice.
Minutes
It is generally the case that, after any meeting, a record of what
transpired at the meeting is made. This may be in the form of a
few hand-written notes, a memorandum, a note for filing or a
report of some kind, possibly with notes for action. The
appropriate form will vary with the type of meeting and the
importance of what took place.
The situation with regard to formal meetings of a committee or
board is rather different. The proceedings of such meetings are
recorded by the minutes.
Minutes are the factual record of the proceedings and
resolutions of a meeting. They constitute a true and impartial
record of the events.
The prime function of minutes is to place on record the
proceedings of a meeting as the basis for subsequent action. The
minutes constitute the authorization for such action to be taken.
Activity:
Why is it important to circulate a record of all essential
information obtained in a meeting?
What do you believe is the right format to display minutes on
paper?
(a) The format of minutes
The way in which the events at a meeting are recorded in the
minutes is likely to vary between organizations. Each has its own
particular conventions about what should be recorded and how
they are set out.
However, there are a number of general principles which can be
identified.
As noted above, the primary purpose of the minutes is to provide
authorization for actions to be taken. As such, then, the key
element which must be recorded is the decisions taken at the
meeting.
This may be done by simply stating the motions passed by the
meeting, using the exact words of the motions as voted on. For
example:
Resolved: That the Treasurer’s Report (ref.FD.045) be adopted,
subject to the assumed Government funding becoming available
for development of the new site by the end of the financial year.
This may mask considerable debate about the issue, including the
proposing of, and voting on, various motions and amendments.
However, at the simplest level, the only important point is the final
decision at which the meeting arrived.
Whilst this is the essential element of minutes, it is often the case
that they need to go further than this in order to accurately convey
the sense and meaning of a meeting. Indeed, this may be necessary
since, in the event of a dispute as to what transpired or was agreed,
the minutes may be cited as legal evidence.
Thus, it is quite possible that the minutes will record all motions
and amendments put to the meeting (with their propose and
seconder), together with brief details of discussion and the
subsequent vote. It is also sometimes necessary to record details
about the voting on particular motions – either as totals “for” and
“against”, with abstentions, or even the way individual members
voted.
Finally, in addition to decisions taken by the meeting, it is normal
for the minutes to record events in respect of each item on the
agenda, including:
• Those members present, together with absences for which
apologies were made at the time;
• Agreement about the minutes of the previous meeting(s),
together with any changes made to them;
• Brief notes about items or issues introduced to the meeting, but
not specifically referred to on the agenda or supporting papers –
as in the case of reports or discussion about matters arising
from the previous minutes, correspondence and any other
business;
• The start and finish times.
(b) Minute writing
The production of clear and accurate minutes is an exercise
requiring many of the communication skills we have considered
previously. It is important to listen effectively and consistently, to
take accurate notes, and then to translate these into a coherent and
comprehensible written statement.
There are a number of points of good practice in minute writing, as
follows:
• The essence of minutes is that they are a brief note – i.e. a
condensed statement – of the proceedings at a meeting. As
such, they are not the same as a report. They are designed,
basically, to record the decisions taken, and that is all. On the
other hand, they need to be sufficiently detailed and complete to
convey what transpired at the meeting and to provide clear
instructions and authorizations for action.
• Where it is accepted practice that minutes should record, in
some detail, the discussions which take place, this should not
become unwieldy and over-long. It should not obscure the
central point about the decisions made.
• The minutes – as a whole and in each individual statement –
should be positive, free from ambiguity and capable of standing
on their own. For example, resolutions should not merely say
“resolved accordingly” or “resolved as agreed”, but state
precisely what the decision was, using the exact wording on
which voting took place.
Interviews and Meetings
• Minute writing requires accurate and concise language,
involving objectivity and the absence of ambiguity. The
minutes should be written in third person – i.e. using “he/she”,
“they”, “them”, etc. – and in the past tense.
• It is important to emphasize the word “factual” in the definition
above. Minutes must not express opinions or give
interpretations of what has been said. They should be simple
statement of fact.
Thus, it would be wrong to write:
“The Treasurer displayed such excellent persuasive skill in putting forward her
argument that she took all the members with her.”
This should be expressed as:
“There was unanimous agreement to accept the Treasurer’s report.”
E.g.: The tone of the minutes taken has to be neutral – not
emotional, overly authoritative or accusatory – but clear enough
for action to be taken.
• Minutes should be completed as soon as possible after the
meeting. It is surprising how quickly your understanding of
your own notes can fade, and your memory of a certain
discussion grows cloudy.
• It is normal practice in many organizations for the accuracy of
the minutes to be checked with the chairperson before
circulation.
The following example (Figure 6.2) of an extract from the minutes
of a meeting illustrates many of the points made above.
SALEM PARISH COUNCIL- GENERAL PURPOSES COMMITTEE
Minutes of the meeting held on 9 January 200X, between 7.00 pm and 9.00 pm in
The Assembly Room at SalemHouse.
1. Members present: Councillor Green (in the chair); Councillors
Brown, Black, Cyan, Grey, Maroon, Purple, Red, Tan and White.
2. Apologies were received from Councillor Jones
3. The minutes of the meeting held on 12 December 200V were
approved and signed as a true record.
4. Pay rise
After a full discussion, it was proposed by Cllr. Red and seconded
By Cllr. White that the opinions of all employees be sought by
Means of a questionnaire. An amendment that the questionnaire
Should also ask if employees would prefer a one-off or staged
Arrangement was proposed by Cllr. Cyan and seconded by
Cllr. Black. This was passed by six votes to three, and the
Motion that the questionnaire be produced and circulated
Was then passed unanimously.
Minutes constitute a true and impartial record of the events at the
meeting. Explain.
What are the key elements to be recorded at any meetings?
Interviews and Meetings
6.2.5 Procedure in meetings
The proceedings of a meeting may be considered as a sort of
structured discussion. The issues for discussion, and their order,
are structured by the agenda, but the way in which the
discussion itself and general interaction of the participants is
conducted is structured by the various rules of procedure.
Constitution and Standing Orders
The proceedings of any formal meeting are generally governed by
the constitution of the committee or board, etc. – which states what
it is allowed to do – and written rules of procedure, usually known
as standing orders. The constitution and procedural rules of some
bodies are governed by legal regulations, which may lay down
specific requirements.
The constitution of the body, as we have seen, is fundamental, in
that it defines the terms of reference of any meeting and, thus,
conditions what powers and duties may or must be exercised. The
constitution also sets out the framework of meetings in terms of
their timing and frequency and also, possibly, the establishment of
certain roles.
Standing orders are concerned specifically with the way in which
meetings are run.
These rules are essential if meetings are to be conducted properly
since they cover such matters as:
• the number of members who must be present in order for the
meeting and its decision to be valid (the quorum);
• how and when question may be put;
• how motions and amendments may be moved;
• the length of debates;
• the methods of voting;
• control over the behavior of members.
Here we have a very clear example of the inter-relationship
between the written and spoken word. Written standing orders
exist to promote the effectiveness of oral communication.
Activity:
Why is it important to have a quorum at a meeting?
Interviews and Meetings
6.2.6 Within Meetings
As we have seen, there are a number of specific roles within all
meetings.
At the meeting itself, it is the chairperson who actually controls the
proceedings. This is the key role in any meeting, setting its tone
and style and generally ensuring that the business of the meeting is
efficiently and effectively conducted. E.g.: The chairperson usually
has to be a neutral person of authority, hence to be able to control
the participant and to be able to utilize time effectively.
His/her role can be summarized as being:
• To ensure that the meeting is properly constituted and that there
s a quorum;
• To control the meeting in accordance with the standing orders
and any other legal requirements that apply;
• to take the business in the order that it appears on the agenda
unless the committee determines otherwise), by opening the
discussion and guiding the debate such that all those who wish
to peak may do so.
• to ascertain the sense of the meeting at the conclusion of the
discussion on an item (by reaching common agreement or by
opting on a specific motion) and ensure that the decision
reached properly recorded.
In all these matters, the chairperson is assisted by the committee
secretary. This is certainly not the same as an office secretary.
He/she is likely to be a senior officer in the organization and will
be responsible for:
• advance notice of the meeting, agenda preparation, and general
housekeeping and administration (room bookings, resources
required), etc.,:
• Advising on the application of standing orders and any legal
matters (such as statutory provisions and common law
requirements) during the course of the meeting.
• Recording the proceedings accurately, distributing the minutes
and following-up any decisions after the meeting.
In many meetings, the secretary is not a formal member of the
body itself and, therefore, has no voting rights or any formal role in
discussions. However, as a senior officer, his/her contribution is
likely to be sought (or provided) on the issues involved in agenda
items and the implications of proposal and decisions.
Activity:
Give examples of the various levels of authoritative powers
possessed by the chairperson at a meeting?
6.2.7 General Rules of Procedure
All members have a general responsibility to participate actively in
the proceedings of the body. This requires a commitment to the
work of the committee and careful preparation by all concerned so
that each member is knowledgeable about the topics under
discussion.
It also means that each member has a responsibility to other
members to allow contributions to be heard and to enable
discussion to flow freely and positively. Thus, order is not just the
responsibility of the chairperson – it resides in all participants!
In order to ensure that chaos does not reign, there are a number of
conventions – general rules of behavior – which need to be
followed, including:
• acknowledging that the chairperson is in charge;
• speaking through the chair – waiting for permission to speak,
and always addressing remarks to the chairperson, not directly
to other members (although this may not be so necessary in less
formal, smaller meetings);
• keeping to the point – avoiding digression or pursing one’s own
particular agenda to the detriment of consideration of the items
before the meeting;
• interrupting other speakers only for procedural reasons – for
example, to seek clarification through a “point of order” or to
seek to give a “point of information”.
Obviously, the degree of regulation of formal committee or board
meetings is far in excess of that applying to most other types of
meeting.
However, the principles discussed here apply to all meetings.
There will always be some formal or informal rules about what the
meeting is competent either to discuss or to decide, and how it
should go about it.
Such rules may be extant and clear to all participants (or may be
clarified in the course of the meeting), or they may need to be
considered and determined during its course – as may be the case
with informal meetings of work groups. There will always be a
chairperson with a role to ensure the proper conduct of the meeting
in accordance with the points outlined above. And there will
always be someone responsible for planning the meeting and
recording the proceedings.
6.2.8 Effectiveness in Meetings
Let us now take a little more time to consider how these general
rules and conventions actually apply within meetings. Although
the procedures followed for meetings and committees will vary
from one organization to another, the existence of these “rules”, in
whatever form, will go a long way towards ensuring that the
business is conducted in a coherent and professional way, using
time and resources efficiently, and minimizing the risk of
personality clashes which would be counter-productive.
As a structured interaction, meetings can be held to confirm to the
same basic principles as any other form of structured
communication – they need to be properly planned and should
have a beginning, a middle and an end.
(a) Planning
We have seen that the start point for any meeting is the preparation
of the agenda and its circulation to members. However, whilst this
sets out the structure of items for discussion, it does not constitute
a detailed plan of the way in which the meeting may go. As with
all forms of interaction, it is advisable to prepare carefully
beforehand – considering the objectives of the interaction, the
participants involved and the information required.
Accordingly, before the meeting itself, there is invariably some
kind of prior consideration of the agenda by the chairperson,
together with the secretary and, possibly, other officers. This will
concentrate on identifying the various issues involved in each item
of business, together with any desired outcome. This process of
considering how best to handle the discussion and to achieve
objectives is always useful for any type of meeting. Time for most
meetings is likely to be restricted, so it is essential that there is
clarity about what needs to be covered, and the best way of
achieving it. These pre-meeting briefing do not, however, take
decisions about the outcomes of agenda items.
(b) Opening the meeting
The introductory phase of any meeting should outline the business
to be conducted and set the proceedings in the context of previous
meetings, as well as covering any particular administrative
arrangements (such as time constraints, etc.). This is very much
the responsibility of the chairperson.
The chairperson will first call the meeting to order, to ensure that
everyone present is giving full attention, and will formally declare
the meeting open, usually stating the time of the start of business.
A check may be made that everyone has received the agenda and
any supporting papers, and is clear about the business to be
conducted and any administrative arrangements.
The first agenda item to be taken will be “Apologies for absence”
to establish a formal record of attendance. Apologies are normally
read out by the secretary and will be recorded in the minutes.
The minutes of the last meeting need to be approved as a true and
accurate record, and signed by the chairperson. At this stage, the
responsibility lies with every member to have checked the minutes,
and to be prepared to speak up to correct any inaccuracies. This is
of particular importance if the minutes have legal significance.
Adjustments can then be made before the minutes are signed.
It is likely that action will have been taken on the basis of
decisions made at the previous meeting, or that there will be issues
arising from the discussion then which need clarification in the
light of present circumstances. The opportunity to consider such
matters, where they are not specifically covered elsewhere on the
agenda, is provided by the agenda item “Matters arising form the
minutes”. The chairperson him/herself, or any other member, may
seek information, usually from the secretary, in order to complete
the picture presented by the minutes. The chairperson needs to
ensure that there is no duplication here – the purpose is not to go
over old ground, but merely to clarify any issues arising
subsequently. Even if certain members were not present at the
original discussion, the temptation to allow them to ask a lot of
question should be resisted!
Interviews and Meetings
(c) Main business of the meeting
Having completed the introductory phase, the meeting can move
on to the substantive business before it, according to the agenda.
Discussion of each item generally follows a set pattern – again
reflecting the beginning, middle and end structure we have seen in
all forms of communication.
• Introduction to the item
This will be done by the chairperson, one of the members, or an
office or other person attending specifically to provide information
about the particular item. The intension is to focus attention on the
key issues about the subject, in order to direct the following
discussion.
It is often the case that agenda items are supported by reports or
other documents which provide background information. It is
customary for the report’s author to introduce it by means of a
short presentation. The requirements of this are the same as have
been covered extensively above – careful and detailed preparation
and delivery. It is not appropriate to read verbatim from the report
or other paper9s), and the level of detail does not need to be that
great where the material ahs been circulated in advance. Rather,
the introduction should concentrate on the key issues and pick out
specific points, expanding and clarifying them as necessary, on
which the discussion should focus.
• Discussion of the item by members
It is likely that a good many members of the meeting will have
points to make in respect of the issues under consideration. The
purpose of the procedural rules is to facilitate them doing so, such
that they can put their thoughts to the meeting and have them heard
and considered. This requires some degree of formality and order
to the discussion.
It is the chairperson’s duty to take control and impose such order.
Normally, all comments should be addressed through the
chairperson. This means that individual members do not address
each other directly and get involved in personal, potentially
acrimonious, debates across the meeting. It also helps to ensure
that only one person is speaking at a time. In order to make a
contribution to the discussion, members need to attract the
attention of the chairperson and signal their desire to speak. This,
in turn, means that the chairperson must be aware of members’
intentions at all times. The power to bring individual members into
the discussion can allow the chairperson to exercise considerable
control over the discussion, and it should, therefore, be exercised
fairly and even-handedly. It can be a source of friction where
members feel excluded, particularly if their views are opposed to
the chairperson’s.
