Peace Treaties

PEACE TREATIES.

a) What military restrictions did the Treaty of Versailles impose on Germany? [5] * No conscriptions * Prevented from forming a military alliance with Austria * 100,000 men in the army and they had to be volunteers * No aircraft, submarines or armed vehicles * Only allowed 6 battleships * Rhineland became a DMZ

b) Why did the Big Three disagree over how to treat Germany? [7] * They were three strong personalities that had different aims * All three of them had their own country’s interests at mind

* Georges Clémenceau lived through two German invasions and all the destruction that came with it * Naturally, Georges Clémenceau wanted revenge for France * German land and industry had not been as badly damaged as France’s * Georges Clémenceau was tired of France being ‘bullied’ and humiliated by Germany and wanted to put a stop to it * Georges Clémenceau was under a lot of public pressure * Georges Clémenceau aimed to cripple Germany, regain Alsace-Lorraine, gain reparations and enforce disarmament in Germany

* Woodrow Wilson was an idealist whose aim was to build a better and more peaceful world from the ruins of the World War * Woodrow Wilson knew very little about European relations * The USA was the only country that was not greatly affected by fighting in the World War * Woodrow Wilson did not have the same hatred towards Germany as Clémenceau did * Woodrow Wilson aimed to gain democracy including open diplomacy, self determination for the people of Eastern Europe, free access to the seas and free trade

* Britain, like France felt strongly that Germany was responsible for the war * Like Clémenceau, David Lloyd George was under a lot of public pressure to deal with Germany severely * However, he did not have the passionate hatred towards Germany that Clémenceau possessed * David Lloyd George wanted Germany to be justly punished but not too harshly so that there would be no risk of Germany seeking revenge in the future and possibly starting another war * No fighting took place on British soil * David Lloyd George aimed for disarmament in Germany in order to ensure Britain’s naval supremacy, gain reparations, gain German East African colonies and restart trade with Germany
c) How far could the Treaty be justified at the time? Explain your answer. [8]

Justified: * Reparations were a fairly normal punishment. Every country that lost a war was expected to pay reparations. * The part of the War Guilt that stated Germany was to blame for starting the war. * Forms of disarmament forced on the losing country were common. * Germans were operating a double-standard. Their call for fairer treatment did not square with the harsh way they had treated Russia in the Treaty of Brest-Litvosk in 1918. Versailles was much less harsh

Not Justified: * The amount that the reparations demanded was inhumane (£6600 million). Cripple the German economy. * The part of the War Guilt that stated Germany was to be blamed for all the damage that the World War caused. Other countries caused damage as well. Without the other countries, the war would not have been hard to win and the extent of damage would have been less severe. * 100,000 men in the army were not enough for a big country like Germany. Unable to defend the country. Left it defenseless. * Unfair distribution of the severity of punishments. Germany received by far the harshest punishments. Bulgaria barely punished. All the countries were at fault.

Even though the fact that punishments were imposed on Germany was justified, the severity and harshness of the punishments were unjust.

b) Why did Clémenceau demand that a harsh peace be imposed on Germany? [7] * Georges Clémenceau lived through two German invasions. He had a traumatic past and naturally wanted to ensure that France never be harmed, humiliated and ‘bullied’ by German ever again. * Georges Clémenceau wanted revenge. * A lot of fighting during the World War took place on French soil. French land and its economy were destroyed. * Clémenceau was under a lot of public pressure to demand severe punishments and make sure that they are imposed. * France and Germany are neighboring countries and so France was under the most threat

a) What did Clémenceau want to achieve from the peace settlement of 1919-20? [5] * Clémenceau’s overall aim was the security of France * Regain Alsace-Lorraine * Independent Rhineland * Gain the Saar land * Gain reparations * Disarmament in Germany * Cripple Germany

b) Why did the terms of the Treaty of Versailles cause so much bitterness in Germany? [7] * Bitterness being emoted by any losing country with punishments imposed upon them is inevitable. * However, the intenseness of the bitterness was due to the abnormal harshness of the Treaty of Versailles. * During the 1919s, many Germans did not understand how bad Germany’s military situation was at the end of the war and believed that the government had agreed to cease fire and therefore should have attended the peace conference to negotiate peace. * War Guilt: the people did not believe even believe that they lost the war, nevertheless started it. They believed that blame should have been shared. * The government had no chance to negotiate and was forced to accept the punishments. This was humiliating. * Reparations were crippling the economy resulting in people dying from starvation. * 100,000 men in the army was not enough to defend such a big country. They were left defenseless and scared. The army was also a symbol or Germany pride. No other country had to go under the same extent of disarmament. * Germany lost 10% of its land and all of its overseas colonies. Pride and economy were again blown.

