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China's Festivals

Xinhuanet 2003-02-26 17:46:56 Spring Festival | Lantern Festival | Qingming | Lantern Festival | Mid-Autumn Festival | National Day | Spring Festival The most important festival in China is the Spring Festival. It is said that the Spring Festival evolved from an activity known as the Winter Sacrifice. It was a custom practiced by the people of primitive society. The Spring Festival marks the beginning of the Chinese Lunar New Year,so the first meal is rather important. People usually eat Jiaozi or dumplings shaped like a crescent moon on that special day. As for recreational activities during the Sping Festival, the Dragon Dance and Lion Dance are traditionally performed .
Lantern Festival The Lantern Festival (also called Yuanxiao Festival) is on the 15th day of the first Chinese lunar month. It is closely related to Spring Festival. Yuan literally means first, while Xiao refers to night. Yuanxiao is the first time when we see the full moon in the new year. It is traditionally a time for family reunion. The displaying of lanterns is a big event on that day, and another important part of the Festival is eating small dumpling balls made of glutinous rice flour. We call these balls Yuanxiao.
Qingming
Qingming, meaning clear and bright, is the day for mourning the dead. It falls in early April every year. It corresponds with the onset of warmer weather, the start of spring plowing, and of family outings. Springtime, especially in North China, is the windy season, just right for flying kites. It is not surprising that kite flying is very popular during the Qingming season.
Duanwu Festival The Duanwu Festival falls on the fifth day of the fifth month of the Chinese lunar calendar. For thousands of years, Duanwu has been marked by eating Zongzi and racing dragon boats. Zongzi is a kind of pyramid-shaped dumpling made of glutinous rice and wrapped in bamboo or reed leaves . Duanwu is also known as the Dragon Boat Festival, because dragon boat races are the most popular activity during the festival, especially in Southern China. Mid-Autumn Festival One of the most important Chinese festivals is the Mid-Autumn Festival.It falls on the 15th day of the eighth lunar month. Because the full moon is round and symbolizes reunion, the Mid-Autumn Festival is also known as the festival of reunion. People in different parts of China have different ways to celebrate the Mid-Autumn Festival. But one traditional custom has definitely remained and is shared by all the Chinese. This is eating the festive specialty: mooncakes--cakes shaped like the moon.
Chongyang Festival The number" nine" belongs to Yang on the theory of Yin and Yang. The ninth day of the ninth lunar month is a day when the two Yang numbers meet. So it is called Chongyang. This festival is usually perfect for outdoor activities. Many people go hiking and climbing in the country on that day. And it is a special day for people to pay their respects to the elderly and a day for the elderly to enjoy themselves. It has also been declared China's day for the elderly.
National Day October 1st is the National Day of People's Republic of China. There will be various celebrations throughout the whole country on that day, such as the National Day Evening Performance,the National Day fireworks show, the National Day parade and the National Flag raising ceremony.

| | Boasting rich cultural meaning and a long history, traditional Chinese festivals compose an important and brilliant part of Chinese culture. Most traditional festivals took shape during the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC). In the most prosperous Tang Dynasty (AD 618-907), traditional festivals liberated themselves from primitive sacrifice, taboo and mystery and became more entertaining. From then on, festive occasions turned more brisk and exciting and more and more folk customs were developed. | | | | | | |

| | | Spring Festival | | | | | Lantern Festival | | | | | Qingming Festival | |

| | | Dragon Boat Festival | | | | | Double Seventh Festival | | | | | Mid-Autumn Festival | |

| | | Double Ninth Festival | | | | | Winter Solstice Festival | |

Chinese Wedding Traditions

Red is the Color of Weddings in China
Red is central to the wedding theme of China. It signifies love, joy and prosperity and is used in a variety of ways in Chinese wedding traditions. The bride's wedding down is often red, as are the wedding invitations, and wedding gift boxes or envelopes for cash gifts. Even the bride and groom's homes are decorated in red on the wedding day.
Before the Chinese Wedding Day
Before her wedding celebration, a Chinese bride traditionally goes into seclusion with her closest friends. This Chinese custom gives the bride-to-be some time to symbolically mourn the loss of her friends and family.
Some time before the couple are married, the groom's family carries wedding gifts in red baskets and boxes to the bride's house. One of the baskets will contain "uang susu" or 'milk money'. Others will contain personal things for the bride, so that on her wedding day all of her personal belongings will be in the groom's house. The bride takes the gifts to another room where they are sorted through. Three days before the wedding day, women from the bride's family reciprocate, bearing gifts -- including some 'returns'-- in red wrappings to the groom's family.
The Day of the Wedding Ceremony
Wedding anniversaries in China, are carefully chosen according to astrological signs. It is also customary for couples to be married on the half-hour or their wedding day rather than at the top of the hour. In this way, the couple begins their new lives together on an 'upswing', while the hands of the clock are moving up, rather than down.
On the morning of his wedding day, the groom is symbolically dressed by his parents. The groom arrives at the house of his bride on the way to the wedding chapel. He brings gifts of cash, wrapped in red tissue, to give to his bride's friends, in exchange for 'letting her go'. In some families, the wedding couple serves tea to both sets of parents while kneeling in front of them. a symbolic gesture of asking for permission. The bride and groom then leave for the wedding site together.
Chinese Marriage Ceremony and Wedding Reception
The wedding ceremony is usually attended only by the couples' immediate families. Just after the ceremony and before the wedding reception, the bride who honors tradition will serve tea to her in-laws in a formal ceremony. The couple will usually go to a professional studio for wedding pictures before they proceed to their reception. The wedding reception, an elaborate standing only affair.
A welcoming speech is usually performed by an MC who is hired for the occasion. The speech is followed by a cake cutting ceremony. The traditional wedding cake is immense, with many layers. The layers symbolize a ladder that they couple will 'climb to success', so couples will cut the cake from the bottom and work their way up. The cutting of the cake is the only event of the reception. The bride and groom feed each other a piece of cake with arms entwined, trying not to destroy the bride's elaborate makeup. A piece is then cut for each of the parents and for the grandparents, who are fed by the bride and groom holding the cake together. Sometimes a wedding toast is given and guests are invited to greet the newlyweds and their parents. Musical entertainment, which ranges from a simple keyboard player to a symphony or orchestra, accompanies the receiving line It is customary for guests to shake hands again before leaving the reception. At more elaborate Chinese weddings, a sit-down reception may feature a 9 or 10 course meal as well as musical entertainment.
Chinese brides often change outfits at least three times during the reception.
I can’t imagine eating anything that generates its own electrical defense system, but many cultures have a favorite eel dish. The next time you’re visiting Britain, watch for an East End street vendor hawking fresh jellied eels, a popular treat made by boiling fresh eel with seasonings and adding gelatin to the stock. Sound icky? Scandinavians might agree – they prefer their eel baked and served cold on bread.