As a sanction to maintain order in the face of members flouting the
rules and conventions of discussion, the chairperson has the power
explicitly to exclude individuals from speaking – ruling their
contribution “out of order” – or even to banish them from the
meeting.
Discussion of many items in formal meetings often takes place
around specified proposals to be adopted as decisions of the
meeting. We shall consider the details of this below.
• Conclusion of the discussion by means of taking a decision
The purpose of discussing a particular item is to come to some sort
of conclusion about it which reflects the views of the meeting.
This may take the form of adopting a specific decision, or it may
simply be a mater of the chairperson summarizing the key points
of agreement. However, even such a summary constitutes a
decision of sorts in that it is likely to form the basis of further
action, sanctioned by the meeting.
Formal decisions taken within a meeting need to be based on a
motion proposed by one member and supported (“seconded”) by
another member. Such motions may be simply to adopt the
recommendations set out in a report, or they may be detailed
suggested courses of action put forward at the time by a member
(including the chairperson), based either on a perceived consensus
of opinion at the meeting, or their own particular viewpoint.
The wording of a motion can be very important, as it may establish
policy or commit resources. They need, therefore, to be clear and
unambiguous. For example, the following would meet this
requirement:
“That the committee authorizes the expenditure of £5,000 to
G.Gnomes & Co. to carry out landscaping work on the HQ
grounds in accordance with the proposals made in their tender
document.”
On a motion being put to the meeting, and following appropriate
discussion, the chairperson will take a vote among those present as
to whether it should be agreed and become a decision of the body.
The rules about voting are normally set out in the standing orders,
and they are likely to include provision for the chairperson’s
“casting vote” – a second vote available for the chairperson to use
in the event of tie between those for and those against the motion.
It is open for any member to put forward amendments to a motion.
An amendment is a suggested change in the wording which will
alter, to some degree, the meaning of the proposal. Amendments
which negate the intention of the original motion are not allowed –
the same effect may be had by simply voting against it.
So, for example, the following amendment to the above motion
would be acceptable.
That the additional sentence “Payment to be made in two equal installments, based on
completion of works on the front and rear of the premises” be inserted at the end of the
proposal.
However, the following amendments would be ruled out of order:
That the word “not” be inserted before the word “authorize”.
Any amendments also need to have a formal proposer and
seconder, and should be voted on before the initial motion, so that,
if carried, the revised motion can then be considered and voted on.
All decisions made by a meeting need to be recorded precisely by
the committee secretary and included in the minutes.
• Conclusion of the meeting
The final phase of the meeting is entered when all the substantive
items on the agenda have been considered.
There is always an item of “Any other business” on the agenda in
which members can raise issues of significance which are not
covered elsewhere. Sometimes, this is put on the agenda as “Any
other urgent business, and this is really the key to this item. It is
not intended that important and substantial new business should be
brought up at this stage of the proceedings. Members should
usually clarify with the secretary or the chairperson in advance if
they have items they wish to raise here, and the chairperson may
need to take a decision about what can and cannot be accepted,
perhaps suggesting a full discussion at the next meeting instead.
The last element is to agree the date and time of the next meeting,
after which the chairperson declares the meeting closed, noting the
exact time of closure.
7 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
7.2 B. THE INTERNET
Background
You may ask: ‘What is the Internet?’ In reality, it is nothing more
than an enormous network of computer networks. It is
thousands of computers connected together.
The Internet originated with the United States military and their
fear of nuclear attack following the Soviet Union’s launch of
Sputnik, the first satellite, in 1957. To protect vital
communications within the university based technical and research
facilities of the Department of Defense, four universities in the US
west (Stanford University, UC in Los Angeles and Santa Barbara
and the University of Utah) were connected together via a
dedicated line. By 1969, four other US networks were connected
in so was born the internet. Once connections were expanded into
the normal telephone dial-up system, it became possible to bring in
computers across the world. Local comparable set-ups were
developed in many places and whole groups of computers were
connected into the system. It did not take long before we reached
the stage that we now know in which the Internet stretches to every
part of the world and, using cell or mobile phones, to places remote
from the actual computer.
Electronic Communication System 430
____________________________________________________________
_________
E.g. The internet is the greatest revolution of the 20th century and
communication will never be the same as our daily lives and
timelines are have shortened. Imagine still going to the library to
look for information. Do they have Google Search?
The basic component of the Internet is a computer network. At
this stage, there are two types of network of interest to us.
1. A LAN (Local Area Network) is, as you would expect, a group
of computers, which are geographically close to each other,
connected together. Typically, computers within a business or
part of a business will be connected in a LAN.
There are two principal ways (or protocols) in which data is
transmitted around a LAN:
• The Ethernet standard requires the sending computer to first
check whether the network is busy or not. If it is not, the
packet of data (we shall define a packet later) being sent is
dispatched to every computer in the LAN, but only the
computer to which it is addressed will take receipt of it. Others
just ignore it. If the network is busy, or if two computers send
out a data packet at the same time causing a collision, then the
sending computers wait a random amount of time and try again.
Electronic Communication System 431
____________________________________________________________
_________
Figure 7.3
• The token ring standard involves signals or tokens continuously
traveling around the network (see Figure 7.4). The sending
computer waits until a token is passing by and, if the token is
not already carrying a data packet, attaches the data packet it
wants to send, to the token. As the token passes each of the
other computers, each checks the token and the address of any
attached packet. If it is addressed to that computer the packet is
accepted and the token is then free to accept another packet.
11 22 33 44 55
The next point we need to consider is how the data is actually sent.
As some of the message can be very large, such as a video or other
multimedia message, to send the message intact would clog up the
whole network. We have only to think of a very large load
traveling up a motorway. The police escorting the load require
everyone else using the motorway to wait behind, much to their
frustration. It would be the same across the network if entire
messages were sent intact. Instead, the message is divided up into
sections called packets.
2. A WAN (Wide Area Network) is more or less the same as a
LAN except the geographical restriction does not apply. A
packet switching protocol, as for a LAN, is used in the same
way. A WAN will probably consist of several LANs connected
together. To co-ordinate the delivery of resources across the
WAN, a server machine will be used. A server is a computer
wholly dedicated to a specific task. There are several different
tasks that servers provide.
• Some will store resources such as files and application software
which they can then serve, on demand, to the various computers
within the WAN. In those kinds of systems, the individual
computers do the processing, the server simply holds the files.
• With application servers, the server does the processing on
behalf of the client computers. It will be provide with more
powerful processing facilities in order to do this.
• In some other cases, the server is in charge of the routing of the
messages around the WAN.
Servers can fulfill a number of different tasks within the network,
but the common feature is that they are all accessible from the
individual computers and they provide some kind of service on
behalf of individual computers.
The Internet will rank as the world’s largest WAN! However, the
Internet lacks the control and cohesiveness of a WAN. At the level
of the Internet, however, much more than simple servers are
required.
Activity:
What is the main difference between WAN and LAN?
What are the alternatives to communication if there is a server
breakdown?
8. IT AND PRESENTING INFORMATION
The value of numerical data may be increased many times by
effective tabulation. Tabulation is the systematic arrangement of
numerical data which has been collected, so that a reasoned
account of its interpretation can be facilitated. It depends on a
logical classification of the data into clearly defined groups, each
with characteristics of its own (for example, customers by men or
women, or by different age groups, etc.). The information is the
set out clearly in the minimum space and with the minimum
wording. The following rules should be observed in the preparation
of statistical tables:
• each table should serve a single purpose – attempting to show
more than one group of relationships in the same table tends to
obscure the message;
• the table itself should have a title or caption, and each grouping
of information must have a heading, all of which should be as
short as possible and self-explanatory;
• tables should not contain figures with a large number of digits –
rounding number is acceptable since a high degree of accuracy
is not usually that important (it is the relationships which are),
and expressing all figures in, say, thousands is better than
writing them all lout in full;
• the number of columns and headings should be kept to a
minimum – a multiplicity of headings etc. prevents the proper
emphasis being given to the key facts and tendencies shown by
the table;
• units must always be stated (pounds, 000’s, age, etc.);
• figures showing relationships such as percentages, ratios, etc.
should be placed as near as possible to the figures from which
they are derived.
The following examples (figure 5.6) show these essential features.
Other common examples are sales against changes in price (as in
demand and supply graphs used extensively in economics) or
health indicators such as levels lung cancer against, say, levels of
smoking.
There are some general rules to remember when planning and
using graphs:
• All graphs must be given clear but brief titles.
• The axes of graphs must be clearly labeled, and the scales of the
values marked. The origins of scales should generally be
included.
• Wherever necessary, gridlines should be inserted to facilitate
reading.
Bar Charts
The bar chart is one of the most common methods of presenting
information in a visual form. They are similar to graphs in that
they display the incidence of one variable in relation to another
(for example sales against time), but are more flexible in that
greater amounts of information can be incorporated – for example,
showing breakdowns of components of a variable.
There basically, three types of such chats:
• Simple bar charts – which are equivalent to line graphs, but
provide a stronger visual image;
• Component bar charts – which are equivalent to a series of pie
charts; and
• Histograms – which display grouped frequency data.
Activity:
When are simple bar charts used?
(a) Simple Bar Charts
A simple bar chart is a chart consisting of a series of bars
representing the amount of one variable in relation to another.
Usually, a small space is given between each bar to allow them to
stand out from each other. The length of each bar corresponds
with the magnitude of the item it represents. In Figure 5.8, the
height of the bars relates to revenue from theatre ticket sales in a
certain month.
ar charts can be enhanced by the use of 3D effects, although you
would need to use a computer presentation package to display this
effectively (an example is shown below).
In addition, you can add figures for comparative purposes and
display these as bars next to each other. Figure 5.9 shows the
information on car rental sales from Figure 5.7 as a composite
simple bar chart.
(b) Component Bar Charts
A Component bar chart can be used to give a breakdown of the
total amount within each bar of the chart. Thus, in the simple
example above, we could divide the monthly figures into the
revenue generated by different types of ticket – perhaps showing
the number of pound 20 tickets, pound 10 tickets and stand-by
pound 5 tickets that are sold in each month.
Figure 5.10 shows a component bar chart, with a 3D effect added,
for tractor sales over four years by three different areas.
Although histograms appear to be the same as bar charts, there are
important differences. They are used to display grouped frequency
data – for example, information relating to the numbers of people
in different age groups.
Pie Charts
These diagrams are used to show the relative sizes of component
elements of a total. They are so called because they have the shape
of a round pie, with the component parts appearing as slices. They
are used to display only very simple information.
Consider the following table of market shares in the UK car rental
market:
Pictograms
A pictogram is a statistical diagram in which quantities are
represented by pictures or symbols. The appropriate use of a
picture or symbol can be a powerful tool in communicating a
message, but their use is confined to the simplified presentation of
statistical data for the general public, rather than for specialists in
the field.
For example, the imports of oil in a particular year may be
represented by a number of drawings of barrels, and the imports
for another year by a different number of barrels, as in Figure 5.14.
If you were showing pig sales, you could use drawings of pigs, or
to show sales of satellite TVs you could use pictures of satellites –
and so on.
(Source: Hypothetical data, 1994-1996)
It is important that there is a clear key, which shows what the
symbol represents.
5.5 DESIGN AND CORPORATE IDENTITY
What is good design? This is not easy to answer, since it is very
much down to personal taste. It is essentially a subjective matter.
However, there are a number of principles which can be identified.
At the heart of design is the attempt to communicate, visually, with
an audience. An understanding of the characteristics of the
audience and of the object of the design is, therefore, essential.
Given that, it may be said that good design should be:
• functional;
• reflect the purpose of the object or organization to which it is
applied; and
• be unique to that application.
There is an immense range of application to which design is
applied, but we shall be concerned here with corporate identity –
principally in respect of company branding through the use of
logos. Before we consider these applications, though, we shall
review certain common aspects of design which you can use.
Visual Communication
5.5.1 Lettering
Typefaces, typestyles, lettering style or fonts are all terms for the
type of lettering used by designers and printers.
Typefaces can facilitate the reader’s ability to read text easily.
They can also convey a personality or mood, and some convey
formality or modernity.
There is literally hundreds of lettering styles or fonts, and we
illustrate just a few in Figure 5.15. Each font can itself be made
larger, smaller, heavier, lighter or italicized. Computer graphics
packages are introducing new fonts on what seems like a monthly
basis.
Emphasis and impact can be created not only by the use of
different typefaces , but also by the size of type, use of headings,
line spacing, capitals or underlining, and by the weight and
boldness of the type. In fact the layout of the page, with the use of
margins, ruled lines, and the use of white space all contribute to the
impact of the actual words being used.
Activity:
Typefaces convey personality or mood and formality or modernity.
Cite examples.
How can we exploit lettering styles and fonts during a
presentation?
5.5.2 Reading and Interpreting Signs and Colours
Visual communication which does not include text has the
advantage that it can be understood in any language. International
labeling for garments, road signs and we electrical goods are all
examples of the efficiency of such purely visual communication.
A sign or visual image can summarise a whole body of text and is
much easier to “read”, so that its impact is immediate. Reading
written text is a longer process in that its messages need to be
internalized, understood, reflected upon and summarized. They
may then need to be translated into oral or written language
themselves.
The following are excellent examples of the efficacy of signs and
symbols:
Figure 5.16: Instantly recognizable signs
Color psychology is an integral factor in visual image design and
interpretation. Traditionally colours have many associations, as
shown in the following table:
Table 5.1: Colour associations
______________________________________________
Blue: cold, restful, calming, sad,
conservative.
Red: vibrant, young, angry, passionate.
Green: envy, environmentally friendly,
naivety.
Yellow: sunshine, brightness, new life,
cowardice.
Black: evil, night, darkness, sexy.
Brown: muddy, nondescript.
Grey: dull, boring, depressing, and dirty.
White: clean, bright, pure, clinical, peace.
Colours are seasonal and reflect emotions or attitude; they are not
merely the absence or presence of light. The shade and tone of a
colour can change our perception of the same logo. However,
remember that different colours have different meanings in
different cultures.
5.5.3 Corporate Image
The purpose of a corporate image or identify is to distinguish the
organization in the market place and to communicate
values/attributes to various audiences. The most common facet
associated with corporate image is the company logo, but this is
not the only element involved. Rather, it encompasses the use of
typestyle, lettering, symbols, colour, pictures, slogans or any
combination of these, and is used to maintain consistency of style
throughout all forms of communication, whether text, oral
presentations or purely visual forms such as in packaging.
The potential list of applications is vast. We note some of these
below as a guide to the range and diversity available. It also helps
us to recognize how repetition of the corporate logo/slogan
reinforces corporate image and that the best corporate identity is
established through clear design, is instantly recognizable (i.e.
legible) and is always the same in essence (colour backgrounds
may change).
• Stationery
• Forms
• Publications
• Products
• Packaging
• Advertising
• Promotions/give-aways
• Vehicles
• Interiors/exteriors
• Signs
• Clothing
Activity:
How can we create corporate identity or image?