c) ‘The peacemakers of 1919-23 coped successfully with the problems they faced.’ How far do you agree with this statement on the treaties made with the defeated powers? Explain you answer. [8]

a) Describe what Lloyd George wanted to achieve in the peace settlement of 1919-20. [5] * Lloyd George’s overall aim was to secure British Empire’s supremacy. * Restart trade with Germany before the war, Germany had been Britain’s second largest trading partner. Restarting trade benefits the British economy and provides job opportunities. * Gain all German East African colonies * Gain reparations * Disarmament in Germany

b) Why did the Treaty of Versailles cause problems for Germany in the years up to 1923? [7] * Reparations were crippling the economy. People were starving and homeless. * Disarmament left Germany defenseless. * German speaking peoples were being divided by the terms forbidding Anschluss with Austria or hived off into new countries such as Czechoslovakia to be ruled by non-Germans.

a) What were Germany’s main territorial losses under the Treaty of Versailles? [5] * The Rhineland became a demilitarized zone. * The Saarland was to be run by the League of Nations and then a plebiscite was to be held 15 years later. * Alsace-Lorraine was given to France * West Prussia, Posen and Upper Silesia were given to Poland * Latvia, Estonia and Lithuania became independent states * North Schleswig was given to Denmark after a plebiscite

b) Why was Clémenceau dissatisfied with the Treaty of Versailles? [7] * He felt that Germany had not been weakened enough so they could still build up an army and attack France. Especially since Germany’s border was nearest to France out of the three victorious countries. * Clémenceau was under demands from Poincaré to make Germany into many smaller states. Since this did not happen, Clémenceau naturally was not looking forward to report back to the French president. * France only got the Saarland coalfields for 15 years. * Rhineland only became demilitarized. He wanted it to become an independent, powerless state.

c) ‘The Germans had genuine grounds for complaint about the Treaty of Versailles.’ How far do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer. [8]

Agree: * They were not the sole cause for the war. All the losing countries were to blame. * No representative of Germany was present to negotiate the terms of drawing up the peace treaties. * The amount of reparations that they had to pay was unrealistic. * The extent to which their army was reduced to was barely enough to defend a country of their size.

Disagree: * Germans were operating a double-standard. Their call for fairer treatment did not square with the harsh way they had treated Russia in the Treaty of Brest-Litvosk in 1918. Versailles was much less harsh. * Germany had caused a lot of damage and paying reparations was standard protocol.

Therefore, the Germans did have genuine grounds to complain about the Treaty of Versailles. However, because of their past reputation it can be argued that they were being hypocritical.

c) Which was the more important reason for Germany’s dissatisfaction with the Treaty – the imposing of reparations or the war guilt clause.

Reparations: * Germany had to pay a sum of £6,600 million of reparations. This sent their economy into turmoil and hyperinflation took place. This sent Germany into deep debt because as well as paying reparations the government had to fund pensions for the soldiers that fought in WWI and compensate war widows. Because of Germany’s notorious reputation after the war, no country was willing to lend money. The Germany people felt betrayed and angry.

War Guilt Clause: * The people of Germany already did not believe that they lost the war nevertheless start it as they did not understand how badly the German military’s state was at the end of the war, they simply thought that the government had agreed to cease fire. They believed that the blame should have been shared among all the losing countries. Being blamed and having to accept the responsibility of starting the war was humiliating.

Therefore, both reasons were important for Germany’s dissatisfaction with the Treaty but for different reasons. One was a symbolic blow, the other an economic devastation. a) With reference to the terms of the peace settlements of 1919-20, what were (i) mandates (ii) plebiscites? [5] * Mandates were former Eastern European colonies, such as German East Africa, that were administered by the members of the League of Nations, usually Britain and France, as a halfway house to independence. The goal of the mandates system was the development of the mandates to reach eventual independence. The Mandates Commission of the League of Nations ensured that Britain and France acted in the interests of the people of that territory, not their own. * Plebiscites were a vote by the electorate (the public who can vote) determining public opinion on a question of national importance. Plebiscites were organized by the League of Nations, such as in the case of the Saarland when the public voted to be returned to Germany.

c) How far did the peace settlements of 1919-20 reflect the aims of President Wilson? Explain your answer. [8]

Reflect: * Woodrow Wilson aimed for self-determination in the Ottoman Empire and Eastern European colonies and for colonies to have a say in their own future. After the peace settlements, former Eastern European colonies were freed after much negotiation. Former Ottoman Empire and German colonies were not granted self-determination but they did become mandates, which was a system where they are administered as a halfway house to independence. Since the mandates were allowed their own say in their future, another aim of Woodrow Wilson’s was met. * Woodrow Wilson also aimed to set up the League of Nations and for all countries to work towards disarmament. After the peace settlements, the big three agreed that the League of Nations would be set up. As the League of Nations aimed to promote disarmament, not one but two more aims of Woodrow Wilson were met. * Woodrow Wilson also aimed for Poland to become an independent state with free access to the sea and for Alsace-Lorraine to be returned to France. During the peace settlements, France and Britain accepted both propositions.