As for Chinese cuisine, a famous Cantonese saying states that “Anything that walks, swims, crawls, or flies with its back to heaven is edible.” So it’s not surprising that the Chinese eat several unusual foods. Here are a few examples:

“Stinky Tofu”
Take a brine made with shrimp, vegetables and salt, ferment for months, soak a block of tofu in it for several hours, and you have a dish renowned for its pungent odor. Stinky tofu (also known by its Chinese name, Chou Dofu) is one of those foods that it’s impossible to feel neutral about - people either love or hate it. Asian tourists who follow their nose will have no trouble locating a stinky tofu stand – street hawkers who sell it have been fined for breaking air pollution laws. For those who want to enjoy their stinky tofu in a more formal atmosphere, several restaurants devoted to the smelly curd have sprung up in recent years, including Dai’s House of Stinky Tofu in Taipei, rumored to be a favorite haunt of film director Lee Ang.

Sea Cucumber
Wander into any Chinese medicine shop and you’ll spot what appears to be a chunk of cement in one of the display cases. This is the dried form of sea cucumber, also known as beche de mer and sea ginseng. This strange looking ocean creature looks exactly like a cucumber with the addition of tubed feet and a ring of tentacles around its mouth.

Unfortunately, sea cucumber’s taste doesn’t live up to its appearance – it’s rather bland. Nonetheless, it’s reputed medicinal value and reputation as an aphrodisiac make sea cucumber a popular dish at Chinese New Years banquets and other festive celebrations.

Thousand-Year Old Eggs
If the thought of eating food that could have been served to an Emperor during the Song dynasty offends your culinary sensibilities, relax. Thousand-year-old eggs aren’t really that old. A more accurate name for this pungent hors d’oeuvre would be salted or preserved eggs. Thousand-year old eggs (also called century eggs or hundred-year old eggs), are made by preserving duck eggs in ash and salt for one-hundred days. This turns the white of the egg a darkish gray color, giving the eggs an ancient appearance. Definitely an acquired taste, thousand-year old eggs have a strong salty flavor.

Bird’s Nest Soup
The chief ingredient in Bird’s nest soup is the nest of the swiftlet, a tiny bird that lives in caves in Southeast Asia. Instead of twigs and straw, the swiftlet makes a nest from its own saliva – the only bird in the world to do so. Harvesting these nests requires great skill - men must balance on tall bamboo poles to grab the nests from inside the dark caves. Like sea cucumber, bird’s nest actually tastes rather bland. Its recent rise in popularity comes from its growing reputation both as a health tonic and an aphrodisiac.[/br]

stinky tofu thousand year old eggs

China has one of the oldest cultures known to man. It is also one of the most populated countries in the world today. Because of the size and age of China, it has a very rich culture. There is a very strong culture full of food, life, music, art, science, and family values. If you are thinking about moving to China, alone or with your family, it is necessary to learn about the country, including family life and culture, because the country has such a strong set of morals and rules.
Men in the Family
Chinese families have always had very clear-cut gender roles for men and women. Although these are changing nowadays because of westernization, there are some elements of the gender roles left behind; some are more evident in some families. In very traditional families, the man of the household is responsible for taking care of everyone in the house. He is the sole breadwinner of the family. He is responsible for everyone's education, clothing, food, and even marriages. He also has the final say in all decisions regarding his wife and his children. However, in modern families, the children have much more power and the women of the house also works.
Women in the Family
Like the male gender role in the traditional Chinese family, women also have a very straightforward gender role. Unlike the men in the house, women do not go to work in a traditional Chinese family. They stay at home, and are responsible for cooking, cleaning, and taking care of the children. The man of the house is supposed to take care of the women. However, China has become progressive in the last few decades. Therefore, more and more women go to work and less stay at home. However, even then, many women do rely on their fathers and husbands for financial support from time to time.
DID YOU KNOW?
In families in China, the family tree is always patrilineal. It does not include the females' family lineage, but only contains the males' family history.
Marriage
Like in most old cultures in the world, marriage, family, and children is very important in China. In traditional Chinese families, marriages are arranged. It is this way because back in ancient China when there were mostly villages and less cities, having more children meant that there would be more people to help on the farm. Even in modern families today, marriage and children are very important. However, less people are having arranged marriages. Most couples ask for permission to marry from their elders first. At Chinese weddings, there are usually many rituals and traditions carried out that have dated back hundreds of years. For instance, traditional Chinese weddings serve all the meat in whole portions without cutting any of it, because cutting the animal into bad pieces is bad luck.
Elders in the Household
Like all family centered cultures, there is a lot of emphasis on how elders are treated in Chinese culture. In China, elders are respected and honored because of their wisdom and knowledge. In China, elders always live with their children. They are looked after with great care. Barely anyone sends his or her parents to a retirement home. In rural areas up to five generations can be living in the same house. Furthermore, in cities, it is very common to find a household with grandparents and great grandparents living together.
Children
In the late 1970's, the Chinese government issued a law stating that families could only have one child. They did this to avoid overpopulation because the country already had such a high population. Because of this law, many families started killing their daughters if they were first born, because their sons are supposed to take care of them in their old age. This law was strictly implemented in the urban areas, but many families in rural areas were able to get away with having more children. Furthermore, children in traditional Chinese families are required to listen to their parents and obey them no matter what. Parents in more modern Chinese families are getting more lenient with their children and letting them make more decisions for themselves.
Importance of Education
In China, there is a great deal of importance put on education in families. Male and female children are both required to work very hard to excel in their schoolwork and get the best education possible. There is less emphasis on extracurriculars, games, and leisure activities. Children are often sent to tutors from a very early age. There is no excuse for slacking off in school. In addition, students in China attend school six days a week. When one receives a well-rounded education and a degree from a good institution, they are highly respected.
China is full of life. There is a rich culture to be explored. This includes the family life, morals, and values. Chinese families often have very traditional rules as the ones stated above. However, nowadays more and more Chinese families are going about making a change and becoming modernized. There are fewer rules. Children are given more power in their own lives. Furthermore, more women have jobs and work for a living, and there is more equality in their marriages, meaning the man doesn't hold all the decision making powe