If we are serious about corporate image, then it has to be applied
wholesale, not selectively. If we take the example of stationery, the
range of users will cover all internal and external correspondence,
and its application should be rigorously enforced – scrappy internal
memos undermine the purposefulness of well produced headed
notepaper. The range of stationery applications includes:
• Letterheads
• Continuation sheets
• Envelops
• Compliment slips
• Business cards
• Memos
• Reports
In fact, any item of company material can have the logo
represented on one or all of its surfaces.
5.5.4 The Basis of Corporate Identity
The purpose of the corporate image design is for potential and
actual customers to:
• Associate the product (s) services(s) offered by the company
with the logo.
• Recognize instantly and be familiar with the company.
• Adopt some of the values and benefits of the company in the
products(s) /service(s) it offers by association with the design.
One of the major problems in considering corporate image is
merely to determine it in design terms. All too easily it becomes a
new logo, a new slogan, and the introduction of particular colours
or a uniform. These elements certainly make up corporate image,
and there are numerous image consultants specializing in just that
– a design package which is standardized for every possible
application. However, the factors which determine the design for
the corporate image and which give an organization its internal and
external “personality” can be referred to as the corporate culture
or company ethos. This is the real starting point for the
development of the various facets of corporate image design.
Activity:
What is the main purpose for the corporate image design?
How does the corporate culture or company ethos affect the
corporate image or identity?
Thus, if the design is truly going to reflect the desired image of an
organization, then we need some detailed answers to the following
questions:
• What are the name, location, size and function (i.e.
product/service areas, range) of the organization?
• What existing promotional activities are there?
• Is there an existing logo/slogan/corporate colours/ How and
where are these applied?
• Is a new corporate image required, an update, or a more
uniform approach/understanding necessary?
• What are the company’s perceived markets?
• What image does the company wish to convey? Key words
may include: up-market, sophisticated, wide audience, and
specialist.
• Are there any preferences as to style, colour, etc.?
• Who will sanction any change/implementation?
• What steps will be taken to introduce a new / updated corporate
image? Is transition period necessary? How will the internal
market be informed?
• What potential applications will there be of any design? Even
if, in the first instance, only a stationery pack (letterheads
business cards, compliment slips, etc.) is required, the design
and colors may need also to be applied to other non-paper
media, such as mouse mats and T-shirts.
The answers to these questions often form the basis of a brief
which can be given to a designer to assist the development of the
image/identity.
5.6 CONCLUSION
There is no doubt that audio visual communication plays a large
part in relaying information to the masses. While audio only
communication forces the listener to conjure up his or her own
images, visual communication is more in control of what the media
wants to convey to their public. The use of audio and visual or
even just visual can communicate so much more in mass media.
The phrase 'a picture is worth a thousand words' is one that is
extremely accurate in the world of information processing.
Questions
1. What are the criterion that must be met when using AV aids?
2. Make comparisons between the OHP, slide projector, flip chart and
the whiteboard. What similarities do they have?
3. Identify the disadvantaged of product demonstration.
4. What are statistical tables and list down the rules when using
them?
5. “If we are serious about corporate image, then it has to be applied
wholesale and not selectively.” Explain this.
Case Study: MCCormic Group of Companies
The McCormic Group is a construction company. The following
extracts from its literature, reproduced by kind permission, show
how corporate image is designed and give an indication of the
company ethos.
Figure 5.17: McCormic Company Logo
The company logo is on a racing green background with white
lettering. It appears on all McCormic divisional notepaper and
business cards, on building site hoardings where McCormick is
building, and on all company vehicles and workers’ uniforms.
The design is particularly effective as it allows different divisions
to have their own identity as part of the corporate identity (see
Figure 5.18).
Figure 5.18: McCormick Divisional Logos
The Group produces a folder designed as a company portfolio
rather than a throw-away glossy leaflet. It contains separate sheets
of information (see Figures 5.19 to 5.22) about each of the Group’s
four divisions, which allows a sense of integration and harmony
within the company’s publicity materials. The inside covers of the
folder, which enclose the separate sheets, bears the text shown in
Figure 5.23, illustrating the effectiveness of design in the
presentation of text.
5.0 INTRODUCTION
The written or spoken word are just one means of communication,
albeit the most important. On their own, through, they can tend to
be somewhat boring – too many pages of text to wade through,
listening to a speaker for too long, etc. Can turn off the best
recipient no matter how good the form of presentation. One way
of alleviating this is the use of visual or graphical effects within
reports, booklets, manuals, information brochures and oral
presentations.
We start by following up our examination of presentations and
presentational skills by looking at the role of audio and visual aids.
In many forms of face-to-face interaction, it is very helpful to use
visual displays to assist in getting your message across – for
example, jotting down a diagram to help explain the way a system
works to a colleague. The same principle applies in presentations,
except that the way in which such visual aids are used needs to be
carefully integrated with the rest of the presentation. Here, then,
we shall examine the nature and purpose of audio and visual aids,
and how you can use them to enhance the giving of a presentation.
Our second area of study here is the presentation of statistical
information. Figures on their own- particularly lengthy tables –
convey little to the average eye, and it is usually very difficult to
pick out the important relationships between various items without
a thorough examination of the figures. Graphs, bar charts, pie
charts, etc. present the information in a more accessible form,
enabling the whole range of the subject and particular relationships
to be seen at a glance. We shall, and then examine the way in
which such visual representations can be used to draw attention to
the key points.
Activity:
Give examples of audio visual aids.
What are the disadvantages of using AV aids in presentations?
Finally, we shall consider issues of design in general and of its
application to the corporate image which companies project in
particular. Good design is essential in today’s competitive
business environment, as the expectations of the public are now
very high in this respect. We shall, then, review the contribution
of design to good business communications and examine some of
the many vehicles for conveying corporate image.
5.1 NATURE AND PURPOSE OF AUDIO AND VISUAL AIDS
This study unit is concerned with the effective use of audio and
visual aids. Although such aids can greatly enhance a presentation,
not every presentation will need them or be more effective because
of them. Using audio and visual aids in order to appear more
professional but without reflecting the purpose of the presentation
is time-wasting, costly and can make you appear more concerned
with the trivia rather than the detail of your presentation. They can
also detract from, rather than enhance, your performance – unless
they are well produced and relevant, they are a waste of everyone’s
time. The more sophisticated the technology, the worse the
disaster if anything goes wrong.
So, what is the point of using audio and visual aids at all? (Note
that we need to include the effective use of audio – the notion that
we only use visual aids in a presentation is incorrect.)
Appropriate audio or visual aids, if used selectively (with regard to
timing, format, complexity) and designed to a standard expected of
the presentation, can enhance a good presentation and increase its
effectiveness through:
• creating awareness;
• encouraging interest;
• retaining involvement;
• achieving instant result/responses;
• describing in one image an entire proposal or concept;
• being memorable;
• complementing the spoken word;
• reinforcing corporate identity.
Activity
Give instances when AV aids would be advantages during
presentations.
What would be the most effective AV aids?
What are the issues to be considered before using AV aids?
If you are planning a presentation, you nee to ask yourself:
(a) Would this presentation be improved by using
audio- visual aids?
(b) What would be the most appropriate format?
Do not ask yourself “What audio-visual aids shall I use?” The
difference is a subtle one but the message is clear. Only use audiovisual
aids if they will enhance your presentation and are
appropriate. E.g.: During highly scientific presentations a visual
aid is appropriate, however an audio aid is unnecessary.
If, after appropriate consideration, you do decide to use them to
make more effective presentations, then you must determine:
• The range of audio-visual aids available and their advantages
and disadvantages.
• How to design audio-visual aids.
• How to make the best use of all audio-visual aids at your
disposal.
These are they key issues with which we shall be concerned in the
rest of this unit.
5.1.1 What Are Audio-Visual Aids?
Quite simply, visual aids are those items which make use of
pictures or visual images (including the written word) in support of
an oral presentation. We also need to include audio aids because,
Increasingly, music or sound effects can be used to add impact to a
presentation, and some (such as video) combine visual and audio.
The range of AVA available is illustrated in Figure 5.1
Figure 5.1; Audio-Visual Aids
5.1.2 Using Audio-Visual Aids Effectively
Before deciding to use audio-visual aids as part of a presentation,
you need to be certain that they will:
• Enhance the presentation
• Not detract from its effectiveness.
• Be professionally product and presented
One of the best reasons for not using audio-visual aids is a lack of
confidence in using them. In every instance you need to be
familiar with the equipment you are going to use and to have a fallback
position of the unexpected (like a power cut) should happen.
Remember that audio-visual aids support and enhance
presentations. Presentations are not showcases for the most
technically advanced or best produced audio-visuals.
Activity:
What are the reasons for using Av aids?
Never forget that you have included audio-visuals in your
presentation of the benefit of your audience. It does not matter
what type of audio-visual you use, the following criteria must be
met:
• Language or images are selected which reflect the nature of the
presentation and represent a dimension of the subject under
discussion/being presented.
• Care is taken not to use offensive images, phrases or music.
(Do semi-clothed people actually sell cars?)
• The seating arrangements/room layouts are designed (and
double-checked by you) so that everyone can hear or see what’s
going on.
• There is sufficient technical back-up.
• You do not use effects which could upset your audience (e.g.
Loud bangs, flickering lights, strobe lights, fireworks) or even
endanger them.
• You opt for simplicity and clarity rather than complexity and
confusion.
• Always make reference to a visual.
• Don’t turn away from the audience to operate audio-visuals;
either use technical support or arrange for your and the
audience’s convenience.
• Try not to obscure visuals by standing in front of them.
• To keep attention, use audio-visuals at low attention periods
such as after lunch, before a break or towards the end of a
session.
• Rehearse.
Figure 5.2 provides more details about the effective use of
particular aids.
Activity:
What are the key points to consider when designing an AV aid?
What are the advantages and disadvantages of using words as
visuals?
Type of Audio-Visual
Using Them Effectively Additional Requirements
Prepared flip charts Usually too small for a large
audience. Very useful in small
internal presentations, including
interview presentations
Need to be clearly written. Useful
for cartoon-like illustrations.
Use non-smudge pens.
Flip chart Particularly useful in seminartype
presentations. Be careful
not to be obscure what you are
writing.
Sufficient paper; non-smudge,
bright-colored working felt-tip
pens. Can refer to previous sheets
Whiteboards
Best in teaching situation. In
formation has to be constantly
erased. Need clear, straight,
handwriting.
Similar to blackboards. Only really
useful in small training sessions.
Overhead projectors Prepare transparencies in
advance.
Keep slides in order.
Have back-up photocopies in
the even of disaster.
Check projector working. Check
your slides fit projector and are
right shape, otherwise you lose
detail.
Projector Assume this will go wrong.
Prepare slides beforehand and
check equipment
Use hand-held remote-control
model.
Build-up visuals Need to be big enough to have
an impact. Can create audience
tension.
Need careful rehearsing or
preplanning.
Physical objects Must be visible and relevant.
Attracts immediate attention.
If samples, you need sufficient for
1 1/2 times your audience.
Working models Can make or break a
presentation. Test and retest.
Good at exhibitions. Excellent
for product launches.
Always have a”spare/one that I
made earlier” if making a
demonstration. Speaks for itself.
Tape recordings Check equipment for adequate
amplification. Best for music
rather than speech unless in
classroom.
Video Well-presented video is a
presentation in itself .Try to
keep it short and relevant.
Check equipment.
Film Useful if presenting a new
film instead of video. Check
equipment.
Be interested in visual display.
Don’t distract by fiddling,
moving
Off stage or making notes.
Participate with the audience.
Introduce video, etc. as to
reason
for showering it, summarise;
Invite comments.
Satellite link-up Fraught with danger for the
novice. See most news
programmes
You may find videoconferencing
more effective for in-house
presentations.
5.2 DESIGNING
5.0 INTRODUCTION
The written or spoken word are just one means of communication,
albeit the most important. On their own, through, they can tend to
be somewhat boring – too many pages of text to wade through,
listening to a speaker for too long, etc. Can turn off the best
recipient no matter how good the form of presentation. One way
of alleviating this is the use of visual or graphical effects within
reports, booklets, manuals, information brochures and oral
presentations.
We start by following up our examination of presentations and
presentational skills by looking at the role of audio and visual aids.
In many forms of face-to-face interaction, it is very helpful to use
visual displays to assist in getting your message across – for
example, jotting down a diagram to help explain the way a system
works to a colleague. The same principle applies in presentations,
except that the way in which such visual aids are used needs to be
carefully integrated with the rest of the presentation. Here, then,
we shall examine the nature and purpose of audio and visual aids,
and how you can use them to enhance the giving of a presentation.
Our second area of study here is the presentation of statistical
information. Figures on their own- particularly lengthy tables –
convey little to the average eye, and it is usually very difficult to
pick out the important relationships between various items without
a thorough examination of the figures. Graphs, bar charts, pie
charts, etc. present the information in a more accessible form,
enabling the whole range of the subject and particular relationships
to be seen at a glance. We shall, and then examine the way in
which such visual representations can be used to draw attention to
the key points.
Activity:
Give examples of audio visual aids.
What are the disadvantages of using AV aids in presentations?
Finally, we shall consider issues of design in general and of its
application to the corporate image which companies project in
particular. Good design is essential in today’s competitive
business environment, as the expectations of the public are now
very high in this respect. We shall, then, review the contribution
of design to good business communications and examine some of
the many vehicles for conveying corporate image.
5.1 NATURE AND PURPOSE OF AUDIO AND VISUAL AIDS
This study unit is concerned with the effective use of audio and
visual aids. Although such aids can greatly enhance a presentation,
not every presentation will need them or be more effective because
of them. Using audio and visual aids in order to appear more
professional but without reflecting the purpose of the presentation
is time-wasting, costly and can make you appear more concerned
with the trivia rather than the detail of your presentation. They can
also detract from, rather than enhance, your performance – unless
they are well produced and relevant, they are a waste of everyone’s
time. The more sophisticated the technology, the worse the
disaster if anything goes wrong.
So, what is the point of using audio and visual aids at all? (Note
that we need to include the effective use of audio – the notion that
we only use visual aids in a presentation is incorrect.)
Appropriate audio or visual aids, if used selectively (with regard to
timing, format, complexity) and designed to a standard expected of
the presentation, can enhance a good presentation and increase its
effectiveness through:
• creating awareness;
• encouraging interest;
• retaining involvement;
• achieving instant result/responses;
• describing in one image an entire proposal or concept;
• being memorable;
• complementing the spoken word;
• reinforcing corporate identity.
Visual Communication
281
Activity
Give instances when AV aids would be advantages during
presentations.
What would be the most effective AV aids?
What are the issues to be considered before using AV aids?
If you are planning a presentation, you nee to ask yourself:
(a) Would this presentation be improved by using
audio- visual aids?
(b) What would be the most appropriate format?
Do not ask yourself “What audio-visual aids shall I use?” The
difference is a subtle one but the message is clear. Only use audiovisual
aids if they will enhance your presentation and are
appropriate. E.g.: During highly scientific presentations a visual
aid is appropriate, however an audio aid is unnecessary.
