Philippine Literature

GENERAL TYPES OF LITERATURE

Literature can generally be divided into two types: prose and poetry. Prose consists of those written within the common flow of conversation in sentences and paragraphs, while poetry refers to those expressions in verse, with measure and rhyme, line and stanza and has a more melodious tone.

I. Prose There are many types of prose. These include novels, biographies, short stories, contemporary dramas, legends, fables, essays, anecdotes, news and speeches. 1. Novel. This is a long narrative divided into chapters. The events are taken from true-to-life stories and spans a long period of time. There are many characters involved. 2. Short Story. This is a narrative involving one or more characters, one plot, and one single impression. 3. Plays. This is presented in a stage. It is divided into acts and each act has many scenes. 4. Legends. These are fictitious narratives, usually about origins. 5. Fables. These are fictitious and they deal with animals and inanimate things who speak and act like people and their purpose is to enlighten the minds of children to events that can mold their ways and attitudes. 6. Anecdotes. These are merely products of the writer’s imagination and the main aim is to bring out lessons to the reader. 7. Essay. This expresses the viewpoint or opinion of the writer about a particular problem or event. 8. Biography. This deals with the life of a person which may be about himself, his autobiography or that of others. 9. News. This is a report of everyday events in society, government, science and industry, and accidents, local and national events. 10. Oration. This is a formal treatment of a subject and is intended to be spoken in public. It appeals to the intellect, to the will or the emotions of the audiences.

II. Poetry There are three types of poetry: narrative, lyric and dramatic.
1. Narrative Poetry – this form describes important events in life either real or imaginary. a. Epic. This is an extended narrative about heroic exploits often under supernatural control. It may deal with heroes and gods. Two kinds of epic poetry are the popular or ancient and the literary or modern. The ancient or popular epic is often without definite author while the modern has a definite author. b. Metrical Tale. This is a narrative which is written in verse and can be classified either as a ballad or a metrical romance. Examples of these are simple idylls or home tales, love tales, tales of the supernatural or tales written for a strong moral purpose in verse form. c. Ballads. This is considered the shortest and simplest of all narrative poems. It has a simple structure and tells of a single incident. There are also variations of these: love ballads, war ballads, sea ballads, humorous, moral, historical or mythical ballads. In the early times, this is referred to a song accompanying a dance.

2. Lyric Poetry – originally, this refers to the kind of poetry meant to be sung to the accompaniment of lyre, but now this applies to any type of poetry that expresses emotions and feelings of the poet. They are usually short, simple and easy to understand. a. Folksongs (Awiting Bayan). These are short poems intended to be sung. The common theme is love, despair, grief, doubt, joy, hope, and sorrow. b. Sonnet. This is a lyric poem of 14 lines dealing with an emotion, a feeling, or an idea. c. Elegy. This is a lyric poem which expresses feelings of grief and melancholy, and whose theme is death. d. Ode. This is a poem of noble feeling, expressed with dignity, with no definite number of syllables or definite number of lines in a stanza. e. Psalms (Dalit). This is a song praising God or the Virgin Mary and containing a philosophy of life. f. Song (Awit). These have measures of 12 syllables (dodecasyllabic) and slowly sung to the accompaniment of guitar or banduria. g. Corridos (Kuridos). These have measures of eight syllables (octosyllabic) and recited to a martial beat.

3. Dramatic Poetry – kind of poetry that expresses a great deal of emotion. a. Comedy. The word comedy comes from the Greek word “Komos” meaning festivity or revelry. This form usually is light and written with the purpose of amusing, an usually has a happy ending. b. Melodrama. This is usually used in musical plays with the opera. Today, this is related to tragedy just as the farce is to comedy. It arouses immediate and intense emotion and is usually sad but there is a happy ending for the principal character. c. Tragedy. This involves the hero struggling mightily against dynamic forces; he meets death or ruin without success and satisfaction obtained by the protagonist in a comedy. d. Farce. This is an exaggerated comedy. It seeks to rouse mirth by laughable lines; situations are too ridiculous to be true; the characters seem to be caricatures and the motives undignified and absurd. e. Social Poems. This form is either purely comic or tragic and it pictures the life of today. It may aim to bring about changes in the social conditions.