Performing Arts of China - Instruments and Music
"Chinese Instruments and Music" explores the ancient, delicate integration of music and art with other aspects of Chinese daily life. The history of China is interwoven with the development of music. As far back as the Chou dynasty (1122 to 256 B.C.) there was an Imperial Minister of Music. This film begins with Chinese of all ages at the Great Wall practicing Tai Chi at sunrise. As daylight grows we see people in a park at Hangchow communing with nature as they study birds in cages.
Almost as old as the Great Wall is the Gu-Qin, a box zither which we see being played by an elderly master. The video then takes us to musical instrument factories: master musicians play examples of instrumental music, some on steel wires, some on silk strings, and some on reed instruments. The traditional techniques of silk and wire manufacture are examined. The film ends with lyrical nature scenes to the accompaniment of "Two Springs Reflect the Moon," a tranquil composition for stringed instruments.
"These films include some fascinating general footage, always with traditional music as background, as well as some valuable and sometimes extended scenes of genuine ceremonies and events. " Dr. Terry Miller, Department of Ethnomusicology, Hugh A. Glauser School of Music, Kent State University
Theatre of China has a long and complex history. Today it is often called Chinese opera although this normally refers specifically to the more well-known forms such as Beijing Opera and Cantonese Opera, there have been many other forms of theatre in China
Classical Chinese theatre
There are references to theatrical entertainments in China as early as the Shang Dynasty; they often involved happiness, mimes, and acrobatic displays.
The Tang Dynasty is sometimes known as "The Age of 1000 Entertainments". During this era, Ming Huang formed an acting school known as The Pear Garden to produce a form of drama that was primarily musical. That is why actors are commonly called "Children of the Pear Garden."
Shadow play
During the Dynasty of Empress Ling, shadow puppetry first emerged as a recognized form of theatre in China. There were two distinct forms of shadow puppetry, Pekingese (northern) and Cantonese (southern). The two styles were differentiated by the method of making the puppets and the positioning of the rods on the puppets, as opposed to the type of play performed by the puppets. Both styles generally performed plays depicting great adventure and fantasy, rarely was this very stylized form of theatre used for political propaganda. Cantonese shadow puppets were the larger of the two. They were built using thick leather which created more substantial shadows. Symbolic color was also very prevalent; a black face represented honesty, a red one bravery. The rods used to control Cantonese puppets were attached perpendicular to the puppets’ heads. Thus, they were not seen by the audience when the shadow was created. Pekingese puppets were more delicate and smaller. They were created out of thin, translucent leather (usually taken from the belly of a donkey).They were painted with vibrant paints, thus they cast a very colorful shadow. The thin rods which controlled their movements were attached to a leather collar at the neck of the puppet. The rods ran parallel to the bodies of the puppet then turned at a ninety degree angle to connect to the neck. While these rods were visible when the shadow was cast, they laid outside the shadow of the puppet; thus they did not interfere with the appearance of the figure. The rods attached at the necks to facilitate the use of multiple heads with one body. When the heads were not being used, they were stored in a muslin book or fabric lined box. The heads were always removed at night. This was in keeping with the old superstition that if left intact, the puppets would come to life at night. Some puppeteers went so far as to store the heads in one book and the bodies in another, to further reduce the possibility of reanimating puppets. Shadow puppetry is said to have reached its highest point of artistic development in the eleventh century before becoming a tool of the government.
Red Gate: Pauline Benton and Chinese Shadow Theatre in the United States: Pauline Benton revolutionized American puppetry in the 1930s with performances of the Red Gate Players: the first professional company to perform Chinese shadow theatre in North America. Benton collected traditional shadow figures in Beijing, and also commissioned modern figures depicting contemporary lifestyles in urban China. These rare shadow figures, now owned by Chinese Theatre Works [1] - directed by Kuang-Yu Fong and Stephen Kaplin, are available for exhibit. Curated by Kaplin, the exhibit includes stages and scenic equipment and material from the Benton archives, connecting her work to the historical contexts of ancient Chinese shadow theatre and the 20th Century puppet revival in the United States. The exhibit is currently on loan to the Ballard Institute and Museum of Puppetry at the University of Connecticut. http://bimp.uconn.edu/?p=931. A biography, "Shadow Woman: The Extraordinary Career of Pauline Benton", by Grant Hayter-Menzies, will be released in October 2013 by McGill-Queen's University Press. (http://www.mqup.ca/shadow-woman-products-9780773542013.php)
Chinese opera
In the Song Dynasty, there were many popular plays involving acrobatics and music. These developed in the Yuan Dynasty into a more sophisticated form known as zaju, with a four or five act structure. Yuan drama spread across China and diversified into numerous regional forms, the best known of which is Beijing Opera[citation needed], which is still popular today.
Xiangsheng
Xiangsheng is a certain traditional Chinese comedic performance in the forms of monologue or dialogue.