If, after appropriate consideration, you do decide to use them to
make more effective presentations, then you must determine:
• The range of audio-visual aids available and their advantages
and disadvantages.
• How to design audio-visual aids.
• How to make the best use of all audio-visual aids at your
disposal.
These are they key issues with which we shall be concerned in the
rest of this unit.
5.1.1 What Are Audio-Visual Aids?
Quite simply, visual aids are those items which make use of
pictures or visual images (including the written word) in support of
an oral presentation. We also need to include audio aids because,
Increasingly, music or sound effects can be used to add impact to a
presentation, and some (such as video) combine visual and audio.
The range of AVA available is illustrated in Figure 5.1
Figure 5.1; Audio-Visual Aids
Visual Communication
5.1.2 Using Audio-Visual Aids Effectively
Before deciding to use audio-visual aids as part of a presentation,
you need to be certain that they will:
• Enhance the presentation
• Not detract from its effectiveness.
• Be professionally product and presented
One of the best reasons for not using audio-visual aids is a lack of
confidence in using them. In every instance you need to be
familiar with the equipment you are going to use and to have a fallback
position of the unexpected (like a power cut) should happen.
Remember that audio-visual aids support and enhance
presentations. Presentations are not showcases for the most
technically advanced or best produced audio-visuals.
Activity:
What are the reasons for using Av aids?
Never forget that you have included audio-visuals in your
presentation of the benefit of your audience. It does not matter
what type of audio-visual you use, the following criteria must be
met:
• Language or images are selected which reflect the nature of the
presentation and represent a dimension of the subject under
discussion/being presented.
• Care is taken not to use offensive images, phrases or music.
(Do semi-clothed people actually sell cars?)
• The seating arrangements/room layouts are designed (and
double-checked by you) so that everyone can hear or see what’s
going on.
• There is sufficient technical back-up.
• You do not use effects which could upset your audience (e.g.
Loud bangs, flickering lights, strobe lights, fireworks) or even
endanger them.
• You opt for simplicity and clarity rather than complexity and
confusion.
• Always make reference to a visual.
• Don’t turn away from the audience to operate audio-visuals;
either use technical support or arrange for your and the
audience’s convenience.
• Try not to obscure visuals by standing in front of them.
• To keep attention, use audio-visuals at low attention periods
such as after lunch, before a break or towards the end of a
session.
• Rehearse.
Figure 5.2 provides more details about the effective use of
particular aids.
Activity:
What are the key points to consider when designing an AV aid?
What are the advantages and disadvantages of using words as
visuals?
Type of Audio-Visual
Using Them Effectively Additional Requirements
Prepared flip charts Usually too small for a large
audience. Very useful in small
internal presentations, including
interview presentations
Need to be clearly written. Useful
for cartoon-like illustrations.
Use non-smudge pens.
Flip chart Particularly useful in seminartype
presentations. Be careful
not to be obscure what you are
writing.
Sufficient paper; non-smudge,
bright-colored working felt-tip
pens. Can refer to previous sheets
Whiteboards
Best in teaching situation. In
formation has to be constantly
erased. Need clear, straight,
handwriting.
Similar to blackboards. Only really
useful in small training sessions.
Overhead projectors Prepare transparencies in
advance.
Keep slides in order.
Have back-up photocopies in
the even of disaster.
Check projector working. Check
your slides fit projector and are
right shape, otherwise you lose
detail.
Projector Assume this will go wrong.
Prepare slides beforehand and
check equipment
Use hand-held remote-control
model.
Build-up visuals Need to be big enough to have
an impact. Can create audience
tension.
Need careful rehearsing or
preplanning.
Physical objects Must be visible and relevant.
Attracts immediate attention.
If samples, you need sufficient for
1 1/2 times your audience.
Working models Can make or break a
presentation. Test and retest.
Good at exhibitions. Excellent
for product launches.
Always have a”spare/one that I
made earlier” if making a
demonstration. Speaks for itself.
Tape recordings Check equipment for adequate
amplification. Best for music
rather than speech unless in
classroom.
Video Well-presented video is a
presentation in itself .Try to
keep it short and relevant.
Check equipment.
Film Useful if presenting a new
film instead of video. Check
equipment.
Be interested in visual display.
Don’t distract by fiddling,
moving
Off stage or making notes.
Participate with the audience.
Introduce video, etc. as to
reason
for showering it, summarise;
Invite comments.
Satellite link-up Fraught with danger for the
novice. See most news
programmes
You may find videoconferencing
more effective for in-house
presentations.
5.0 INTRODUCTION
The written or spoken word are just one means of communication,
albeit the most important. On their own, through, they can tend to
be somewhat boring – too many pages of text to wade through,
listening to a speaker for too long, etc. Can turn off the best
recipient no matter how good the form of presentation. One way
of alleviating this is the use of visual or graphical effects within
reports, booklets, manuals, information brochures and oral
presentations.
We start by following up our examination of presentations and
presentational skills by looking at the role of audio and visual aids.
In many forms of face-to-face interaction, it is very helpful to use
visual displays to assist in getting your message across – for
example, jotting down a diagram to help explain the way a system
works to a colleague. The same principle applies in presentations,
except that the way in which such visual aids are used needs to be
carefully integrated with the rest of the presentation. Here, then,
we shall examine the nature and purpose of audio and visual aids,
and how you can use them to enhance the giving of a presentation.
Our second area of study here is the presentation of statistical
information. Figures on their own- particularly lengthy tables –
convey little to the average eye, and it is usually very difficult to
pick out the important relationships between various items without
a thorough examination of the figures. Graphs, bar charts, pie
charts, etc. present the information in a more accessible form,
enabling the whole range of the subject and particular relationships
to be seen at a glance. We shall, and then examine the way in
which such visual representations can be used to draw attention to
the key points.
Activity:
Give examples of audio visual aids.
What are the disadvantages of using AV aids in presentations?
Finally, we shall consider issues of design in general and of its
application to the corporate image which companies project in
particular. Good design is essential in today’s competitive
business environment, as the expectations of the public are now
very high in this respect. We shall, then, review the contribution
of design to good business communications and examine some of
the many vehicles for conveying corporate image.
5.1 NATURE AND PURPOSE OF AUDIO AND VISUAL AIDS
This study unit is concerned with the effective use of audio and
visual aids. Although such aids can greatly enhance a presentation,
not every presentation will need them or be more effective because
of them. Using audio and visual aids in order to appear more
professional but without reflecting the purpose of the presentation
is time-wasting, costly and can make you appear more concerned
with the trivia rather than the detail of your presentation. They can
also detract from, rather than enhance, your performance – unless
they are well produced and relevant, they are a waste of everyone’s
time. The more sophisticated the technology, the worse the
disaster if anything goes wrong.
So, what is the point of using audio and visual aids at all? (Note
that we need to include the effective use of audio – the notion that
we only use visual aids in a presentation is incorrect.)
Appropriate audio or visual aids, if used selectively (with regard to
timing, format, complexity) and designed to a standard expected of
the presentation, can enhance a good presentation and increase its
effectiveness through:
• creating awareness;
• encouraging interest;
• retaining involvement;
• achieving instant result/responses;
• describing in one image an entire proposal or concept;
• being memorable;
• complementing the spoken word;
• reinforcing corporate identity.
Activity
Give instances when AV aids would be advantages during
presentations.
What would be the most effective AV aids?
What are the issues to be considered before using AV aids?
If you are planning a presentation, you nee to ask yourself:
(a) Would this presentation be improved by using
audio- visual aids?
(b) What would be the most appropriate format?
Do not ask yourself “What audio-visual aids shall I use?” The
difference is a subtle one but the message is clear. Only use audiovisual
aids if they will enhance your presentation and are
appropriate. E.g.: During highly scientific presentations a visual
aid is appropriate, however an audio aid is unnecessary.
If, after appropriate consideration, you do decide to use them to
make more effective presentations, then you must determine:
• The range of audio-visual aids available and their advantages
and disadvantages.
• How to design audio-visual aids.
• How to make the best use of all audio-visual aids at your
disposal.
These are they key issues with which we shall be concerned in the
rest of this unit.
5.1.1 What Are Audio-Visual Aids?
Quite simply, visual aids are those items which make use of
pictures or visual images (including the written word) in support of
an oral presentation. We also need to include audio aids because,
Increasingly, music or sound effects can be used to add impact to a
presentation, and some (such as video) combine visual and audio.
The range of AVA available is illustrated in Figure 5.1
Figure 5.1; Audio-Visual Aids
5.1.2 Using Audio-Visual Aids Effectively
Before deciding to use audio-visual aids as part of a presentation,
you need to be certain that they will:
• Enhance the presentation
• Not detract from its effectiveness.
• Be professionally product and presented
One of the best reasons for not using audio-visual aids is a lack of
confidence in using them. In every instance you need to be
familiar with the equipment you are going to use and to have a fallback
position of the unexpected (like a power cut) should happen.
Remember that audio-visual aids support and enhance
presentations. Presentations are not showcases for the most
technically advanced or best produced audio-visuals.
Activity:
What are the reasons for using Av aids?
Never forget that you have included audio-visuals in your
presentation of the benefit of your audience. It does not matter
what type of audio-visual you use, the following criteria must be
met:
• Language or images are selected which reflect the nature of the
presentation and represent a dimension of the subject under
discussion/being presented.
• Care is taken not to use offensive images, phrases or music.
(Do semi-clothed people actually sell cars?)
• The seating arrangements/room layouts are designed (and
double-checked by you) so that everyone can hear or see what’s
going on.
• There is sufficient technical back-up.
• You do not use effects which could upset your audience (e.g.
Loud bangs, flickering lights, strobe lights, fireworks) or even
endanger them.
• You opt for simplicity and clarity rather than complexity and
confusion.
• Always make reference to a visual.
• Don’t turn away from the audience to operate audio-visuals;
either use technical support or arrange for your and the
audience’s convenience.
• Try not to obscure visuals by standing in front of them.
• To keep attention, use audio-visuals at low attention periods
such as after lunch, before a break or towards the end of a
session.
• Rehearse.
Figure 5.2 provides more details about the effective use of
particular aids.
Activity:
What are the key points to consider when designing an AV aid?
What are the advantages and disadvantages of using words as
visuals?
Type of Audio-Visual
Using Them Effectively Additional Requirements
Prepared flip charts Usually too small for a large
audience. Very useful in small
internal presentations, including
interview presentations
Need to be clearly written. Useful
for cartoon-like illustrations.
Use non-smudge pens.
Flip chart Particularly useful in seminartype
presentations. Be careful
not to be obscure what you are
writing.
Sufficient paper; non-smudge,
bright-colored working felt-tip
pens. Can refer to previous sheets
Whiteboards
Best in teaching situation. In
formation has to be constantly
erased. Need clear, straight,
handwriting.
Similar to blackboards. Only really
useful in small training sessions.
Overhead projectors Prepare transparencies in
advance.
Keep slides in order.
Have back-up photocopies in
the even of disaster.
Check projector working. Check
your slides fit projector and are
right shape, otherwise you lose
detail.
Projector Assume this will go wrong.
Prepare slides beforehand and
check equipment
Use hand-held remote-control
model.
Build-up visuals Need to be big enough to have
an impact. Can create audience
tension.
Need careful rehearsing or
preplanning.
Physical objects Must be visible and relevant.
Attracts immediate attention.
If samples, you need sufficient for
1 1/2 times your audience.
Working models Can make or break a
presentation. Test and retest.
Good at exhibitions. Excellent
for product launches.
Always have a”spare/one that I
made earlier” if making a
demonstration. Speaks for itself.
Tape recordings Check equipment for adequate
amplification. Best for music
rather than speech unless in
classroom.
Video Well-presented video is a
presentation in itself .Try to
keep it short and relevant.
Check equipment.
Film uUseful if presenting a new
film instead of video. Check
equipment.
Be interested in visual display.
Don’t distract by fiddling,
moving
Off stage or making notes.
Participate with the audience.
Introduce video, etc. as to
reason
for showering it, summarise;
Invite comments.
Satellite link-up Fraught with danger for the
novice. See most news
programmes
You may find videoconferencing
more effective for in-house
presentations.
Figure 5.2: Effective use of selected audio-visual aids
5.2 DESIGNING
Interviews and Meetings
354
6. INTERVIEWS AND MEETINGS
OBJECTIVES
Upon completing this section you should be able to:
• Understand the types of interview in an organization.
• Illustrate the underlying process of an interview.
• Examine the principles and practices involved in interviewing.
Interviews and Meetings
355
6.0 INTRODUCTION
If you were asked to identify the various work situations involving
the conscious exercise of oral communication, it is likely that you
would include interviews in your list.
The existence of formal meetings – for example, boards or
committees – as a means of expediting business in many
organizations brings with it its own particular forms of
communication. The second part of the unit presents an overview
of the role of meetings in business and of the way in which they
function, before going on to consider the requirements for effective
communications in respect of both the procedure and
documentation.
Activity:
What is the role of an interviewer?
List down the objectives of a selection interview?
6.1 INTERVIEWS
6.1.1 Types of Interviews
As we have emphasized throughout this course, the purpose of an
interaction is crucial to determining the communication which
takes place. We can see this in respect of a number of different
types of formal interview, thereby distinguishing the particulars of
each.
It is important to remember, at the outset, that there are two parties
to any interview – the interviewer and the interviewee – and that,
in most circumstances, the purpose must be considered from both
sides, irrespective of the particular side you are on at the time.
However, it is always the case that the interviewer has “control” of
the process, and there is a responsibility on him/her to ensure that
the process allows both parties to meet their objectives.
Not also that, whilst interviews generally represent examples of
one-to-one interaction, it is by no means uncommon for the
interviewer side to comprise a panel.
However, in essence, the interaction that takes place continues to
be one-to-one. E.g.: A panel of interviewers is most common
during an interview for high positions like by the board of
directors.
(a) Selection interviews
Recruitment and promotion interviews are the most common
perception of the interview, and are the one type of which you will
almost certainly have experience – either as an interviewer or as an
interviewee.
The objectives of any selection interview are to:
• find out whether the candidate is suitable for the job and the
organization; and
• Find out whether the job and the organization are suitable for
the candidate.
The first objective is well understood and forms the basis of most
questioning, designed to allow the candidate the opportunity to
demonstrate his/her abilities in relation to the requirements of the
post. The second objective is less well acknowledged, but should
be clear if you consider the interview from the perspective of the
candidate – he/she will not only want to show the capability to do
the job effectively, but also to find out more about it and assess
whether he/she does actually want it. As a result, the interviewer
has to provide the scope within the interview to allow the
candidate the opportunity to explore his/her concerns.
(b) Appraisal interviews
Appraisal interviews are less well-understood and, if the objectives
are not clearly stated, have the potential, to become the opposite of
their purpose.
Activity:
List down the objectives of a selection interview?
If the objectives of an appraisal interview are not clearly stated, the
entire session has the potential to become the opposite of it
purpose. Explain.