Not Reflect: * Woodrow Wilson aimed for all countries to have free access to the sea. However, this was greatly rejected by Lloyd-George as it threatened Britain’s naval supremacy. In the end, Woodrow Wilson had to give way on the subject. * Woodrow Wilson also aimed for open diplomacy. This was quite ambitious of Woodrow Wilson and was probably one of his aims because of his idealistic nature and little knowledge of European affairs. Of course, Woodrow Wilson had to give way on this subject too but even if it was accepted by Britain and France it would have been, if not impossible, very difficult to uncover all the secret treaties and put an end to them.

Therefore, there are some aspects of the peace settlements that do reflect Woodrow Wilson’s aims whilst some aspects don’t. This is because it would have been very hard to get Clémenceau and Lloyd George, who are both very strong personalities, to agree to all 14 of his points. However, Woodrow Wilson did get a substantial amount of aims met.

b) Why was it so difficult to make a peace settlement that would please everyone? [7] * The Big Three had different backgrounds and situations: * Clémenceau lived through two German invasions and had a very traumatic past. Therefore, he was driven by his determination for revenge and strived to ensure that France would never be harmed by Germany again. This passion was enforced by the fact that most fighting took place on French soil and so France’s economy and land was in turmoil. Clémenceau was under a lot of public pressure to deliver a treaty that would cripple Germany. * Not much fighting took place on British or American soil. Therefore, Wilson and Lloyd George weren’t as emotionally compromised as Clémenceau. Wilson was not under any public pressure to deliver a harsh treaty. However, Lloyd George, like Clémenceau, was.

* This led to the Big Three having different aims: * Clémenceau wanted to deliver a very harsh treaty that would cripple Germany, enforce reparations, allows France to regain Alsace-Lorraine and most importantly, ensure the security of his country. * Lloyd George wanted to deliver a harsh enough treaty that would punish Germany but ensure that they did not seek revenge. He aimed to gain reparations, gain German colonies, re-start trade with Germany and most importantly, ensure the naval supremacy of his country. * Woodrow Wilson wanted a less harsh treaty, as his main aim was to achieve global peace. He aimed for self-determination of Eastern European colonies, freedom of trade, free access to the seas and for all countries to work towards disarmament. * Aims contradicted. No free access to the sea without endangering the security of Britain’s naval supremacy. No crippling Germany if the country were to restart trade with Britain.

THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS

a) What were the main weaknesses in the structure and organization of the League of Nations? [5] * Veto power and decisions had to be unanimous. * 3 Great Powers did not join, Germany, Russia and the USA. Germany because it started WWI, Russia because it was communist and the USA because they were isolationists and did not want to be pulled into European affairs. * The whole idea of the League of Nations was derived from Woodrow Wilson who was from the USA. * No army and no military support from the USA. They only had France and Britain who were unwilling to support the League financially or with their military because they were still recovering from WWI.

b) Why did the Depression make the work of the League more difficult? [7] * Japan and Italy turned to expanding their territory as a solution to their economic problems. Japan went under militarism and Italy under fascism. * Britain and France became more worried about domestic affairs other than international affairs. They did not want to impose economic sanctions on Japan because it would affect their own economies. * Members could not afford to support the League as they had no money to supply ammunition and weaponry.

c) To what extent was the League of Nations a success in its peacekeeping role? Explain your answer [8]

Successes: * The League was able to solve border disputes and have their border disputes respected and followed by the countries involved. For example, when the League ruled that the Aaland Islands should go to Finland, Sweden accepted the League’s ruling and war was avoided. * The League was also strong at organizing plebiscites. For example, the League held a plebiscite in Upper Silesia, which resulted in the division of the region. The industrial region was given to Germany and the rural areas mainly for Poland. The League made arrangements for water and power supplies to be supplied from one side of the border to the other. Both countries peacefully accepted the decision. * Locarno Treaties. France, Britain, Germany, Italy, Belgium, Poland and Czechoslovakia met in Locarno in Switzerland and emerged with some important agreements. Germany accepted the borders with France and Belgium that were laid out in the Treaty of Versailles. Britain and Italy agreed to protect France if Germany violated these borders. Germany accepted that the Rhineland would remain a DMZ and France and Germany agreed to settle any further disputes through the League of Nations.