Chinese Literature Special thanks to the Microsoft Corporation for their contribution to our site. The following information came from Microsoft Encarta. Here is a hyperlink to the Microsoft Encarta home page. http://www.encarta.msn.com |
Chinese Literature, writings produced in the Chinese language. Two distinct traditions exist in Chinese literature: the literary and the vernacular, or colloquial. The latter can be traced back more than a thousand years before the Christian era and has existed almost continuously until modern times. Consisting originally of poetry and later of drama and fiction, it grew to include histories and popular stories and tales, as well. Folk, or vernacular, literature was long considered beneath the notice of members of the scholar-official class, who were the arbiters of literary taste. Their own polished and highly stylized writings set the standards for the orthodox literary tradition that began about 2000 years ago. Not until the 20th century did colloquial literature gain the support and esteem of the intellectual class.
Chinese literature may be divided into three major historical periods that roughly correspond to those of Western literary history: the classical period, from the 6th century BC through the 2nd century AD; the medieval period, from the 3rd century to the late 12th century; and the modern period, from the 13th century to the present.
Classical Period
The oldest examples of Chinese writing are inscriptions on bones and tortoise-shells, dating probably from the 14th century BC. The inscriptions represent divinations performed for the kings of the Shang dynasty (circa 1766?-1027? BC), the earliest confirmed dynasty. Although not literature in the strictest sense, they represent the earliest specimens of Chinese script, which became the vehicle for all subsequent Chinese literature.
The classical period in Chinese literature corresponds to the same period in Greek and Roman literature. The formative stages took place during the 6th to the 4th century BC, at the time of the Zhou (Chou) dynasty (1027?-256 BC). This period encompassed the work of Confucius (K'ung Fu-tzu), Mencius (Meng-tzu), Lao-tzu, Chuang-tzu (flourished 4th century BC), and many other great Chinese philosophers. It culminated in the compilation of the Five Classics, or Confucian Classics, and other philosophical treatises. In the following centuries of the classical period, the Confucian canon was fixed, and Confucianism became the orthodox teaching, establishing a classical tradition that was to last until the present century.
Poetry
The most important poetic work produced during the classical period was the Shih Ching (Book of Poetry), an anthology of ancient poems written in four-word verses and composed mostly between the 10th and the 7th centuries BC. The Shih Ching is classified as the third of the Five Classics; legend has it that Confucius himself selected and edited the 305 poems that constitute the work. Instead of glorifying gods and heroes, as was the custom of other cultures, many of these poems sing of the daily life of the peasants, their sorrows and joys, their occupations and festivities. These poems mark the beginning of the vernacular tradition in Chinese poetry and are characterized by simplicity of language and emotion. They make up about one-half of the book. The other half of the Shih Ching is made up of dynastic songs and court poems. These songs and poems give a colorful picture of the life and manners of the Chinese feudal nobility, just as the folk poems depict the simple and yet bountiful life of the peasantry. The court poems were originally sung to music and accompanied by dance; Chinese poetry and music were closely linked from earliest times.
The aristocratic, or court, style finds its best expression, however, in a group of poems known as the elegies of Ch'u. A feudal state in south-central China, Ch'u was the home of Ch'ü Yüan, the first great Chinese poet. A noble by birth, Ch'ü Yüan wrote Li Sao (Encountering Sorrow), a long, autobiographical poem full of historical allusions, allegories, and similes, lyrically expressed and concerned with the intimate revelation of a poetic soul tormented because it has failed in its search for a beautiful ideal. Other poems by Ch'ü Yüan are equally rich in images and sentiment, and they form a body of romantic poetry entirely different from the simple, realistic poetry of the Shih Ching.
During the 400 years of the Han dynasty (206 BC-AD 220) the romantic and realistic modes developed into schools of poetry with many followers. The verses of Ch'ü, which were irregular in form, initiated a new literary genre, the fu, or prose poem. Chinese poetry was further enriched by the folk songs collected by the Music Bureau (Yüeh-fu), an institution founded about the 2nd century BC.
Prose
The seminal works of Chinese prose are those that, with the Shih Ching, constitute the Five Classics. These are the I Ching (Book of Changes), a divination text; the Shu Ching (Book of History), a miscellanea of ancient state documents; the Li Chi (Book of Rites), a collection of ritual and governmental codes; and the Ch'un Ch'iu (Spring and Autumn Annals), a history of the state of Lu from 722 to 481 BC. From the 6th to the 3rd century BC, the first great works of Chinese philosophy appeared. Foremost are the Analects of Confucius, aphoristic sayings compiled by his disciples; the eloquent disputations of Mencius, a Confucian scholar; the Tao-te Ching (Classic of the Way and Its Virtue), attributed to Lao-tzu, the founder of Taoism; and the high-spirited essays of Chuang-tzu, the other great Taoist philosopher. Also important, for their prose style as well as their philosophic import, are the essays of Mo-tzu, Hsün-tzu (flourished 3rd century BC), and Han-fei-tzuhe Shih Chi (Records of the Historian) of Ssu-ma Ch'ien, a monumental work dealing with all Chinese history up to the Han dynasty, provided the pattern for a long series of dynastic histories compiled over a period of about 2000 years. In political and moral philosophy, the Confucian scholars also set the precedent for the literary tradition in Chinese prose, and a standard literary language was adopted, which gradually became divorced from the spoken language. In this period of the Han rulers, the scholars were incorporated into the state bureaucracy. Appointments to all important official positions were based on mastery of the Confucian Classics. This practice continued with few interruptions until the 20th century AD and hardened the literary tradition into a national cult.
Medieval Period
From the beginning of the medieval period in the 3rd century AD until the 7th century, China was not only divided into warring states but suffered invasions by Tatar tribes as well. Nevertheless, these centuries in China were by no means as barren of literary production as was the corresponding period in the history of western Europe known as the Dark Ages. The spread of Buddhism from India, the invention of printing, and the flowering of poetry and prose illuminated the entire period and made it one of the most brilliant in Chinese literary history.
Poetry
During periods of social and political upheaval, from the 3rd to the 7th century, poets found refuge and consolation in nature. Some were hermits who created a so-called field-and-garden school of poetry; others produced some of the best Chinese folk lyrics, such as the love poems attributed to Tzu-yeh, a woman poet who wrote the Ballad of Mulan, celebrating the adventures of a woman soldier disguised as a man; and The Peacock Flew to the Southeast, a long narrative of tragic family love, written in plain but vivid language. The greatest poet of these troubled centuries was T'ao Ch'ien, also known as T'ao Yüan-ming, who excelled in writing of the joys of nature and the solitary life. His Peach Blossom Fountain became the classic expression of the poet's search for a utopia.
The greatest Chinese poetry was created during the Tang dynasty (618-907), a period of general peace and prosperity ending in a decline. Despite the passage of more than ten centuries, as many as 49,000 Tang poems by 2200 poets have survived. The three most famous poets were Wang Wei, Li Bo (Li Po), and Du Fu (Tu Fu). They started their lives in the early splendor of the Tang era but lived through the subsequent troubled years of war and rebellion. Wang Wei, a meditative philosopher and painter with Buddhist inclinations, depicted the serenity of nature's beauty; it has been said that poetry is in his pictures and pictures are in his poems. Li Bo, a leader of the romantic school, rebelled against poetic conventions, as he did against society in general. Passionate and unruly, he embraced the realm of the immortals, whence, he claimed, he had been exiled to this world. Li Bo was at his best when he sang of love and friendship; of the delights of wine; and of the strange, majestic, and awe-inspiring aspects of nature. His friend and rival Du Fu, on the other hand, was conscientious and painstaking in his efforts to achieve startling realism. A humanitarian and historian, Du Fu recorded faithfully and intimately his worldly attachments, his family affections, and an infinite love for humanity, as well as the injustices of the age. The realism of Du Fu's work influenced another Tang poet, Po Chü-i, who viewed poetry as a vehicle for criticism and satire. This moralistic tendency, developed in succeeding centuries by other poets, was broadened to include didactic and philosophical disquisitions. In general, however, Chinese poetry was essentially lyrical.
Rhyme had always been an essential part of Chinese poetry, but verse forms did not become well established until the Tang poets. The typical poem of the Tang period was in the so-called shih form, characterized by the five-word or seven-word line, with the rhyme usually falling on the even lines. The shih verse form evolved from the four-word verse of the Shih Ching.
The Tang period also produced a new poetic form called the tz'u. Although each tz'u may have lines of varying length, the number of lines, as well as their length, is fixed according to a definite rhyming and tonal pattern. The writing of tz'u, which is somewhat analogous to putting new words to popular melodies, requires a great deal of skill. The melodies employed were usually of foreign origin.
During the Song (Sung) dynasty (960-1279) the tz'u reached its greatest popularity. Initially the trend was toward longer tz'u, written to be sung to popular tunes and commonly dealing with themes of love, courtesans, or music. Su Tung-po, the best-known tz'u poet of China, liberated the tz'u from the rigid forms that music had imposed on it and introduced more virile subjects. In the 11th century more and more nonmusical tz'u were written, that is, tz'u written with no intention that they would be sung. In the late 11th to the 13th century, however, the tradition of writing musical tz'u was revived. The great Chinese poet Li Ch'ing-chao is renowned for tz'u concerning her widowhood.
Prose
Chinese prose also prospered in the Tang dynasty. Chief among the Tang prose masters was Han Yü, who advocated a return to simple and straightforward writing in the classical style, as a reaction to the artificial prose of his time. As a result of Han Yü's efforts, political and philosophical treatises, informal essays, and tales of the marvelous (ch'uan-ch'i) were all written in the neoclassical style. The latter represent some of the early specimens of Chinese literary fiction.
The first group of tales written in the vernacular tradition appeared in the Tang period. In an attempt to spread their religion, Buddhist preachers wrote stories for the common people in colloquial language and evolved a form of narrative known as pien-wen, sometimes translated as "popularization," which marked the beginning of popular fiction in China.
In the 11th century, although few examples of the ancient tradition of storytelling had been preserved, a revival of interest in the art took place, and it was practiced with much skill during the Song dynasty (960-1279), a period of spectacular literary achievement. During this medieval period, storytelling became a popular form of entertainment. The stories told by the professional entertainers, each of whom specialized in a certain type, not only were written down but also were printed in storybooks, called hua-pen, which later inspired the longer novels of China.
In the literary tradition, the revival of the terse classical style initiated by Han Yü was carried on during the Song dynasty by Ou-yang Hsiu and Su Hsun, among others. The former is distinguished for his essays on Confucian philosophy, politics, and history, but he is better known for his breathtaking descriptions of the landscapes of China. Su Hsun's witty essays were generally regarded as the ultimate in classical stylistic accomplishment.
Miming, singing, and dancing had existed from ancient times, but the drama proper did not develop until the later Middle Ages. As early as the Tang period, however, actors had been prominent among the popular entertainers and were organized into professional companies that performed in theaters built to accommodate as many as several thousand people.
Modern Period
The modern period began in the 13th century and continues in the present. Initially, it was characterized by a vigorous vernacular literature that preceded by several centuries the appearance of modern colloquial literatures in the West. The growth of Chinese fiction and drama during the Yuan (Yüan or Mongol) dynasty (1279-1368) may have been the result of the refusal of many scholars to serve the Mongol regime; instead they turned their talents to new fields, such as fiction and drama. Vernacular literature continued to develop through the modern period, until it finally coalesced with a new and more inclusive literary movement in the early years of the 20th century.
Since the 13th century Chinese drama has followed a pattern of local development, with the most popular of local dramas acquiring national importance. The Yuan drama, a creation of northern China, relies on northern dialect in dialogue and song. The lute is the chief instrument used, and the songs, which constitute the poetic portion of the play and are generally considered more important than the dialogues, are written in the ch'ü, a new poetic form more flexible and expressive than the previously mentioned shih of the Han period and the tz'u of the Tang period. A Yuan play has four parts, corresponding to the four acts of a Western play; often an additional short act that serves as a prelude and sometimes as an interlude is added.
In the 14th century the art of vernacular fiction reached a new height in China. Two of the earliest Chinese novels of this period, San-Kuo-Chih Yen-i (Romance of the Three Kingdoms), a historical novel of wars and warriors, and Shui-hu Chuan (Water Margin, known to the West as All Men Are Brothers), a novel of the adventures of bandit-heroes, may be called the prose epics of the Chinese people. As composite works of folk art created from oral tradition and bearing the stamp of genius of a number of writers, they differ from the works of individual novelists. Generally, Chinese novels of both types are immensely long, vast in scope, and vivid in characterization and description. All these characteristics are found also in Hung-lou Meng (Dream of the Red Chamber), a realistic novel by Ts'ao Hsueh-ch'in, which vividly details the prosperity, decline, and fall of a rich official family.
Many important collections of short stories appeared in the 17th century, consisting of compilations handed down from an earlier period or of works by contemporary writers. Like the novels, the stories are colloquial in style and realistic in presentation, giving an intimate picture of Chinese society. The most popular anthology is Chin-ku Ch'i-kuan (Marvelous Tales of the Past and Present), which consists of 40 stories.
As the modern age progressed, the vernacular tradition became ever larger and richer. Conventional literature, on the other hand, was less fruitful, although it continued to be cultivated by members of the scholarly gentry, some of whom were fine writers. Literary orthodoxy was, however, no longer capable of producing more than stereotypes. This decline in the literary tradition continued until the beginning of the 20th century, when it became obvious to Chinese writers that they had to seek new inspiration. Stimulated by the literature of the West, Chinese writers, led by Hu Shih, started a literary revolution known as the Chinese Renaissance in an attempt to urge the written use of colloquial language and to heighten its status as a means of scholarly expression.
After 50 years of experiment in this direction, contemporary Chinese literature has come of age and shown considerable creative vitality. During the first half of the 20th century Chinese writers used literature as a mirror to reflect the seamy side of life, as a weapon to combat the evils of society, and as a form of propaganda to spread the message of class struggle. By using trenchant essays and stories to attack traditional society, writers such as Lu Xun, whose real name was Chou Shu-jen, helped advance the socialist revolution. Although the spirit of Chinese literature changed, the background, characters, and events depicted remained typically Chinese.
During the years of the Cultural Revolution (1966-78), writers and artists were expected to serve the needs of the people, and bourgeois Western influence was zealously attacked. Since then, despite setbacks in 1981 and 1983 (the year of the campaign against so-called spiritual pollution), more freedom of expression has been allowed and a new interest in Western forms and ideas