THE PRE-SPANISH PERIOD

Historical Background Long before the Spaniards and other foreigners landed on Philippine shores, our forefathers already had their own literature stamped in the history of our race. Our ancient literature shows our customs and traditions in everyday life as traced in our folk stories, old plays, and short stories. Our ancestors also had their own alphabet which was different from that brought by the Spaniards. The first alphabet used by our ancestors was similar to the of the Malayo-Polynesian alphabet. Whatever records our ancestor left were either burned by the Spanish friars in the belief that they were works of the devil or were written on materials that easily perished, like the barks of trees, dried leaves and bamboo cylinders which could not have remained undestroyed even if efforts were made to preserve them. Other records that remained showed folk songs that proved the existence of a native culture truly our own. Some of these were passed on by word of mouth till they reached the hands of some publishers and printers who took interest in printing the manuscripts of ancient Filipinos. The Spaniards who came to the Philippines tried to prove that our ancestors were really fond of poetry, songs, stories, riddles and proverbs which we still enjoy today and which serve to show to generations the true culture of our people.

Pre-Spanish Culture is characterized by: a. Legends. Legends are a form of prose the common them of which is about the origin of a thing, place, location or name. The events are imaginary, devoid of truth, and unbelievable. Old Filipino customs are reflected in these legends. b. Folk Tales. Ever since, the Philippines has been blessed with a wealth of folk tales. Because folk tales have been passed on by word of mouth it is difficult to trace their origins. Contemporary writers build their stories from old folk tales or from the product of their imagination. Folk tales are made up of stories about life, adventure, love, and humor where one can derive lessons about life. These are useful to us because they help us appreciate our environment, evaluate our personalities and improve our perspective in life. c. Epics. Epics are long narrative poems in which a series of heroic achievements or events, usually of a hero, are dealt with at length. Nobody can determine which epics are the oldest because in their translations from other languages, even in English and Spanish. We can only determine their origins from the time mentioned in the said epics. d. Folk Songs. Folk songs are one of the oldest forms of Philippine literature that emerged in the pre-Spanish period. These songs mirrored the early forms of culture. Many of these have 12 syllables.

Other forms of Pre-Spanish Poetry
Pre-Spanish poetry consists of epigrams, riddles, maxims and proverbs, much of which came from Tagalog. Some consists of stanzas of wit and wisdom. 1. Epigrams (Salawikain): these have been customarily used and served as laws or rules on good behavior by our ancestors. To others, there are like allegories or parables that impart lessons for the young. 2. Riddles (Bugtong): these are made up of one or more measured lines with rhyme and may consist of 4 to 12 syllables. 3. Chant (Bulong): used in witchcraft or enchantment. 4. Maxims: some are rhyming couplets with verses of 5, 6 or 8 syllables, each line having the same number of syllables. 5. Sayings (Kasabihan): often used in teasing or to comment on a person’s actuations. 6. Sawikain: these are sayings with no hidden meanings.

THE SPANISH PERIOD

Historical Background It is an accepted belief that the Spanish colonization of the Philippines started in 1565 during the time of Miguel Lopez de Legazpi, the first Spanish governor-general in the Philippines. Literature started to flourish during his time. This spurt continued unabated until the Cavite Revolt in 1872. The Spaniards colonized the Philippines for more than three centuries. During this time, many changes occurred in the lives of Filipinos. They embraced the Catholic religion, changed their names, and were baptized. Their lifestyles changed too. They built houses made of stones and bricks, used beautiful furniture like the piano and used kitchen utensils. Carriages, trains and boats were used as means of travel. They held fiestas to honor the saints, the pope and the governors. They had cockfights, horse races, and the theater as means of recreation. This gave rise to the formation of the different classes of society like the rich and the landlords. Some Filipinos finished courses like medicines, law, agriculture and teaching. Many Filipinos finished their schooling in the Philippines because many schools had been already established.

Spanish Influences on Philippines Literature
Due to the long period of colonization of the Philippines by the Spaniards, they have exerted a strong influence on our literature: 1. The first Filipino alphabets called ALIBATA were replaced by the Roman alphabets. 2. The teaching of the Christian Doctrine became the basis of religious practices. 3. The Spanish language which became the literature language during this time lent many of its words to our language. 4. European legends and traditions brought here became assimilated in our songs, corridos and moro-moros. 5. Ancient literature was collected and translated to Tagalog and other dialects. 6. Many grammar books were printed in Filipino, like Tagalog, Ilocano and Visayan. 7. Our periodicals during these times gained a religious tone.