The intention of appraisal interviews is to provide a focus for
employee development, usually as part of an on-going system
which includes the provision of development opportunities. The
interview is not, therefore, a one-off event, but one of a series
between the employee and his/her manager (or other designated
appraiser). The purpose is two-fold:
• to review past and current performance in the job, form both the
appraiser and appraisee’s points of view; and
• to plan the future development of the individual
It has, therefore, a positive focus which should condition the
interview process. If conducted in a careful and sensitive way,
appropriate to this central focus, the appraisal interview can be a
positive experience, and will be of benefit to the individual and the
organization.
© Disciplinary interviews
Disciplinary interviews are held to consider whether disciplinary
action should be taken against an employee, usually in accordance
with the organization’s disciplinary procedure. This can have very
serious consequences. It is crucial, therefore, to be clear about the
objectives of the formal interaction.
The most important point is that the interview must aim to
establish the truth about what has occurred. As such, it can not be
regarded as one-sided, but rather must be a two-way process to
tease out the facts of the situation. The principles of natural justice
demand that the employee concerned must have the opportunity to
put his/her case properly, and issues of personal prejudice and
partiality have to be very carefully dealt with.
The need for careful preparation is paramount in this situation. In
particular, it should be the culmination of a process which has
included a thorough a thorough and impartial investigation of all
the issues.
Activity:
What are some of the criterion when conducting disciplinary
interviews?
In disciplinary interviews, it is usually the case that the interviewee
is able to be accompanied by a representative or “friend” – to
advise, support and possibly speak on his/her behalf, as well as
acting as a witness to the proceedings.
(d) Grievance interviews
These interviews also form part of a broader procedure – the
organization’s grievance procedure – which structures the way in
which an employee may raise complaints about his/her treatment at
work (by the organization in general or by an individual member
of it) and the steps which are to be taken to deal with the
complaint.
On the face of it, the aim of the interview is to resolve the
grievance. However, having said that, it isn’t necessarily the
solution which is the most important outcome. Often the way in
which the solution is arrived at can be just as important – even an
ideal solution may be ineffective if it leaves the participants still
feeling aggrieved (for example, because it was arrived at only after
bitter argument, accusation and counter-accusation).
This indicates that the way in which the grievance is handled is
every bit as important as the solution itself. Employees arrive at
grievance interviews with a sense of injustice. They should leave
with at least the feeling that they received a fair hearing and
consideration. The aim, therefore, in handling a grievance
interview is to arrive at a solution through a discussion which, as
far as possible, provides a satisfactory conclusion to all parties.
Activity:
What do employees hope to achieve from the organization in a
grievance interview?
6.1.2 Principles and Practice of Interviewing
Although the contexts for these interview situations are different,
we have established a number of common themes to them all – the
need for the process to be two-way, acknowledgement of the
objectives of both parties to the process, etc., We can, then, look at
them in the same way when it comes to understanding the way in
which interviews are conducted.
The principles and practice of interviewing derive directly from the
basic two-stage process we considered earlier – preparation and
delivery. We can work this through in respect of the particular
requirements of interviewing.
(a) Preparation
Each type of interview has its own general aims, as we saw above.
In preparing for a specific interview, it is important to identify the
particular objectives which apply within these. Thus, in respect of
a job interview, the particulars of the job itself – and the
knowledge, skills and attitudes required for it – will inform the
framing of the desired outcomes and the structuring of the
interview to achieve them. Similarly, the particulars of an
individual case will condition the approach in a grievance
interview.
Gathering and organizing relevant information means ensuring you
are fully conversant with the subject area of the interview – for
example, the job requirement, the employee’s appraisal records
and employment history, the details of the disciplinary or
grievance case. Picking out the salient points is likely to provide
the structure for the interview. Thus, a selection interview can be
built around the details of the job description and person
specification, or an appraisal interview planned around the
employee’s recent work experience and development activities.
It is surprising how often interviewers do not really inform
themselves about the person or persons they are interviewing. It
necessitates considering the background information available
about the interviewee to form a picture of the specific person, such
that the interview itself can be tailored to him or her in particular.
Thus, for selection interviews, the candidates’ application forms
will provide details of education and employment background,
together with some indication of experience and skills. These can
be used develop the general lines of questioning in respect of the
job description and person specification, which should be common
to all candidates, into specific questions appropriate to each
Activity:
When a panel of interviewers is involved, why should they
strategize before the interview?
Arranging the venue and setting means getting administration of
the process right – notification of times (and keeping to them),
reception arrangements if necessary, etc. – and establishing an
environment for the interview itself which will be supportive of the
objectives and help, rather than hinder, the interaction. Thus, there
should be a comfortable, private room available, with no
distractions in or around it. This may mean arranging for phone
calls to be re-directed, warnings to prevent interruptions, etc. The
physical layout needs some thought – it is usual to make the setting
informal, with no barriers between the interviewer and the
interviewee (such as an imposing desk), although some people find
that a complete lack of formality makes them feel somewhat
exposed.
Finally, most good interviewers – even very experienced ones –
generally run through what they are going to say. This can take the
form of actually rehearsing questions, particularly in respect of the
style and intonation used, or simply talking through the planned
structure with a colleague to ensure that it is correct. Clearly,
where there is a panel of interviewers (i.e. more than one), this
process is essential so that all participation are aware of the
proposed procedure.
(b) Conduct of the interview
It is important for the interview to be structured in order to keep
the process focused on the key points and to avoid irrelevant
discussion and time wasting. Remember too that the interviewer is
responsible for conducting the process and ensuring its successful
outcome.
The interview itself can be seen as a four-part event, characterized
by the acronym WASP.
W Welcome – greetings and introductions, each party to the other,
with the objective of establishing rapport and relaxing the
participants. Particular points include:
• putting the interviewee at ease;
• explaining the purpose of the interview and outlining the way in
which it will be structured;
• explaining, if appropriate, about taking notes.
A Ask – the process of questioning whereby information is sought
from the other party in relation to the objectives of the interview.
We shall be considering questioning techniques in detail in the
next unit, but other points include:
• using questions prepared in advance, based on the general aims
and specific objectives of the interview and the particular
circumstances of the interviewee;
• using open questions (which encourage developed responses
and further discussion), working from relatively general and
easy ones to more specific and difficult ones;
• listening to, and probing the interviewee’s responses.
S Supply – providing full and honest responses to questions
which will show the respondent in the best possible light,
according to their objectives. Particular points include:
• Backing up assertion with examples wherever possible;
• Being reasonably concise, particularly in the case of the
interviewer (the interviewer should only do 20 – 30% of the
talking).
P Parting - ending the interaction on a positive and cordial note,
with a clear idea of what has happened and what will happen next.
Particular points include:
Interviews and Meetings
368
Summarizing conclusions, where appropriate; Identifying when,
what and how any action arising from the interview will be
communicated.
6.2 MEETINGS – AN OVERVIEW
Note that, whilst the discussion here will be mainly focused on
committee or other formal meetings, the principles apply generally
to most types of meeting.
6.2.1 The Role of Meetings
The main functions of any of these meetings may be summarized
as:
• providing for a dialogue between members, allowing the
exchange of information, views and opinions;
• generating ideas or solutions to problems;
• monitoring and evaluating performance or progress;
• making policy and other decisions.
These general functions hold true for the meetings of informal
working groups, a school’s parent-teacher association, and
company boards and governmental bodies. There are, clearly,
differences in scale and the issues considered, but the general
purpose is the same.
6.2.2 Constitution
The particulars of the meetings of a body are determined by the
nature of the body itself and this will be laid down in its
constitution. The constitution of a body will cover such
fundamental matters as:
• Membership – who is entitled to be a member and how
membership may be determined, numbers, length of service,
etc.;
• Terms of reference – the powers and duties of the body (what it
can and cannot do and what it must do), so for example, it may
have the power to make proposals and suggestions, but not
actually to commit the financial resources of the organization;
• Timing and frequency of meetings – this will vary according to
the functions and purposes of individual bodies, so for example,
a company AGM will be an annual event, but a school
governing body may meet once a terms, or a finance committee
may meet every six weeks.
All bodies holding meetings have a constitution of some sort.
Formal committees will certainly have a written constitution,
sometimes governed by legal regulations, which spell out in detail
all these issues. However, even informal groups will have an
implicit understanding of these matters – whether they are
discussed and agreed among the members or simply taken granted.
Activity:
What are the main functions of any meeting?
What elements makeup the constitution of a meeting?
6.2.3 The Organization of Meetings
• Meetings don’t just happen – they have to be organized. This
can be considered in three stages;
• Before the meeting – the planning of what will happen;
• At the meeting – the conduct of business during the course of
the meeting itself;
• After the meeting – wrapping up the proceedings by producing
the record of the meeting and following up on the issues
discussed and decisions made.
E.g.: Never hold a meeting unless the objectives are clear. Meeting
without clear objectives are always a waste of everybody’s time.
We shall review these in very general terms now, and then go on to
look at specific aspects of the procedures and documentation in the
next two sections.
Activity:
When organizing a meeting, what are the three stages involved?
(a) Preparation for meetings
Meetings have to be planned. Efficient undertaking of the
necessary work prior to any meeting – whether it is for the AGM
of a public company, a local government committee, or a work
group – will invariably smooth the conduct of business at the
meeting itself.
The starting point is the preparation of an agenda. This is
fundamental to any meeting as it sets out, in order, the business to
be transacted. It provides, then, not only the statement of what the
meeting will consider – its content – but also defines its structure.
However, prior to that, perhaps the first step is to determine if the
meeting is really necessary! Many of us will have felt the
frustration of spending two or three hours in a meeting where no
progress ahs been made, or there was nothing of substance to
discuss, or even where it was evident that decisions had already
been taken elsewhere. Meetings are an expensive way of using
staff time and effort, so they need to be cost –effective. Therefore,
if it is not a required meeting of a formal committee, its
appropriateness or necessity should be questioned and alternatives
considered for achieving the desired outcomes
(b) The conduct of business
The proceedings of a meeting may be considered as a sort of
structured discussion. The structure is partly provided by the
agenda, but the way in which the discussion is conducted is
governed by rules of procedure. Again, formal bodies will have
very specific rules of procedure, usually codified and written down
as standing orders, but even informal groups will have some
generally understood rules about how the meeting will be
conducted.
There are a number of specific roles within all meetings. Some of
these are implicitly agreed, but more often there is a deliberate
appointment to these positions – either by election, or as a
consequence of holding a particular post in the organization. Two
of these roles are particularly important:
• the chairperson; and
• the committee secretary/clerk.
At the meeting itself, it is the chairperson who actually controls the
meeting. This is the key role in any meeting, setting the tone and
style of the meeting and generally ensuring that the business of the
meeting is efficiently and effectively conducted. However, this
role is not simply one of a passive, neutral referee of proceedings.
It is invariably a very powerful position, giving the holder the
ability to control what is discussed and how that discussion
progress.
The secretary’s role is to ensure the effective administration of the
meeting, including all work before and after the proceedings, and
to advise the meeting on the application of the rules of business.
This is a key role and, for formal committees and boards, will be
fulfilled by a senior officer of the organization. He/she will have a
close working relationship with the chairperson to ensure that the
proceedings go smoothly and the desired outcomes are achieved.
In informal meetings it is often the case that the secretary and
chairperson’s role are held by the same person.
The clerk’s role is essentially that of carrying out the work of
agenda preparation and writing the minutes, including (of
necessity) taking notes of proceedings at the meeting itself. In
many smaller bodies, this work is actually carried out by the
secretary.
Activity:
How would you make a meeting cost effective?
What role do following parties play in a meeting?
a) Chairperson
b) Committee secretary
It is worth pointing out that these roles – committee secretary and
clerk – should not be confused with the general office positions of
secretary and clerk. They are specialized and very important
positions in relation to meetings specifically.
(c) Work after meetings
This breaks down into two areas – the preparation of the record of
the meeting, and ensuring that decisions taken at the meeting are
subsequently implemented.
The particular requirements of the formal minutes of proceedings
go much further than the recording needs for most business
meetings. In essence, all is required is:
• A record of all essential information, particularly what has been
decided;
• A statement of who has to take what action.
This preserves a record of salient information and can be circulated
to all participants and others involved or interested. It is important
to remember that the information must reach all those who need to
know – either for general awareness or because action is required -
rather than just those who were present. It is helpful, though, to
direct the recipient’s attention to the relevant items in what may
often be very large reports or minutes.
Finally, it is worth noting that meetings exist to facilitate the
execution of work. It is sometimes tempting to think of them as
talking shops which have to be serviced, but have no relevance
after the event. However, if they are to have any meaning, the
discussions and decisions must be followed up and put into effect.
They then form a key participative element in the decision making
and operating processes of the organization, rather than a
distraction.
6.2.4 DOCUMENTATION FOR MEETINGS
The Agenda
The main purpose of the agenda is to set out, in order, the business
to be transacted at the meeting. As such, for formal committees
and boards, it will usually be the subject of some discussion
between a number of interested parties – the committee
chairperson, senior officers and the committee secretary. For other
types of meeting, preparation of the agenda may be the sole
responsibility of the person who will chair the meeting, but advice
may be sought on what items of business should be included.
An agenda should normally include the following elements:
• The time and place of the meeting.
• Apologies for absence.
• Provision for confirmation of the minutes of any previous
meeting, and for consideration of matters arising from them
(where the issues are not included as items elsewhere on the
agenda);
• Provision for the reporting and consideration of any
correspondence received (where the issues are not covered by
items elsewhere on the agenda);
• A subject heading for each item of business to be transacted,
together with a brief explanatory comment, if necessary (often
by reference to attached reports, correspondence, etc.);
• A final item of “any other business” to allow for discussion of
any issue which has arisen since the production of the agenda;
and
• A final, final item to determine the date of the next meeting.
E.g.: Always set agenda based on time available for the meeting
with the most important ones taking priority.
For most formal committee or board meetings, it is job of the
committee secretary (or administrator or clerk, however the post is
termed) to prepare the agenda. He/she will usually maintain a file
of items which may potentially require the committee’s attention.
These items may be derived from:
• correspondence received;
• matters referred by other committee, etc.;
• circulars and directives from other bodies (particularly
government);
• matters – usually policy issues and usually in the form of
“motions” referred by members or officers for discussion
and/or resolution.
Although it is usual for items for formal committees to be
submitted in writing, in practice there will often be the need for
discussion between the secretary and individual members, perhaps
also with the involvement of the chairperson, to clarify how items
will be presented on the agenda.
It is important to remember that, if a meeting is to be effective in
its deliberations and decision-making, members will need time to
familiarize themselves with the agenda and any supporting papers.
This means that the agenda must be sent out some time prior to the
actual date of the meeting.
When exactly will vary. The required notice of business to be
transacted may be formally stated in the constitution or standing
orders of some formal bodies. Local authority committees, for
example, have a statutory duty to have the agenda and relevant
report, etc., available for public perusal three clear days before the
date of the meeting.
Activity:
Why is it important to circulate a record of all essential
information obtained in a meeting?
In some organizations, notice of the meeting may be sent out
separately – prior to the agenda itself. In others, notice of the
meeting and the agenda may be combined.