Chinese literature
Early Writing and Literature
It is not known when the current system of writing Chinese first developed. The oldest written records date from about 1400 B.C. in the period of the Shang dynasty, but the elaborate system of notation used even then argues in favor of an earlier origin. From short inscriptions on bone and tortoiseshell (used for divination), characters standing for individual words have been deciphered and are traceable through many notations to modern forms.
Most of the oldest surviving works of literature were not written until the later centuries of the Chou dynasty (c.1027–256 B.C.). At this time was written most of what scholars of the Han dynasty (202 B.C.–A.D. 220) made into the canonical literature of Confucianism (which also included their own commentaries), although the current versions of these works, traditionally classified as the Wu Ching [five classics], contain interpolations. The Wu Ching, traditionally attributed to Confucius either as author or compiler, consist of diverse books. The Ch'un Ch'iu [spring and autumn annals] is an unadorned chronology of Lu, Confucius's native state.
The I Ching [book of changes] explains, often in allusive and ambiguous language, a system of divination, based upon the study of 64 hexagrams of whole and broken lines. The Li Chi [book of rites] describes ceremonials and an ideal Confucian state. The Shu Ching [classic of documents or book of history] contains historical records, many of them known to be later forgeries. While some of these works contain verse, the main collection of poetry in the Wu Ching is the Shih Ching [classic of songs or book of odes], made up of 305 poems. Written in simple rhyming stanzas, they tell of the peasant's life, of love, and of the wars of the feudal states.
During the Sung dynasty (960–1279) selections from the Li Chi and two other works were formed into the Ssu Shu [four books]; they were thought to embody the quintessence of Confucian teachings. They are the Ta Hsüeh [great learning] and the Chung Yung [doctrine of the mean] from the Li Chi, the Lun Yü [analects of Confucius], and the Book of Mencius (see Mencius). Other important early books include the Tao Te Ching [classic of the way and its power], traditionally ascribed to Lao Tzu, and the work of Chuang-tzu. These two books, which form the chief literature of Taoism, probably circulated in their present form from the 2d cent. B.C.
The early Chinese books originally appeared in the cumbersome form of strips of bamboo. Silk was substituted as a writing material in the 2d cent. B.C., and the invention of paper in the 2d cent. A.D. was responsible for a great increase in the number of books. The method of printing whole pages from wooden blocks was discovered under the T'ang dynasty (618–906) and was perfected and in widespread use by the 10th cent. This technology permitted an enormous increase in the number of copies available of any book.