The First Books 1. Ang Doctrina Christiana (The Christian Doctrine). This was the first book printed in the Philippines in 1593. It was written by Fr. Juan de Placencia and Fr. Domingo Nieva in Tagalog and Spanish. It contained the Pater Noster (Our Father/The Lord’s Prayer), Ave Maria (Hail Mary), Regina Coeli (Hail Holy Queen), the Ten Commandments of God, the Commandments of the Catholic Church, the Seven Mortal Sins, How to Confess, and the Catechism. 2. Nuestra Senora del Rosario. The second book printed in the Philippines was written by Fr. Blancas de San Jose in 1602, and printed at the UST Printing Press with the help of Juan de Vera, a Chinese mestizo. It contains biographies of saints, novenas, and questions and answers on religion. 3. Libro de los Cuatro Postprimeras de Hombre. This was the first book printed in typography, both in Spanish and Tagalog. 4. Ang Barlaan at Josephat. This is a Biblical story printed in the Philippines and translated to Tagalog from Greek by Fr. Antonio de Borja. It is believed to be the first Tagalog novel published in the Philippines even if it is only a translation. The printed translation has only 556 pages. The Ilocano translation in poetry was done by Fr. Agustin Mejia. 5. The Pasion. This is the first book about the life and suffering of Jesus Christ. It is read only during Lent. There were 4 versions of this in Tagalog and each version is according to the name of the writer. These are the Pilapil version (by Mariano Pilapil, 1814), the de Belen version (by Gaspar Aquino de Belen, 1704), the de la Merced version (by Aniceto de la Merced, 1856), and the Guia version (by Luis de Guia, 1750). 6. Urbana at Felisa. This is a book by Modesto de Castro, the so-called Father of Classic Prose in Tagalog. These are letters between two sisters, Urbana and Felisa, and has influence d greatly the behavior of people in society because the letters dealt with good behavior. 7. Ang Mga Dalit kay Maria (Psalms of Mary). It is a collection of songs praising the Virgin Mary. Fr. Mariano Sevilla, a Filipino priest, wrote this in 1865 and it was popular especially during the May-time “Flores de Mayo” festival.

Literary Compositions 1. Arte y Reglas de la Lengua Tagala (Art and Rules of the Tagalog Language) written by Fr. Blancas de San Jose and translated to Tagalog by Tomas Pinpin in 1610. 2. Compendio de la Lengua Tagala (Understand Tagalog Language) written by Fr. Gaspar de San Agustin in 1703. 3. Vocabulario de la Lengua Tagala (Tagalog Vocabulary) the first Tagalog dictionary written by Fr. Pedro de San Buenaventura in 1613. 4. Vocabolario de la Lengua Pampanga (Pampango Vocabulary) the first book in Pampango written by Fr. Diego in 1732. 5. Vocabulorio de la Lengua Bisaya (Bisayan Vocabulary) the best language book in Visayan by Mateo Sanchez in 1711. 6. Arte de la Lengua Ilokana (The Art of Ilocano Language) the first Ilocano grammar book by Francisco Lopez. 7. Arte de la Lengua Bicolana (The Art of Bicol Language) the first book in the Bicol language and written by Fr. Marcos Lisbon in 1754.

Folksongs Folksongs became widespread in the Philippines. Each region had its national song from the lowlands to the mountains of Luzon, Visayas and Mindanao. These Folksongs truly manifest the artistic feelings of the Filipinos. They show the Filipinos’ innate appreciation for and love of beauty.