Agenda may appear in a variety of formats, depending on the
conventions of the organization in question. The example in
Figure 6.1 combines the notice of the meeting with the agenda, and
the agenda contains all the usual necessary elements.
You should note the following points about this example:
• The headed paper gives clearly the contact number for the
secretary, so that apologies for absence can be sent, and
discussion about items of urgent business can take place.
• The prior notice provided by the date of dispatch of the agenda
in this case, almost four weeks.
• The date, time, and place of the meeting are clearly set out.
Here, they are included in the letter which gives notice of the
meeting. If the agenda was sent on its own, this would need to
be included at the top of the agenda.
• Members are specifically reminded about considering “any
other business” in advance of the meeting.
• The first four items are usually fixed for all regular meetings
and generally appear in this order. Items 7 and 8 are also fixed.
• The items which form the variable subject matter of any
meeting should have sufficient detail to enable members to
understand the nature of the item. Where appropriate, there
should be a reference to any relevant documentation.
HAMSHIRE ASSICIATION OF PARISH COUNCILS
SALEM AREA COMMITTEE
Chairman: Mr.J.Tobey Hon.Sec.:Mrs.J Pride
Bragdale Farmhouse 16, High Street
Bragdale Road Lower Allwood
Feversham LX53 8XY Settingly LX95 7DY Tel:01878
555555 Tel: 01878 888888
7 February 200X
Dear Sir/Madam,
The next meeting of the Salem Area Committee will be held on Monday
March 2nd 200X, at 7.30 pm in the Council Chamber, Salem House,
Settingly.
The agenda and supporting papers are appended. If you have items for
inclusion under “any other business”, they should be with the Secretary
no later than 5.00 pm on Friday 27 February.
Yours sincerely,
J Pride
Secretary
AGENDA
1. Apologies for absence.
2. Minutes of the last meeting.
3. Matters arising.
4. Correspondence.
5. Reports from representatives on:
(a) Police Consultative Committee
(b) Executive Committee
6. Rural Lanes Survey – Report AB/123 refers
7. Any other business.
8. Date and topic for next meeting.
Figure 6.1: Example of an agenda
E.g.: New item to the agenda especially sensitive issues like
termination and retrenchment should not be brought up without
notice.
Minutes
It is generally the case that, after any meeting, a record of what
transpired at the meeting is made. This may be in the form of a
few hand-written notes, a memorandum, a note for filing or a
report of some kind, possibly with notes for action. The
appropriate form will vary with the type of meeting and the
importance of what took place.
The situation with regard to formal meetings of a committee or
board is rather different. The proceedings of such meetings are
recorded by the minutes.
Minutes are the factual record of the proceedings and
resolutions of a meeting. They constitute a true and impartial
record of the events.
The prime function of minutes is to place on record the
proceedings of a meeting as the basis for subsequent action. The
minutes constitute the authorization for such action to be taken.
Activity:
Why is it important to circulate a record of all essential
information obtained in a meeting?
What do you believe is the right format to display minutes on
paper?
(a) The format of minutes
The way in which the events at a meeting are recorded in the
minutes is likely to vary between organizations. Each has its own
particular conventions about what should be recorded and how
they are set out.
However, there are a number of general principles which can be
identified.
As noted above, the primary purpose of the minutes is to provide
authorization for actions to be taken. As such, then, the key
element which must be recorded is the decisions taken at the
meeting.
This may be done by simply stating the motions passed by the
meeting, using the exact words of the motions as voted on. For
example:
Resolved: That the Treasurer’s Report (ref.FD.045) be adopted,
subject to the assumed Government funding becoming available
for development of the new site by the end of the financial year.
This may mask considerable debate about the issue, including the
proposing of, and voting on, various motions and amendments.
However, at the simplest level, the only important point is the final
decision at which the meeting arrived.
Whilst this is the essential element of minutes, it is often the case
that they need to go further than this in order to accurately convey
the sense and meaning of a meeting. Indeed, this may be necessary
since, in the event of a dispute as to what transpired or was agreed,
the minutes may be cited as legal evidence.
Thus, it is quite possible that the minutes will record all motions
and amendments put to the meeting (with their propose and
seconder), together with brief details of discussion and the
subsequent vote. It is also sometimes necessary to record details
about the voting on particular motions – either as totals “for” and
“against”, with abstentions, or even the way individual members
voted.
Finally, in addition to decisions taken by the meeting, it is normal
for the minutes to record events in respect of each item on the
agenda, including:
• Those members present, together with absences for which
apologies were made at the time;
• Agreement about the minutes of the previous meeting(s),
together with any changes made to them;
• Brief notes about items or issues introduced to the meeting, but
not specifically referred to on the agenda or supporting papers –
as in the case of reports or discussion about matters arising
from the previous minutes, correspondence and any other
business;
• The start and finish times.
(b) Minute writing
The production of clear and accurate minutes is an exercise
requiring many of the communication skills we have considered
previously. It is important to listen effectively and consistently, to
take accurate notes, and then to translate these into a coherent and
comprehensible written statement.
There are a number of points of good practice in minute writing, as
follows:
• The essence of minutes is that they are a brief note – i.e. a
condensed statement – of the proceedings at a meeting. As
such, they are not the same as a report. They are designed,
basically, to record the decisions taken, and that is all. On the
other hand, they need to be sufficiently detailed and complete to
convey what transpired at the meeting and to provide clear
instructions and authorizations for action.
• Where it is accepted practice that minutes should record, in
some detail, the discussions which take place, this should not
become unwieldy and over-long. It should not obscure the
central point about the decisions made.
• The minutes – as a whole and in each individual statement –
should be positive, free from ambiguity and capable of standing
on their own. For example, resolutions should not merely say
“resolved accordingly” or “resolved as agreed”, but state
precisely what the decision was, using the exact wording on
which voting took place.
Interviews and Meetings
391
• Minute writing requires accurate and concise language,
involving objectivity and the absence of ambiguity. The
minutes should be written in third person – i.e. using “he/she”,
“they”, “them”, etc. – and in the past tense.
• It is important to emphasize the word “factual” in the definition
above. Minutes must not express opinions or give
interpretations of what has been said. They should be simple
statement of fact.
Thus, it would be wrong to write:
“The Treasurer displayed such excellent persuasive skill in putting forward her
argument that she took all the members with her.”
This should be expressed as:
“There was unanimous agreement to accept the Treasurer’s report.”
E.g.: The tone of the minutes taken has to be neutral – not
emotional, overly authoritative or accusatory – but clear enough
for action to be taken.
• Minutes should be completed as soon as possible after the
meeting. It is surprising how quickly your understanding of
your own notes can fade, and your memory of a certain
discussion grows cloudy.
• It is normal practice in many organizations for the accuracy of
the minutes to be checked with the chairperson before
circulation.
Interviews and Meetings
392
The following example (Figure 6.2) of an extract from the minutes
of a meeting illustrates many of the points made above.
SALEM PARISH COUNCIL- GENERAL PURPOSES COMMITTEE
Minutes of the meeting held on 9 January 200X, between 7.00 pm and 9.00 pm in
The Assembly Room at SalemHouse.
1. Members present: Councillor Green (in the chair); Councillors
Brown, Black, Cyan, Grey, Maroon, Purple, Red, Tan and White.
2. Apologies were received from Councillor Jones
3. The minutes of the meeting held on 12 December 200V were
approved and signed as a true record.
4. Pay rise
After a full discussion, it was proposed by Cllr. Red and seconded
By Cllr. White that the opinions of all employees be sought by
Means of a questionnaire. An amendment that the questionnaire
Should also ask if employees would prefer a one-off or staged
Arrangement was proposed by Cllr. Cyan and seconded by
Cllr. Black. This was passed by six votes to three, and the
Motion that the questionnaire be produced and circulated
Was then passed unanimously.
Figure 6.2: Example of minutes (extract)
Interviews and Meetings
393
Activity:
Minutes constitute a true and impartial record of the events at the
meeting. Explain.
What are the key elements to be recorded at any meetings?
6.2.5 Procedure in meetings
The proceedings of a meeting may be considered as a sort of
structured discussion. The issues for discussion, and their order,
are structured by the agenda, but the way in which the
discussion itself and general interaction of the participants is
conducted is structured by the various rules of procedure.
Constitution and Standing Orders
The proceedings of any formal meeting are generally governed by
the constitution of the committee or board, etc. – which states what
it is allowed to do – and written rules of procedure, usually known
as standing orders. The constitution and procedural rules of some
bodies are governed by legal regulations, which may lay down
specific requirements.
The constitution of the body, as we have seen, is fundamental, in
that it defines the terms of reference of any meeting and, thus,
conditions what powers and duties may or must be exercised. The
constitution also sets out the framework of meetings in terms of
their timing and frequency and also, possibly, the establishment of
certain roles.
Standing orders are concerned specifically with the way in which
meetings are run.
These rules are essential if meetings are to be conducted properly
since they cover such matters as:
• the number of members who must be present in order for the
meeting and its decision to be valid (the quorum);
• how and when question may be put;
• how motions and amendments may be moved;
• the length of debates;
• the methods of voting;
• control over the behavior of members.
Here we have a very clear example of the inter-relationship
between the written and spoken word. Written standing orders
exist to promote the effectiveness of oral communication.
Activity:
Why is it important to have a quorum at a meeting?
6.2.6 Within Meetings
As we have seen, there are a number of specific roles within all
meetings.
At the meeting itself, it is the chairperson who actually controls the
proceedings. This is the key role in any meeting, setting its tone
and style and generally ensuring that the business of the meeting is
efficiently and effectively conducted. E.g.: The chairperson usually
has to be a neutral person of authority, hence to be able to control
the participant and to be able to utilize time effectively.
His/her role can be summarized as being:
• To ensure that the meeting is properly constituted and that there
s a quorum;
• To control the meeting in accordance with the standing orders
and any other legal requirements that apply;
• to take the business in the order that it appears on the agenda
unless the committee determines otherwise), by opening the
discussion and guiding the debate such that all those who wish
to peak may do so.
• to ascertain the sense of the meeting at the conclusion of the
discussion on an item (by reaching common agreement or by
opting on a specific motion) and ensure that the decision
reached properly recorded.
In all these matters, the chairperson is assisted by the committee
secretary. This is certainly not the same as an office secretary.
He/she is likely to be a senior officer in the organization and will
be responsible for:
• advance notice of the meeting, agenda preparation, and general
housekeeping and administration (room bookings, resources
required), etc.,:
• Advising on the application of standing orders and any legal
matters (such as statutory provisions and common law
requirements) during the course of the meeting.
• Recording the proceedings accurately, distributing the minutes
and following-up any decisions after the meeting.
In many meetings, the secretary is not a formal member of the
body itself and, therefore, has no voting rights or any formal role in
discussions. However, as a senior officer, his/her contribution is
likely to be sought (or provided) on the issues involved in agenda
items and the implications of proposal and decisions.
Activity:
Give examples of the various levels of authoritative powers
possessed by the chairperson at a meeting?
6.2.7 General Rules of Procedure
All members have a general responsibility to participate actively in
the proceedings of the body. This requires a commitment to the
work of the committee and careful preparation by all concerned so
that each member is knowledgeable about the topics under
discussion.
It also means that each member has a responsibility to other
members to allow contributions to be heard and to enable
discussion to flow freely and positively. Thus, order is not just the
responsibility of the chairperson – it resides in all participants!
In order to ensure that chaos does not reign, there are a number of
conventions – general rules of behavior – which need to be
followed, including:
• acknowledging that the chairperson is in charge;
• speaking through the chair – waiting for permission to speak,
and always addressing remarks to the chairperson, not directly
to other members (although this may not be so necessary in less
formal, smaller meetings);
• keeping to the point – avoiding digression or pursing one’s own
particular agenda to the detriment of consideration of the items
before the meeting;
• interrupting other speakers only for procedural reasons – for
example, to seek clarification through a “point of order” or to
seek to give a “point of information”.
Obviously, the degree of regulation of formal committee or board
meetings is far in excess of that applying to most other types of
meeting.
However, the principles discussed here apply to all meetings.
There will always be some formal or informal rules about what the
meeting is competent either to discuss or to decide, and how it
should go about it.
Such rules may be extant and clear to all participants (or may be
clarified in the course of the meeting), or they may need to be
considered and determined during its course – as may be the case
with informal meetings of work groups. There will always be a
chairperson with a role to ensure the proper conduct of the meeting
in accordance with the points outlined above. And there will
always be someone responsible for planning the meeting and
recording the proceedings.
Activity:
What happens in the following phases of a meeting?
a) The chairperson calling the meeting to order
b) Apologies for absence
c) Minutes of the last meeting
6.2.8 Effectiveness in Meetings
Let us now take a little more time to consider how these general
rules and conventions actually apply within meetings. Although
the procedures followed for meetings and committees will vary
from one organization to another, the existence of these “rules”, in
whatever form, will go a long way towards ensuring that the
business is conducted in a coherent and professional way, using
time and resources efficiently, and minimizing the risk of
personality clashes which would be counter-productive.
As a structured interaction, meetings can be held to confirm to the
same basic principles as any other form of structured
communication – they need to be properly planned and should
have a beginning, a middle and an end.
(a) Planning
We have seen that the start point for any meeting is the preparation
of the agenda and its circulation to members. However, whilst this
sets out the structure of items for discussion, it does not constitute
a detailed plan of the way in which the meeting may go. As with
all forms of interaction, it is advisable to prepare carefully
beforehand – considering the objectives of the interaction, the
participants involved and the information required.
Accordingly, before the meeting itself, there is invariably some
kind of prior consideration of the agenda by the chairperson,
together with the secretary and, possibly, other officers. This will
concentrate on identifying the various issues involved in each item
of business, together with any desired outcome. This process of
considering how best to handle the discussion and to achieve
objectives is always useful for any type of meeting. Time for most
meetings is likely to be restricted, so it is essential that there is
clarity about what needs to be covered, and the best way of
achieving it. These pre-meeting briefing do not, however, take
decisions about the outcomes of agenda items.
(b) Opening the meeting
The introductory phase of any meeting should outline the business
to be conducted and set the proceedings in the context of previous
meetings, as well as covering any particular administrative
arrangements (such as time constraints, etc.). This is very much
the responsibility of the chairperson.
The chairperson will first call the meeting to order, to ensure that
everyone present is giving full attention, and will formally declare
the meeting open, usually stating the time of the start of business.
A check may be made that everyone has received the agenda and
any supporting papers, and is clear about the business to be
conducted and any administrative arrangements.
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The first agenda item to be taken will be “Apologies for absence”
to establish a formal record of attendance. Apologies are normally
read out by the secretary and will be recorded in the minutes.
The minutes of the last meeting need to be approved as a true and
accurate record, and signed by the chairperson. At this stage, the
responsibility lies with every member to have checked the minutes,
and to be prepared to speak up to correct any inaccuracies. This is
of particular importance if the minutes have legal significance.
Adjustments can then be made before the minutes are signed.