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Chinese martial arts, colloquially referred to as kung fu or gung fu (Chinese: 功夫; pinyin: gōngfu), and wushu (simplified Chinese: 武术; traditional Chinese: 武術; pinyin: wǔshù), are a number of fighting styles that have developed over the centuries in China. These fighting styles are often classified according to common traits, identified as "families" (家, jiā), "sects" (派, pài) or "schools" (門, mén) of martial arts. Examples of such traits include physical exercises involving animal mimicry, or training methods inspired by Chinese philosophies, religions and legends. Styles that focus on qi manipulation are called internal (内家拳, nèijiāquán), while others that concentrate on improving muscle and cardiovascular fitness are called external (外家拳, wàijiāquán). Geographical association, as in northern (北拳, běiquán) and southern (南拳, nánquán), is another popular classification method.

Chinese Kung Fu (Martial Arts or as popularly referred to as Gongfu or Wushu) is a series of fighting styles which has developed over a long historical period in China. Nowadays, it is regarded as a traditional sport gaining more and more popularity and even stands as a representative for Chinese culture. Styles including Shaolin, Tai Chi and Qigong have many followers worldwide. Some westerners think that all Chinese people are Kung Fu masters. That’s not true, but this traditional heritage has its unique existence in modern times and left much influence on the locals’ lifestyle.

Although being fighting styles, Kung Fu advocates virtue and peace, not aggression or violence. This has been the common value upheld by martial artists from generation to generation. With a number of movement sets, boxing styles, weapon skills and some fighting stunts, Kung Fu keeps its original function of self-defense. Now its value in body-building and fitness is also highly appreciated.

History
In order to survive in an extremely hostile environment, our primitive Chinese ancestors developed primary means of defense and attack that included leaping, tumbling and kicking. Although they knew how to fight with rudimentary weapons made from stones and wood, fighting with bare hands and fists became essential skills. The Martial Arts we recognize today as Kung Fu had their origins in the Shang and Zhou Dynasties (17 century - 256BC). During the following Qin (221 - 207BC) and Han (202BC - 220AD) Dynasties, wrestling, swordplay and spear skills became well developed and were popular among civilians and troops. Following the Song Dynasty (960 - 1279), various schools, boxing styles, movement sets and weapon skills flourished.

Classification |
Over the centuries of development in China, Kung Fu has become a large system containing various schools or sects. It is recorded that there are over 300 distinct types of boxing existing around the country. The styles in northern and southern China are quite different. Therefore it is hard to be simply classified

Some of the schools are classified by geographical locations, for example, the Southern Fist (Nanquan) prevailing in south China, and Shaolin School based at Shaolin Temple in Henan Province. Some are named after the creator and master, like the Chen Style Tai Chi and Yang Style Tai Chi. Some are identified by different training methods, such as the Internal Boxing Arts (Neijiaquan) that concentrate on the manipulation of the inner breath and circulation of the body, and the External Boxing Arts (Waijiaquan) concentrating on improving the muscles and the limbs.

The most outstanding and influential schools are listed as follows:
1. Shaolin Martial Arts: Originated in the Shaolin Temple in Henan, this is considered the premier style in China and is widely spread all over the world. Both of its physical exercise and mental training are based upon Buddhist philosophy. The Shaolin Boxing, Southern Fist (Nanquan), Northern Legs (Beitui) and Wing Chun are the representatives of this school.

2. Wudang Martial Arts: This sect has almost the same fame as the Shaolin. Based at the Mt. Wudang in Hubei Province, it is developed under the guidance of Taoist theories. T’ai Chi Ch’uan, Form / Intention Boxing (Xingyiquan), Eight-Diagram Palm (Baguazhang) are essentials of Wudang.

3. Emei Martial Arts: Taking Mt. Emei in Sichuan Province as its camp, this sect is moderate and blends the merits of Shaolin and Wudang. Many sub-branches derive under this sect, including Qingcheng, Tiefo, Qingniu, Dianyi, Huanglin, etc. | Tai Chi Quan Performance |
4. Tai Chi: This is a comparatively slow and elegant style originated from the combination of Taoism, dialectic ideology, traditional medicine and physical exercise. It features attack by accumulating the strength, conquering the rigidity with the flexility, and beating action by inaction.

5. Form / Intention Boxing (Xingyiquan): It is a representative of Internal Boxing Arts characterized by its straightforward fist and quick attack which are well suitable for fighting against the enemy. Its boxing routines include Five Elements Boxing, Twelve Animals Boxing and so on.

6. Eight-Diagram Palm (Baguazhang): Created by the master Dong Haichuan, the Eight-Diagram Palm features continuous changes in palm styles and steady steps in circle. Many sub-sects derive from this school.

7. Southern Fist (Nanquan): This traditional school prevailed over 400 years in south China. Centered in Guangdong and Fujian Provinces, it features short and tight movements, various skills, steady steps and vigorous attacks. The grand master Wong Fei-hung is good at the Southern Fist.

8. Qigong: It is not only a school of martial arts but also a physical and mental exercise method, which is beneficial to health and body-building. There are mainly two types - Dynamic Qigong practiced by specific body movements, and Static Qigong practiced by adjusting the breath and mind.

Learn Kung Fu | Learn Tai Chi Quan |
In the recent years, learning Chinese martial arts has been more and more popular among people of different ages and nationalities. Therefore, many Kungfu training centers or clubs have been established. A strong will and persistence is the precondition for learning. One should follow a master or join a training school to learn systematically. The basic skills of legs, waist, shoulders and stance training need to be practiced daily. Employing the solid foundation of the basic skills, one can choose from the various sects to learn specific routines of boxing, kicking and weapon skills, to improve the combat ability.

Kung Fu Masters Bruce Lee: (Nov. 27, 1940 - Jul. 20, 1973) As the founder of Jeet Kune Do, he is a great master who was a brilliant Kungfu movie star in 1970s and made the Chinese Kung Fu well-known throughout the world. Yip Man: (Oct.1, 1893 - Dec.2 1972) He was a great martial artist contributing a lot in the development of Wing Chun. He had many students who later became masters in their own right, including Bruce Lee. Huo Yuanjia: (Jan. 18, 1868 - Aug.9, 1910) As a co-founder of the Chin Woo Martial Arts School, Huo was considered a patriotic and heroic master for defeating many foreign fighters at his time. Wong Fei-hung: (Jul.9, 1847 - 25 Mar.25, 1924) He was a master in Hung Gar Boxing, a style of Southern Fist School. Zhang Sanfeng: (1247 - 1458) He is a legendary martial arts master and ancestor of Wudang School.

* There are many other masters, including Chen Wangting - the founder of Chen Style Tai Chi, Yang Luchan - the founder of Yang Style Tai Chi, Dong Haichuan - the creator of Eight-Diagram Palm, Liang Ting - the initiator of International Wing Tsun Association, etc.