Failures: * Abyssinian Crisis 1935 * Manchurian Crisis 1932 * Disarmament not achieved. In 1921, Japan, Britain and France agreed to limit the size of their navies but that was as far as disarmament ever got. Countries were not prepared to give up their own armies and they were certainly not prepared to be the first to disarm.

The League of Nations had it successes when it came to small-scale disputes. However, when the conflict was large scale and when a Great Power was involved, self-interest would come to play and the League would often fail.

a) Describe the humanitarian work of the League of Nations in the 1920s. [5] * 400,000 prisoners of war were freed, and hundred of thousands of refugees were relocated. * The International Labor Organization banned poisonous white lead from paint and limited hours that small children could work which improved working conditions. * The Health Committee started the global campaign to exterminate mosquitoes, which greatly reduced malaria and yellow fever. * The League blacklisted four large German, Dutch, French and Swiss companies, which were involved in illegal drug trade.

b) Why was the League able to achieve some successes in the 1920s in dealing with international disputes? * After WWI, countries were exhausted and were longing for peace. So they were willing to give the League a try. Therefore, they respected the League’s decisions and accepted its verdict. * The League had not encountered a failure yet and already had many successes in improving working conditions and standards of living. Even the USSR, who hated the League, were taking the Health Committee’s advice on preventing plague in Siberia. This established the League’s legitimacy and improved its reputation greatly. *

c) How far can the World Depression be blamed for the failure of the League? Explain your answer. [8]

World Depression: * Japan and Italy turned to expanding their territory as a solution to their economic problems. Japan went under militarism and Italy under fascism. * Britain and France became more worried about domestic affairs other than international affairs. They did not want to impose economic sanctions on Japan because it would affect their own economies. * Members could not afford to support the League as they had no money to supply ammunition and weaponry.

Other Reasons: * The self-interests of Britain and France. The League depended on Britain and France to provide firm support in times of crisis. However, when conflicts occurred, neither the British or French government was prepared to abandon its own self-interest to support the League. * The USA and other Great Powers were absent. The League did not have financial or political support from the world’s most powerful economy, the USA. Germany and Russia were both absent as well. Russia because they were communist and Germany because they had to prove they were peaceful. * Economic sanctions did not work. Economic sanctions were supposed to be the League’s main weapon, but members of the League did not willingly impose them because they worried that without the USA they would not work. When they did impose them they were easily broken. * They did not have a military. If economic sanctions failed, military force was the next option. However, the League had no armed forces of its own and Britain and France were not willing to commit troops. * Decisions were slow. When a crisis occurred, the League was supposed to act quickly and with determination. However, in many cases the League met too infrequently and took too long to make decisions. They also need the members to make an unanimous decision for judgement to pass. (During the Manchurian Crisis, the League’s officials sailed around the world to assess the situation. When they finally reported back, a year had passed.) * The Abyssinian and the Manchurian crisis highlighted the weaknesses of the League and its difficulty with solving crises that involved Great Powers. The crises greatly reduced the League’s legitimacy and blackened its reputation. This led to countries withdrawing from the League and not losing even more faith in the League.

The Great Depression did play a role in the downfall of the League. However, it was not the sole cause as there were other significant factors that also played a role in the failure of the League.

a) How did the League of Nations hope to prevent future wars between nations?

c) ‘The League was a failure’. How far do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer. [8]

Successful: * Humanitarian Successes: * 400,000 prisoners of war were freed, and hundred of thousands of refugees were relocated. * The International Labor Organization banned poisonous white lead from paint and limited hours that small children could work which improved working conditions. * The Health Committee started the global campaign to exterminate mosquitoes, which greatly reduced malaria and yellow fever. * The League blacklisted four large German, Dutch, French and Swiss companies, which were involved in illegal drug trade. * Political Successes: * The League was able to solve border disputes and have their border disputes respected and followed by the countries involved. For example, when the League ruled that the Aaland Islands should go to Finland, Sweden accepted the League’s ruling and war was avoided. * The League was also strong at organizing plebiscites. For example, the League held a plebiscite in Upper Silesia, which resulted in the division of the region. The industrial region was given to Germany and the rural areas mainly for Poland. The League made arrangements for water and power supplies to be supplied from one side of the border to the other. Both countries peacefully accepted the decision.