It is likely that action will have been taken on the basis of
decisions made at the previous meeting, or that there will be issues
arising from the discussion then which need clarification in the
light of present circumstances. The opportunity to consider such
matters, where they are not specifically covered elsewhere on the
agenda, is provided by the agenda item “Matters arising form the
minutes”. The chairperson him/herself, or any other member, may
seek information, usually from the secretary, in order to complete
the picture presented by the minutes. The chairperson needs to
ensure that there is no duplication here – the purpose is not to go
over old ground, but merely to clarify any issues arising
subsequently. Even if certain members were not present at the
original discussion, the temptation to allow them to ask a lot of
question should be resisted!
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(c) Main business of the meeting
Having completed the introductory phase, the meeting can move
on to the substantive business before it, according to the agenda.
Discussion of each item generally follows a set pattern – again
reflecting the beginning, middle and end structure we have seen in
all forms of communication.
• Introduction to the item
This will be done by the chairperson, one of the members, or an
office or other person attending specifically to provide information
about the particular item. The intension is to focus attention on the
key issues about the subject, in order to direct the following
discussion.
It is often the case that agenda items are supported by reports or
other documents which provide background information. It is
customary for the report’s author to introduce it by means of a
short presentation. The requirements of this are the same as have
been covered extensively above – careful and detailed preparation
and delivery. It is not appropriate to read verbatim from the report
or other paper9s), and the level of detail does not need to be that
great where the material ahs been circulated in advance. Rather,
the introduction should concentrate on the key issues and pick out
specific points, expanding and clarifying them as necessary, on
which the discussion should focus.
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• Discussion of the item by members
It is likely that a good many members of the meeting will have
points to make in respect of the issues under consideration. The
purpose of the procedural rules is to facilitate them doing so, such
that they can put their thoughts to the meeting and have them heard
and considered. This requires some degree of formality and order
to the discussion.
It is the chairperson’s duty to take control and impose such order.
Normally, all comments should be addressed through the
chairperson. This means that individual members do not address
each other directly and get involved in personal, potentially
acrimonious, debates across the meeting. It also helps to ensure
that only one person is speaking at a time. In order to make a
contribution to the discussion, members need to attract the
attention of the chairperson and signal their desire to speak. This,
in turn, means that the chairperson must be aware of members’
intentions at all times. The power to bring individual members into
the discussion can allow the chairperson to exercise considerable
control over the discussion, and it should, therefore, be exercised
fairly and even-handedly. It can be a source of friction where
members feel excluded, particularly if their views are opposed to
the chairperson’s.
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As a sanction to maintain order in the face of members flouting the
rules and conventions of discussion, the chairperson has the power
explicitly to exclude individuals from speaking – ruling their
contribution “out of order” – or even to banish them from the
meeting.
Discussion of many items in formal meetings often takes place
around specified proposals to be adopted as decisions of the
meeting. We shall consider the details of this below.
• Conclusion of the discussion by means of taking a decision
The purpose of discussing a particular item is to come to some sort
of conclusion about it which reflects the views of the meeting.
This may take the form of adopting a specific decision, or it may
simply be a mater of the chairperson summarizing the key points
of agreement. However, even such a summary constitutes a
decision of sorts in that it is likely to form the basis of further
action, sanctioned by the meeting.
Formal decisions taken within a meeting need to be based on a
motion proposed by one member and supported (“seconded”) by
another member. Such motions may be simply to adopt the
recommendations set out in a report, or they may be detailed
suggested courses of action put forward at the time by a member
(including the chairperson), based either on a perceived consensus
of opinion at the meeting, or their own particular viewpoint.
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Activity:
What is a motion?
How is it dealt with in a meeting?
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The wording of a motion can be very important, as it may establish
policy or commit resources. They need, therefore, to be clear and
unambiguous. For example, the following would meet this
requirement:
“That the committee authorizes the expenditure of £5,000 to
G.Gnomes & Co. to carry out landscaping work on the HQ
grounds in accordance with the proposals made in their tender
document.”
On a motion being put to the meeting, and following appropriate
discussion, the chairperson will take a vote among those present as
to whether it should be agreed and become a decision of the body.
The rules about voting are normally set out in the standing orders,
and they are likely to include provision for the chairperson’s
“casting vote” – a second vote available for the chairperson to use
in the event of tie between those for and those against the motion.
It is open for any member to put forward amendments to a motion.
An amendment is a suggested change in the wording which will
alter, to some degree, the meaning of the proposal. Amendments
which negate the intention of the original motion are not allowed –
the same effect may be had by simply voting against it.
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So, for example, the following amendment to the above motion
would be acceptable.
That the additional sentence “Payment to be made in two equal installments, based on
completion of works on the front and rear of the premises” be inserted at the end of the
proposal.
However, the following amendments would be ruled out of order:
That the word “not” be inserted before the word “authorize”.
Any amendments also need to have a formal proposer and
seconder, and should be voted on before the initial motion, so that,
if carried, the revised motion can then be considered and voted on.
All decisions made by a meeting need to be recorded precisely by
the committee secretary and included in the minutes.
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• Conclusion of the meeting
The final phase of the meeting is entered when all the substantive
items on the agenda have been considered.
There is always an item of “Any other business” on the agenda in
which members can raise issues of significance which are not
covered elsewhere. Sometimes, this is put on the agenda as “Any
other urgent business, and this is really the key to this item. It is
not intended that important and substantial new business should be
brought up at this stage of the proceedings. Members should
usually clarify with the secretary or the chairperson in advance if
they have items they wish to raise here, and the chairperson may
need to take a decision about what can and cannot be accepted,
perhaps suggesting a full discussion at the next meeting instead.
The last element is to agree the date and time of the next meeting,
after which the chairperson declares the meeting closed, noting the
exact time of closure.
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Activity:
To what extent can amendments be made to a motion?
Illustrate the importance of the end of meeting session. Why is it a
generative element of the meeting?
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6.3 CONCLUSION
The purpose of an interaction is crucial to determining the
communication which takes place. We can see this in respect of a
number of different types of formal interview, thereby
distinguishing the particulars of each.
Formal meetings of committees and boards, sub-committees,
steering groups and working groups are widely used in both public
and private sector organizations. In addition, all sorts of different
groups, within and outside business organizations, hold formal or
informal meetings on a regular or ad hoc basis. Thus, it may be
said that all organizations have a committee or meetings structure
of some sort.
Questions
1. What do employers prepare when conducting the following
interviews;
• Selection
• Grievance
2. What are an agenda and its importance?
3. There have been grievances regarding overtime payment and
claims. The managers have called for a meeting to resolve these
problems. As the committee secretary, prepare the notice and
agenda for this meeting.
4. What is a standing order?
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7 ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS
OBJECTIVES
Upon completing this section you should be able to:
• Examine some of the principal ways in which we can
communicate electronically.
• Understand how these communication methods can help us in
business.
• Illustrate how electronic communication caused business people
to change not only how they communicate, but also how they
actually work.
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7.0 INTRODUCTION
Although people refer to the present time as the “age of
communication”, communication has been important whatever the
century because people have always found the need to convey
information to each other. This has been true from the Stone Age
through to the computer age. The big difference now, of course, is
that we have the means to convey vast quantities of information at
great speed.
It is important to be aware that this is what computers have enabled
us to do. In other words, computers are a tool allowing us to
communicate much more efficiently than in the past.
How we choose to convey that information content will depend
upon:
• The nature of the information:
• The quantity;
• The need for accuracy; and
• Added features such as emphasis for clarity and
understanding.
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In this study unit, we will examine some of the principal ways in
which we can communicate electronically. Nowadays, the use of
Internet and email are prevalent. So we will be interested in how
these communication methods can help us in business. There is
much more to the story however as electronic communication will
cause business people to change not only how they communicate,
but also how they actually work.
Activity
What is meant by non electronic communications?
How has the advent of electronic communication modified the
current practices of communications?
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7.1 MODES OF COMMUNICATION
7.1.1 Non-Electronic Communication
Before we consider electronic communication, it will be useful to
look again at some of the basic features of more traditional
methods. This provides a contrast with electronic communication.
Face-to-face interaction
We are all very familiar with face-to-face situation.
Communication is immediate and any response or feedback is also
immediate. In addition, we are able to use body language and
voice tone in the communication to help and extra emphasis to
particular points or to convey doubts and feelings. As there is no
other form of communication where we can make this claim, this
sets face-to-face communication apart as being special. There are
disadvantages. Most of us are quite poor at expressing what we
mean, and so this form of communication can easily lead to
ambiguities. However the speed of response makes immediate
clarification possible. The biggest disadvantage of all is that both
the communicator and the receiver must be in the same place at the
same time. E.g.: When complex information needs to be conveyed
especially involving the emotion electronic communication is not
the choice.
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Telephone
This method fulfils many of the advantages of face-to-face
interaction in that there is immediacy both in conveying the
information and the response, and voice tone can be used to
enhance the message. But there are also many of the
disadvantages.
The possibility of misunderstanding is probably even greater as
there is no body language to clarify meaning. Whilst both
communicator and receiver are not in the same place, they must
both be present at the same time. Answer machines give some
flexibility in this respect, but only to a very limited extent. We
will shortly see that the telephone features strongly in most
electronic communication.
Letters
This traditional method of getting information to people without
being in the same place at the same time is also the slowest form of
communication and is only really suited to formal communication
such as initial introduction, contracts and specifications. Letter
formats have little to offer very fast electronic communication.
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Memos
This means of communication allows people to get basic
information to others within organisations. The assumption is that
the recipient will understand the full context. Nowadays, memos
have been replaced by email (electronic mail).
Fax or facsimile
A forerunner of email, it is just a method of sending a hard (paper)
copy of some document over the telephone. It allows letter type
communication without the built-in-delay of carrying the specific
piece of paper from the communicator to the recipient. You could
include fax communication within the section on electronic
communication as fax does depend on computing facilities
although it is an older form of communication. The original
document needs to be read electronically and it is the electronic
version that is transmitted over the telephone system. At the
receiving end, the electronic document is printed onto paper before
becoming accessible to the recipient.
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7.1.2 Electronic Communication
Electronic communication is the basis of our Information Society
as it gives everyone ready and easy access to vast quantities of
information.
There are several forms of electronic communication, but they all
involve the conversion of the information to a format suitable for
transmission over a particular medium. No matter which format
the original information is in, be it on paper as words or graphics,
or be it spoken, it is converted, by a computer, to the binary form
of 1s and 0s. It is digitalized. It is not necessary for you to
understand exactly how this is done or even what it means, but you
should be aware that computers use digitalized data consisting of
groups of 1s and 0s representing the two states of off and on, of
any electrical circuit.
We are familiar with the normal undulating wave format of sound,
light and radio. This is known as the analogue format. The
digitalized wave format consists of discrete values so that the
waveform appears in a square format.
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Figure 7.1
Electronic communication relies on a communications
infrastructure consisting of telephone lines, fiber-optic and other
types of cable, microwave and radio links, satellite links and
computer networks, which we call the communications medium.
If the information is being transmitted over the traditional
telephone system it will first be converted back to analogue form,
as this is the form the telephone system was originally designed to
handle. Speech is in analogue form. If it is to be transmitted
through modern fibre optic cables, it will be converted to light
waves. And, of course, radio involves radio waves. We will refer
to these format changes as coding.
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Activity:
How does electronic communication ease the flow of information?
What is meant by digitalised information?
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It is then a relatively straightforward process to transmit the data
from computer to computer. The first machine codes the
information into the required format and the second reassembles it
into the form we wish to view it.
Transmission noise
Figure 7.2
The main problem in the above scenario is the interference of the
transmission noise. This is anything that interrupts or distorts the
signal. Allowance must be made to check for this and to correct
any distortions. If, at any time, you have attempted to connect
your computer to a computer network via the telephone system you
will have heard a series of sounds. These are the computers
‘speaking’ to each other. Typically you will hear something such
as:
Information
Sources encode encode Information
receiver
Translation
Beeeeep are you there ?
Peeeep Yes , I ‘m here
Chuuusssh I’m sending a message
Burrrrr not understood
Whaaaan do you understand this ? Noise interference here
Zzzhuussst too fast for me!
Burrrzzzzz what about this ?
Chirp OK, go ahead
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Whatever communications medium we are using, it provides a
communications channel for the transmission. The capacity of
the channel depends upon its bandwidth. This is just a measure of
how much data the channel can carry. Coaxial (TV style) cable
has the lowest bandwidth whilst fibre-optic cable has the highest.
We must not confuse bandwidth with speed of transmission.
They are related, but not necessarily directly. The speed of
transmission will depend directly on the amount of data being sent
through the channel. The more informative we transmit, the
slower it travels as the channel becomes congested. On the other
hand, with a greater bandwidth, the channel is less likely to
become congested. At the other end of the scale, if only small
amounts of data are being transmitted, they can travel equally fast
over a narrow bandwidth as congestion is not an issue. The usual
metaphor used here is an airport carousel. It is moving speed
(bandwidth) remains constant. If the aircraft is half full, your bags
appear sooner and possible all together! If the aircraft a full 747,
the bags will be all jumbled up and can take a long time to appear.
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Activity:
In electronic communication, what is meant by communication
medium?
In most of these communication mediums, what are some of the
problems one might encounter?
What is the difference between band width and speed of
transmission?
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The communications medium will always allow information to be
transmitted in both directions. This then leads to problems in cocoordinating
the two-way communication link so that messages in
one direction do not interfere with messages in the other. You
need to be familiar with the following terms, as you will certainly
come across them.
• Simplex communication: only travels in one direction (i.e.
Radio transmitter).
• Half-duplex communication: allows in both directions, but
only one at a time.
• Full-duplex (or just duplex) communication: allows
transmission in two directions simultaneously. The telephone
system uses this system and so do computers.
It follows that any system we are interested in will be full duplex.
This then leads to another problem – how to maintain a separation
of the messages.
• Synchronous transmissions are co-ordinated by transmitted
data being sent at a fixed rate and the received data arriving at
the same fixed rate. Each message is then recognized as it all
arrives at this specific rate. Internal computer communication
is made this way.
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• Asynchronous transmissions use a recognized marker at the
start of the message and another at the end. This is the method
used in computer-to-computer communication.
• Parallel Transmissions involve breaking the message into
separate chunks, which are then sent by different routes to the
receiver where the chunks are reassembled into the message.
This technique is fast and is used between the computer and its
printer or a network.
Activity:
How do we maintain a separation of the messages in a full-duplex
communication?
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Finally in this section, we will look at way in which telephone
companies are meeting the demand for more transmission capacity.
• The first requirement is for a dedicated or leased line. This is
just a permanent connection between two points in contrast to
the normal telephone system, which routes the connection
through a dial-up switching telephone exchange. A dedicated
line is clearly more reliable and the connection, considerably
faster. There is also much higher security for the information.
• In conjunction with the dedicated line, the service will offer
ISDN (integrated Services Digital Network) transmission.
ISDN is also available over normal dial-up facility. As its
name suggests, ISDN enables the information to be transmitted
in digital format. Not only does this cut out the need for
encoding the information before transmission, it also offers
greatly enhanced transmission speed and accuracy.