CHINESE VALUES | print page | prev page | |
Chinese culture is highly complex but scholars across the world are agreed that despite the diversity of Chinese communities many shared characteristics persist.
These derive largely form the pervasive influence of Confucian philosophy on Chinese culture and they are at very core of Chinese identity. Indeed, since Confucian thought has dominated the Chinese way of life for 2,000 years, it is unlikely to cease its influence - even after two or three generations of participation in British society.
The Chinese value the importance of the family; the hierarchical structure of social life; the cultivation of morality and self-restraint and the emphasis on hard work and achievement. Various researchers also stress the pride which Chinese people take in their culture as well as the fact that Chinese culture and society can be defined as ‘collectivist’
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“ I was brought up here. I think for the Chinese, everything can be summarised from the family, your cultural value.”
In many ways the family unit takes precedence over its individual members. Children must learn not to answer back to their parents or other elders. It is assumed that the family as a whole will thrive and prosper if harmony prevails at home.
In other words – the basic rules of obedience, moderation and self-restraint amongst family members should be observed.
Expectations related to family life account for many of the difficulties faced by Chinese immigrants. The second generation finds it hard to cope with the demands of their parents'.
They want to fulfil their own potential - like opting out of the catering business. And, stripped of their traditional position, deprived of respect, abandoned and isolated, the first generation feels unable to shape their children's way of life, Guilt on the children's part, and shame on the parents', often results.

the Culture of China is one of the world's oldest and most complex cultures. Chinese culture is rich and profound.The richness of Chinese culture can find expression in its diversity and pluralism. Have you ever eaten Peking Duck or dumplings at a local Chinese restaurant? Have you ever been to a Chinese tailor shop to make the traditional style of the silk blouses and dresses? You might have ever watched Kung Fu Panda, DreamWorks' new animated film based on Chinese martial arts and panda. And sometimes you might use the phrase "Confucious say:..." as the beginning of your talk. There's no doult that the Chinese Culture has played an important role not only in China itself, but also in world society. The Culture of China has attracted and moved many people from all over the world, being so unique as well as elegant and inspiring. The Chinese Culture, a culture that has evolved for thousands of years, contains rare beauty and enchantment with history. The information we provide in this column is just the tip of an iceberg. But hope it will help you have a better understanding of Chinese Culture and arouse your interests to explore it!
A short history of Chinese "religions." (The word "religion" did not enter the Chinese lexicon until the 19th century.) This essay examines Chinese belief systems, which refers to how people think and behave, philosophically and religiously. Key Chinese practices this essay will cover are ancestral rites and divination, the teachings of the philosophers Confucius and Laozi, and Buddhism. Appreciating the complexity of this rich and enduring culture is crucial to understanding the beliefs that have helped to shape China’s behavior and history.
Ancestral Rites and Divination (Shang and Zhou Dynasties, ca. 1600–256 BCE)
Two practices that extend from these ancient dynasties to the present are ancestral rites, performed in conjunction with the ancestral cult, and divination. Although they are not unique to Chinese culture–Romans and Hebrews also revered their ancestors and used divination to discern the workings of the supernatural world–both have outlived many other belief systems. Moreover, for the Chinese today, the veneration of the dead constitutes a meeting ground for past, present, and future as well as for different belief systems, such as Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism.

The ancestral cult was based on five key premises. First was the belief that the world was divided into three tiers: heaven, earth, and the underworld. The three levels, though distinct, were viewed as an interconnected reality. Second was the importance of lineage. A Chinese family was connected not only to their fathers and mothers of the recent past but those from the distant past. A common belief of the time was that every family traced its origin to Huang Di (the Yellow Emperor), the mythological progenitor of the Han people. The lineage system was vital for answering questions about origin and identity.

The third premise stated that the human body had two souls: the soul that ascends at death, the hun, and the one that stays with the corpse, the po. The hun eventually becomes a spirit (shen), while the po becomes a ghost (gui). The two-soul theory confirmed the multilayered reality in which the Chinese lived.

Fourth was the offering of sacrifices to their counterparts in heaven to show filial respect (xiao) and procure favors for the maintenance of the middle realm, earth. Generally sacrifice (ji) refers to gifts of wine and meat to a spirit that was in human form or an object in nature, such as a mountain, tree, or river. The most important–at least to the elite–were the rites performed by kings and, later, emperors. Provided these rituals were done correctly, the kingdom was assured of a prosperous year or the abatement of a calamity, such as a famine. Mistakes might lead to natural disasters and threaten the ruler’s throne.

Ancestral rites also were performed at the local and familial levels. It was common then, as it is today, to find ancestral temples and shrines in towns and villages dedicated to individuals, who became deities through legends surrounding their lives and deaths. In most homes there was an altar for wood plaques or paper with the names of deceased relatives.

The fifth feature of the ancestral cult embodied the roles played by mediators, such as shamans (wu) and ritual specialists or priests (zhu). Both the shaman and the ritual specialist could recognize the signs of a cosmos in or out of balance and the methods required to ensure harmony. Kings and male heads of families also were considered mediators; however, shamans and priests had more expertise in the arts of divination and performance of rites, and they were often recruited for services at both the royal and local levels. When ministering to the newly deceased, in particular, shamans and priests were called upon to perform certain rituals, including divination, to assure proper burial and treatment of the hun and po souls.

Divination, the art of using omens or magic powers to discern movements in the supernatural world, has long been an important decision-making tool for the Chinese. Whether it means consulting inscriptions on animal bones or tortoiseshells (see the Shang Oracle Bone in Section 2, Traces of Ideas) during the Shang and Zhou periods or using wood blocks to learn the response of an ancestor or deity in modern temples and homes, negotiating the three levels of heaven, earth, and the underworld through divination constitutes a point of continuity in Chinese religious culture.

Confucius (Kongzi, or “Master Kong,” ca. 551–479 BCE)
Confucius lived in China during the latter half of the Zhou dynasty (eleventh century–256 BCE). As a philosopher and teacher, Master Kong influences far more people today through classic writings, such as the Analects (Lunyu), than he did during his lifetime. He created a philosophy that later became a major influence in the organization of Imperial Age China and was adopted and modified in other countries such as Korea, Japan, and Vietnam.

Confucius emphasized principles for self-guidance. The key to producing a harmonious life, he wrote, is in how we treat others–our ancestors, leaders, parents, spouses, neighbors, and friends. The foundation for harmonious relationships is found in the principles of ren (benevolence), li (ritual/ceremony, often rendered as propriety/politeness), shu (reciprocity–“Do unto others . . .”), and xiao (filial piety–showing respect for one’s elders).

Two other concepts that were predominant in Confucius’s worldview were Tian (Heaven) and Dao (Way). His heaven represented a celestial power connected with the will of mighty ancestors, such as the widely known Yao, Shun, and Yü. The Way, on the other hand, constituted a natural path for humanity. Whereas Heaven emphasized choice, the Way required a yielding heart-mind (xin); both were crucial for achieving harmony in the earthly realm.