Failure: * Humanitarian Failures: * Disarmament not achieved. In 1921, Japan, Britain and France agreed to limit the size of their navies but that was as far as disarmament ever got. Countries were not prepared to give up their own armies and they were certainly not prepared to be the first to disarm. * Political Failures: * Abyssinian Crisis 1935 * Manchurian Crisis 1932

The League was able to meet some of its aims, such as improving work and living conditions and encouraging cooperation between countries on a small scale. However, when it came to large-scale conflicts, the League often failed to keep the peace. Therefore, the League did fail to meet some of its aims, which did result in the invasions of Abyssinia and Manchuria but it was not a complete failure because working conditions and standards of living improved greatly because of the League’s work.

b) Explain how the Japanese invasion of Manchuria showed the weaknesses of the League. [7] * The self-interests of leading members. Britain and France would not risk their navies or armies in a war with Japan. Britain was more interested in keeping good relations with Japan than imposing economic sanctions. * Economic sanctions did not work. They did not have the USA to support them so imposing economic sanctions would be meaningless since the USA was Japan’s main trade partner. * Decisions were slow. The League’s officials sailed around the world to Manchuria to assess the situation. They finally returned with their report a whole year later. * No military force. Only the USA and the USSR would have had the resources to remove the Japanese from Manchuria by force and they were not even members of the League.

c) Which was the more important cause of the failure of the League of Nations – the World Depression of the 1930s or the invasion of Abyssinia? [8]

World Depression: * Japan and Italy turned to expanding their territory as a solution to their economic problems. Japan went under militarism and Italy under fascism. * Britain and France became more worried about domestic affairs other than international affairs. They did not want to impose economic sanctions on Japan because it would affect their own economies. * Members could not afford to support the League as they had no money to supply ammunition and weaponry. * A factor that led to the Abyssinian Crisis

Abyssinian Crisis: * Wrecked the League’s reputation and its legitimacy. Countries did not respect the League anymore. * Highlighted the League’s weaknesses and most importantly the two leading members’, France and Britain’s representatives Hoare and Laval, selfishness and unwillingness to put their own interests aside.

The World Depression led to the Abyssinian Crisis, which soon led the failure of the League. This shows that both factors were responsible for the failure of the League and represents an effect similar to the domino effect. Therefore, neither event was more important than the other.

a) Describe the aims of the League of Nations when it was set up in the 1920s. [5] * Prevent conflict and avoid war. * Improve working and living conditions worldwide. * Promote disarmament. * Encourage cooperation between countries and free trade. * Prevent the spread of communism * Promote democracy and liberation.
a) Describe the work of the Agencies of the League of Nations. [5] * International Labour Organization was in carge of improving working conditions. * The Health Organization was in charge of preventing epidemics and containing pandemics. * The Slavery Commission was in charge of abolishing slavery. * The Refugee Commission was in charge of relocating and repatriating refugees. * The Permanent Central Opium Board was in charge of regulating drug trade. * The Mandates Commission was in charge of ensuring that Britain and France were making decisions based on the mandate’s best interest, not their own

a) What steps did the League of Nations take against Japan following the invasion of Manchuria? [5] * Manchurian Crisis, 1932. Japan invaded Manchuria claiming that it was acting in self-defense. * The League sent officials to sail across the world to assess the situation in Manchuria. * Morally condemned Japan in a vote of 42 to 1 (1 being Japan) ruling that Japan was the aggressor. * Discussed economic sanctions once Japan withdrew from the League. However, did not impose them since the USA was Japan’s main trading partner. * Discussed military action but Britain and France were unwilling to risk their navies or armies and only the USA or USSR would have the resources to remove Japan from Manchuria by force.

b) Why was the League of Nations dominated by Britain and France? [7] * They were the victorious parties in WWI and they established, founded and funded the League of Nations. * The USA, USSR and Germany were not members of the League so they were the most powerful countries because there was no competition. They were Great Powers, which meant that they were both rich, had lots of territories and had large armies. * Britain and France were permanent members of the Council where all the decisions of the League are finalized. The other permanent members of the Council, Italy and France, did not prove as competition as they were weaker and were not as involved in the League’s decisions.

b) Why did the League fail to stop Italian aggression against Corfu in 1923? [7] * The Italian general called Tellini and his team were ambushed and killed whilst surveying the Greek side of the frontier area of Corfu.

c) ‘The League of Nations was based on sound ideas.’ How far do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer. [8]

c) ‘It was Manchuria and not Abyssinia which destroyed the League as an effective peacekeeper.’ How far do you agree with this statement? Explain your answer. [8]