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7.2 B. THE INTERNET
Background
You may ask: ‘What is the Internet?’ In reality, it is nothing more
than an enormous network of computer networks. It is
thousands of computers connected together.
The Internet originated with the United States military and their
fear of nuclear attack following the Soviet Union’s launch of
Sputnik, the first satellite, in 1957. To protect vital
communications within the university based technical and research
facilities of the Department of Defense, four universities in the US
west (Stanford University, UC in Los Angeles and Santa Barbara
and the University of Utah) were connected together via a
dedicated line. By 1969, four other US networks were connected
in so was born the internet. Once connections were expanded into
the normal telephone dial-up system, it became possible to bring in
computers across the world. Local comparable set-ups were
developed in many places and whole groups of computers were
connected into the system. It did not take long before we reached
the stage that we now know in which the Internet stretches to every
part of the world and, using cell or mobile phones, to places remote
from the actual computer.
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E.g. The internet is the greatest revolution of the 20th century and
communication will never be the same as our daily lives and
timelines are have shortened. Imagine still going to the library to
look for information. Do they have Google Search?
The basic component of the Internet is a computer network. At
this stage, there are two types of network of interest to us.
1. A LAN (Local Area Network) is, as you would expect, a group
of computers, which are geographically close to each other,
connected together. Typically, computers within a business or
part of a business will be connected in a LAN.
There are two principal ways (or protocols) in which data is
transmitted around a LAN:
• The Ethernet standard requires the sending computer to first
check whether the network is busy or not. If it is not, the
packet of data (we shall define a packet later) being sent is
dispatched to every computer in the LAN, but only the
computer to which it is addressed will take receipt of it. Others
just ignore it. If the network is busy, or if two computers send
out a data packet at the same time causing a collision, then the
sending computers wait a random amount of time and try again.
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Figure 7.3
• The token ring standard involves signals or tokens continuously
traveling around the network (see Figure 7.4). The sending
computer waits until a token is passing by and, if the token is
not already carrying a data packet, attaches the data packet it
wants to send, to the token. As the token passes each of the
other computers, each checks the token and the address of any
attached packet. If it is addressed to that computer the packet is
accepted and the token is then free to accept another packet.
11 22 33 44 55
55
Sender Not mine Not mine Not mine mine
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Figure 7.4
The next point we need to consider is how the data is actually sent.
As some of the message can be very large, such as a video or other
multimedia message, to send the message intact would clog up the
whole network. We have only to think of a very large load
traveling up a motorway. The police escorting the load require
everyone else using the motorway to wait behind, much to their
frustration. It would be the same across the network if entire
messages were sent intact. Instead, the message is divided up into
sections called packets.
Token
for 33
Free
Token
11
44
22
33
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Each packet is given the destination address of the whole message
and any other information necessary such as the sender’s address.
The packets are then sent out individually. If alternative routes are
available, then each packet will take whichever route is available
and convenient. When all the packets for the message have arrived
at their destination, and they need not arrive in order, the message
is reassembled.
The complete message individual packets The complete message
Packets sent by separate routes the message is reassembled
A
7 1
7 2
7 3
7 4
7 5
7 6
7 7
7 8
7 9
7 1
A
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2. A WAN (Wide Area Network) is more or less the same as a
LAN except the geographical restriction does not apply. A
packet switching protocol, as for a LAN, is used in the same
way. A WAN will probably consist of several LANs connected
together. To co-ordinate the delivery of resources across the
WAN, a server machine will be used. A server is a computer
wholly dedicated to a specific task. There are several different
tasks that servers provide.
• Some will store resources such as files and application software
which they can then serve, on demand, to the various computers
within the WAN. In those kinds of systems, the individual
computers do the processing, the server simply holds the files.
• With application servers, the server does the processing on
behalf of the client computers. It will be provide with more
powerful processing facilities in order to do this.
• In some other cases, the server is in charge of the routing of the
messages around the WAN.
Servers can fulfill a number of different tasks within the network,
but the common feature is that they are all accessible from the
individual computers and they provide some kind of service on
behalf of individual computers.
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The Internet will rank as the world’s largest WAN! However, the
Internet lacks the control and cohesiveness of a WAN. At the level
of the Internet, however, much more than simple servers are
required.
Activity:
What is the main difference between WAN and LAN?
What are the alternatives to communication if there is a server
breakdown?
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Operations
Now we will have a look at the Internet itself and how it works.
As we have already seen, it is a network of networks of computers.
The following illustration of a segment of the Internet, shows that,
as well as various LANs connecting together, there is a central
connection known as the backbone. This is a connection specially
designed to move information around the Internet at very high
speeds and it connects all the principal serves on the Internet.
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Key = Internet = LAN or WAN computer
Figure 7.6
We have already discussed the packet switching protocol used to
move information around networks. In the following discussion, I
freely refer to messages, as that is what we are sending. But in
reality, as we have seen, the message is broken up into packets.
The particular version of this protocol used by all computers on the
Internet is called TCP/IP. This status for Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol. This is just the label given to the set of
rules followed for sending messages across the Internet.
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The address of anything on the Internet is known as a Uniform
Resource Locator (URL). Both email and web addresses are
known as URLs. The crucial part of any URL is the domain. This
identifies the computer at the \receiving end of the transmission.
For instance, the domain or destination address is given by the user
with an extension such as:
name.com,
name.co.uk,
name.edu,
name.ac.uk,
name.gov.uk.
If there is no country extension such as uk, fr, de, ir etc., then the
address is registered in the United States.
• The first thing the computer does is convert the address that we
type in, into a unique IP number. (You will sometimes see the
IP number used in the address, especially in error messages).
All such addresses are held on domain name server or DNS
server. These servers hold groups of addresses in the dot.com
style. For instance, a DNS may hold all the .gov.uk addresses
of the UK Government.
Electronic Communication System 439
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• Whenever a message is sent to such an address, the name server
used by the sender’s computer (the ISP’s computer referred to
below) will consult the .gov.uk DNS for the IP address
required.
• Each network has at least one router connected to its own
network and to one adjoining.
• A sent message first goes to the router, which then determines
the path the message should follow across the Internet. The
message is first directed to the backbone, and then is sent at
high speed across the backbone to the point closest to the ISP
computer. From there it goes to the ISP and then on to the
designated recipient.
• Frequently used paths are held in store by the router to save
time.
• If the path to the address is not known, the message is passed to
a higher level router, and so on.
The success of the Internet is due to its ability to reroute the path
followed by a message should the normal or obvious path be
unavailable for any reason. Messages can even be stored for a
short time until a path becomes available.
Electronic Communication System 440
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Individual users gain access to the Internet via an Internet Service
Provider (ISP). This is a specialist company that provides a host
computer into which the user can dial and make a connection with
their own computer. At this point the user will be requested for a
user name and a password, both of which having been registered
on making the agreement with the ISP. Once these are checked
and accepted, a full connection is made with the ISP computer and
the user’s computer becomes part of the Internet for as long as it
remains dialed in.
Now we return to the final two types of network referred to some
pages ago.
1) An intranet is a closed network uses the TCP/IP packet
switching protocol and whose visible pages will look just like
Web pages. The network is, however, only accessible by those
with authorization, typically within one organization. In other
words, it is like a private mini Internet.
2) An extranet is a secure extension to an intranet that has a
constantly open link to persons outside of the Intranet
authorization. These are likely to be customers, suppliers,
trading partners and so on. Of course, an extranet will not give
access to the whole of the intranet.
Electronic Communication System 441
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Activity:
What is intranet and extranet?
What are the uses of the intranet?
Can a URL communicate the status and type of an organization?
Electronic Communication System 442
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Intranets are developing extremely quickly as businesses realize
their potential. Basically, where a business has operated a LAN,
by the addition of web servers, it can readily be turned into an
Intranet By creating a common interface across the internal
network in this way, there is a possibility of all kinds of uses.
Typically these will include:-
• email (which will already have been available over the LAN);
• pages of company, product and market information;
• on-line conferences and discussion points;
• bulletin boards, which we discuss later,
• and, through a connection to the Internet, all that is available
there.
Should the intranet be connected to the Internet, and most are, a
secure interface is required. This will prevent outside unauthorized
access to the intranet and the import of certain web pages into the
intranet.
Electronic Communication System 443
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Activity:
What is a URL?
What is a domain?
Explain the process of how the internet looks for a message?
What is the responsibility of an ISP?
Electronic Communication System 444
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A ‘Firewall’ is used to provide the secure interface. This is
special software designed for this purpose, as its name implies.
Most large organizations use the Internet to provide the
communication connections between their various site centered
intranets and so firewalls are used to protect the intranets (see
Figure 8.7).
The company internet firewall software
the internet
Figure 7.7
There must be no other external connection other than through the
firewall. Not only does the firewall protect the company networks
from outside threats, it also allows the company to monitor all
communications between the internal and external networks.
Electronic Communication System 445
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Electronic Mail (e-mail)
E-mail or electronic mail has become common place in recent
years. It is simply correspondence between two or more users over
a network. Where the network is a LAN, WAN or intranet, the
network is tightly controlled and the email correspondence will be
virtually direct. E-mail is also sent over the Internet using a
version of the TCP/IP protocol for addressing. This will then
involve the services of an ISP and their router.
When an e-mail message arrives at its destination server, it is
stored in an area of that server which the user calls their mailbox.
It will wait there until the actual recipient logs into their ISP’s email
system. There are two types of system used for mailboxes;
• Messages can be retrieved to the users’ own computer where
they can be opened, read, edited and so on.
• Messages remain on the ISP’s server and the user opens and
then reads them there. This method has the advantage of
making the mailbox accessible from any computer when the
correct user name and password are entered.
Electronic Communication System 446
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An e-mail address or URL has the form:
My-name @ my-ISP.com
first part second part extension
The first part of the address is the user name. The @ symbol is
just a separator. The second part of the address is the name of the
ISP server to which the use is registered. It ha a unique IP number.
The final part of the address is the domain name that designates the
DNS server holding the address registration.
Activity:
Describe the process the e-mail goes through before it reaches the
recipient.
Electronic Communication System 447
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_________
When an e-mail message is sent, the local mail server first
examines the second part of the address to identify the ISP server
to which the message is addressed. If this is the same as the local
mail server then the message is forwarded directly to the
appropriate mailbox. All other messages are sent out over the
Internet. As we saw previously, this means the message will be
forwarded to a server on the Internet backbone and the by any
available route over the backbone to the nearest point to the ISP
server. It is then directed to the ISP server and to the recipient’s
mailbox at that server.
Videoconferencing
Videoconferencing enables two or more people in different
locations to see and hear each other at the same time, sometimes
even sharing computer applications. A communications technology
as rich as this offers new possibilities for a variety of purposes.
E.g.: Videoconferencing though popular is not liked by many as
visual display of the participant may not be acceptable especially
where time zones are involved.
Placing a video call is like making a phone call. After you
connect, you see the other person in colour video and you may be
able to transfer files.
Electronic Communication System 448
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_________
A videoconference system must have audio-visual equipment
such as a screen monitor, a camera, a microphone and an output
speaker. The system also needs a communications link. A
broadband satellite link with studio-quality equipment gives an
excellent full-motion video connection. However, this is very
expensive. Modern communications have generated an interest in
video systems that transmit information via the Internet, which are
more realistically priced.
A very realistic solution is to make the connection using ISDN
technology. It is economical and gives high-quality
videoconferencing. ISDN works over the normal phone lines and
provides enough bandwidth for smooth audio and video
transmission. This is typically 15-30 frames per second. In
contrast, an Internet-based connection has to share bandwidth with
other Internet data and this can cause some loss of audio and
produce a jerky video.
Activity:
What are the advantages of ISDN?
Electronic Communication System 449
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Videoconferencing connections may be limited to a closed network
such as a LAN or they may use dial-up phone links.
It is the way in which these two systems transmit the data that
marks out the difference between videoconferencing systems.
ISDN has most of the advantages:
• It adheres to standards, so systems created by different vendors
can still connect together.
• It works over regular phone lines, so no special wiring is
necessary.
• Once a connection is made, the bandwidth is available and the
quality is predictable.
• In most systems, bandwidth can be extended by increasing the
number of ISDN lines.
On the other hand, it is even more inexpensive to use the Internet.
As always, it comes down to making a choice based on the way the
videoconferencing is used. If it is just to make brief phone calls,
then the Internet is fine. But if a number of people are involved in
a technical conference, then ISDN technology will be best. Only
in the biggest organizations will a satellite connection be feasible.
Electronic Communication System 450
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_________
Videoconferencing over normal phone lines requires a piece of
equipment called a codec (short for coder-decoder). The codec
takes the analogue video signal, digitizes it and then compresses it.
The codec also has to decode the received transmission, and this
can take its toll on the video and sound quality. The most obvious
consequence of a slow codec or low-bandwidth connection is a
jerky picture and an audio time delay.
As you will have noted, I have mentioned that the signal is
compressed. The reason is simply that without compression, a
digitalised video requires far too much storage. In fact it would
require a large computer to store and play a full-length feature film
without compressing the size of the file. This is achieved by losing
some of the data. For instance, as we noted above, the normal
video frame rate is about 30 frames per second. Whilst more than
this is required for television quality, a lesser rate would take less
storage. This is where the jerkiness comes from.
Another, more satisfactory, technique is to only store any changes
from one frame to another. For instance, a video of a person
talking will have a fairly static background. It is therefore not
necessary to transmit the background with every frame. Even
more can be achieved in such a case as it is likely that only the
person’s mouth and eyes move to any great extent.
Electronic Communication System 451
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_________
Not even all the person’s face features need be transmitted with
every frame. All of this allows a great deal of compression to be
achieved without significant loss to the picture. Another technique
is jut to reduce the size of the displayed picture!
With audio, other compression techniques are used. The basic
technique here is to take a cross-section sample of the signal at
regular intervals. The number of such samples obviously affects
the play-back quality. Low quality systems use about 8000 samples
per second, whereas music quality takes about 44000 samples per
second. More than this is not practical for the normal PC
computer.
There are two principal types of videoconferencing systems, the
normal PC computer systems which display the video in a small
section of the computer screen and room sized systems which have
one or two large screens and usually display all the local audience
as well as the remote audience. The camera can be anything from
a tiny camera on top of the computer to a high-quality camera with
remote pan and zoom features. The controls available allow user
to adjust the volume, and sometimes even pan and zoom the
camera.
Electronic Communication System 452
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_________
The benefits of a videoconferencing system are fairly self-evident.
As a communication medium, it stands out in a number of ways,
a) First of all, it’s almost like being there. The visual connection
and interaction between participants enhance understanding and
helps participants feel connected to each other. This goes a
long way toward building relationships in a way that e-mail or
the telephone cannot. A videoconference system can be further
improved by including video or audio clips, graphics,
animations and computer applications.
b) It has also been found to heighten the motivation of learners.
c) It will improve the participant’s communication and
presentation skills as each participant is very aware of the
person at the other end.
d) It increases Connections with the Outside World, especially
where a live visit is not possible except on rate occasions.
Videoconferencing is usually easier than visiting, so
communications can be more frequent, saving time and
resources.
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