Laozi (“Old Master,” sixth or third century BCE)
The concept of Dao is more often associated with the figure Laozi and the classic Dao de Jing (The Book of the Way and Its Power) than with Confucius. It is not certain whether they were contemporaries. Their philosophies, though, are like two sides of a coin. Laozi emphasized harmony with the Dao–a referent to something that cannot be named–in order to achieve balance in life. To assist this process, Laozi taught his followers the concepts of non-action (wuwei) and shade and light (yin/yang–primordial, dynamic balancing of opposites). The principle of non-action meant that one should discern the natural course of things and cooperate with that movement. Thus, if a person was good at making clothes, he or she shouldn’t become a cook. The concept of yin/yang reminded Laozi’s students to look for the balancing forces of opposites and learn how to cooperate with and embody them. The teachings of Laozi and Confucius were not incorporated into a religious movement until the Han dynasty (206 BCE–220 CE). The result was a mix of philosophy and religion. Over the centuries that followed, both Confucianism (Rujiao—the teachings of the scholars) and Daoism (Daojiao—the teaching of the Way) developed elaborate rituals and sacred writings. To this day the philosophies of Laozi and Confucius, and the religious movements their lives and teachings inspired, exist in vibrant forms in Chinese, Korean, Japanese, and Vietnamese culture as well.

Buddhism in China (second century CE)
Buddhism, a cultural system of beliefs and practices based on principles of compassion and non-attachment, originated in the sixth century BCE in what is today Nepal. It was brought to China by Buddhist monks from India during the latter part of the Han dynasty (ca. 150 CE) and took over a century to become assimilated into Chinese culture.

One of the key forces of Buddhism’s success was Daoism. To help the Chinese comprehend Buddhist concepts, Buddhists borrowed ideas from Daoism via the Chinese language. Both Buddhism and Daoism benefited from this exchange. Daoists expanded their ideas about the cosmos and ways to structure their monastic orders. Buddhists gained a lexicon that made it easier to teach their tradition.

Over time Buddhism became a popular force in the lives of the Chinese, from the common people to the emperor himself. In fact, by the sixth century, Buddhism rivaled Daoism in popularity and political influence. It was during this time, and over the course of the next three centuries, that major schools of Chinese Buddhism formed. Two schools that retain their influence today are Pure Land Buddhism and Chan (Zen) Buddhism. Even in mainland China, where religion is often suppressed by the government, there are practitioners of these two schools of Chinese Buddhism.

Buddhism in China–as is the case with religious Daoism and Confucianism–also underwent many changes throughout the country’s history and was varied in its social and religious manifestations and philosophical beliefs. Most scholars think of Buddhism as many Buddhisms. In the so-called classical period of Buddhism in China (Tang dynasty, 618–907 CE), there were a number of schools of Buddhism that taught and promoted their own philosophies and meditation practices. The Huayen and Tiantai schools, for instance, varied in philosophy, location, and political influence. The teachings of various schools influenced and were adapted by Korea and Japan.

One of the most popular figures in Chinese Buddhism is the Bodhisattva Guanyin (the one who perceives the laments of the world–Guanshiyin). Having originated from Indian Buddhism as a superior being who aids the suffering of the world, Guanyin has become a key figure in the devotional practices of Chinese Buddhists and Daoists alike.

Popular Religion and Syncretism: The Present Reaching Back to the Past
Popular, or folk, religious practice in China today has elements as old as the ancestral rites of the Shang and Zhou dynasties and, dating from the Song dynasty (960–1279 CE), is marked by a propensity for syncretism–the combining of different forms of belief or practice. A good example is the construction of temple altars. It’s not uncommon to find Buddhist and Confucian figures in a Daoist temple. Nor is it extraordinary to see a selfprofessed Buddhist offer incense at a Daoist temple to a historical figure known for his Confucian virtues.

For most people in China, there is no problem with mixing religious practices. Unlike some other cultures, where religious syncretism and even tolerance are viewed with skepticism or condemnation, the Chinese have always had the ability to select the religious practices and teachings that work best for them at the moment. If a certain deity doesn’t answer a supplicant’s petition, then it’s on to the next temple and deity. In general religious pluralism simply adds to the many options from which the Chinese can choose on their journey toward a harmonious life.

Chinese Beliefs and Superstitions
I saw lots of examples of Chinese beliefs and superstitions in Sichuan.
I would consider the Chinese a superstitious lot of people. This is particularly true of older Chinese.
Younger Chinese are less inclined to follow these beliefs as they become exposed to the modern Western world.
There is a lot of belief in things like lucky and unlucky numbers, fortune tellers, feng shui and the spirits of deceased relatives.

It is quite interesting how some beliefs influence arrangements (for example the date of the Beijing Olympics) and the way people live.
Chinese Numbers
The number I was most aware of in China was the number 4 - an unlucky number.
The reason is that the pronunciation of 4 (Si pronounced something like "sur") sounds very much like the word for death.
Department store - no fourth floor

You might find a hotel without a 4th floor or a product line without a series 4.

For example, Nokia mobiles went from a series 3 to a series 5 product range.
Critical if China and Asia is an important market for you!
In fact many numbers symbolise something good or bad.
Product numbers, telephones numbers and license plates sometimes are created with specific numbers to bring good luck.
The number 8 is a lucky number.
It sounds like the word "prosper". Also, turned on its side it represents the infinity symbol - which means "forever".
The Beijing Olympics opened on the 8/8/08 at 8.08 pm - not a coincidence!
Chinese Fortune Tellers
There are plenty of these - especially in areas where tourists are to be found.
They use a variety of methods - such as analysing writing, or asking questions such as birth dates and times.
Many Chinese I met had a basic knowledge of palm reading - and they were only too happy to read my palm.
Ancestor Worship
This is based on the belief that a person has a spirit which continues to live with the person's body after they have died.
This spirit needs to be nourished so offerings such as food and other items are made to the deceased.
In April, the Tomb Sweeping Day holiday is for cleaning and nourishing relatives' graves.
Feng Shui
Feng Shui is about living in harmony with elements of nature.
Things like where the best place to live (considering things like geography), colours and astrology are taken into account.
People try to create the best environment for them to live or work in by consulting Feng Shui experts.
Red
Red is considered a lucky colour.
You will see a lot of red in clothing and jewelry, and decorations, particularly during the Chinese New Year.
Red Chinese New Year

Chinese legend has it that a long time ago a monster called Nian terrorized a village at the time of the new moon about twelve months apart at the time what is now the Chinese New Year.

The villagers tried to placate the monster by giving it food.

One time the monster seemed to be scared away by the colour red of some clothing.

So red became a lucky colour.
You will see lots of red in Sichuan - red envelopes for giving gifts, red lanterns, red decorations and red clothing.
Red is for good luck in Chinese beliefs.
It is worth knowing something about Chinese beliefs.

For example, give a Chinese friend a gift. Giving them money in a red envelope is common and appreciated.
Your gesture will be well received!
I also received gifts in red envelopes during my time in China.
The Chinese like giving gifts in red envelopes even to foreigners.