Recreational Plays
There were many recreational plays performed by Filipinos during the Spanish times. Almost all of them were a poetic form. 1. Tibag. The word tibag means to excavate. This ritual was brought here by the Spaniards to remind the people about the search of St. Helena for the Cross on which Jesus died. 2. Lagaylay. This is a special occasion for the Pilarenos of Sorsogon during Maytime to get together. As early as April, the participating ladies are chosen and sometimes, mothers volunteer their girls in order to fulfill a vow made during an illness or for a favor received. In some parts of Bicol, a different presentation is made but the objective is the same – praise, respect, and offering of love to the Blessed Cross by St. Helena on the mound she had dug in. 3. The Cenaculo. This is a dramatic performance to commemorate the passion and death of Jesus Christ. There are two kinds: the Cantada and the Hablada. In Hablada, the lines are spoken in a more deliberate manner showing the rhythmic measure of each verse and the rhyming in each stanza and is more dignified in theme; the Cantada is chanted like the Pasion. 4. Panunuluyan. This is presented before 12:00 on Christmas Eve. This is a presentation of the search of the Virgin Mary and St. Joseph for an inn wherein to deliver the baby Jesus. 5. The Salubong. The Salubong is an Easter play that dramatizes the meeting of the Risen Christ and his Mother. It is presented in many Philippine towns. 6. Carillo (Shadow Play). This is a form of dramatic entertainment performed on a moonless night during a town fiesta or on dark nights after a harvest. This shadow play is made by projecting cardboard figures before a lamp against a white sheet. The figures are moved like marionettes whose dialogues are produced by some experts. 7. The Zarzuela. Considered the father of all dramas, it is a musical comedy or melodrama in three acts which dealt with man’s passions and emotions like love, hate, revenge, cruelty, avarice, or some social or political problem. 8. The Sainete. This was a short musical comedy popular during the 18th century. They were exaggerated comedies shown between acts of long plays and were mostly performed by characters from the lower classes/ themes were taken from everyday life scenarios.

The Moro-Moro
Like the Cenaculo, the Moro-Moro is presented also on a special stage. This is performed during town fiestas to entertain the people and to remind them of their Christian religion. The plot is usually the same that of a Christian princess or a nobleman’s daughter who is captured by the Mohammedans. The father organizes a rescue party where fighting between the Moros and Christians ensue. The Mohammedans are defeated by some miracle or Divine Intercession and the Mohammedans are converted to Christianity. In some instances, the whole kingdom is baptized and converted.

The Karagatan
This is a poetic vehicle of a socio-religious nature celebrated during the death of a person. In this contest, a ritual is performed based on a legend about a princess who dropped her ring in the middle of the sea and who offered her hand in marriage to anyone who can retrieve hr ring. A leader starts off with an extemporaneous poem announcing the purpose. He then spins a “lumbo” or “tabo” marked with a white line. Whoever comes in the direction of the white line when the spinning stops gets his turn to “go into the sea to look for the ring”. This means a girl will ask him a riddle and if he is able to answer, he will offer the ring to the girl.

Duplo
The Duplo replaced the Karagatan. This is a poetic joust in speaking and reasoning. The roles are taken from the Bible and from proverbs and sayings. It is usually played during wakes for the dead.

The Balagtasan
This is a poetic joust or a contest of skills in debate on a particular topic or issue. This replaced the Duplo and is held to honor Francisco “Balagtas” Baltazar.

The Dung-aw
This is a chant in free verse by a bereaved person or his representative beside the corpse of the dead. No definite meter or rhyming scheme is used. The person chanting it freely recites in poetic rhythm according to his feelings, emotions and thoughts. It is personalized and usually deal with the life, sufferings and sacrifices of the dead and includes apologies for his misdeeds.

The Awit and the Corrido
Some people use these two interchangeably because the distinction is not clear.

THE PERIOD OF ENLIGHTENMENT

Historical Background After 300 years of passivity under Spanish rule, the Filipino spirit reawakened when the three priests Gomez, Burgos and Zamora were guillotined without sufficient evidence of guilt. This occurred on the 17th of February. This was buttressed with the spirit of liberalism when the Philippines opened its doors to world trade and with the coming of a liberal leader in the person of Governor Carlos de la Torre. The Spaniards were unable to suppress the tide of rebellion among the Filipinos. The once-religious spirit transformed itself into one of nationalism and the Filipinos demanded changes in the government and in the church.

The Propaganda Movement This movement was spearheaded mostly by the intellectual middle-class like Jose Rizal, Marcelo del Pilar, Graciano Lopez Jaena, Antonio Luna, Mariano Ponce, Jose Ma. Panganiban, and Pedro Paterno. The objectives of this movement were to seek reforms and changes like the following: 1. To get equal treatment for the Filipinos and the Spaniards under the law; 2. To make the Philippines a colony of Spain; 3. To restore Filipino representation in the Spanish Cortes; 4. To Filipinize the parishes; 5. To give the Filipinos freedom of speech, of the press, assembly, and for redress of grievances.

Writers during the Propaganda Movement

Dr. Jose P. Rizal Jose Protacio Rizal Mercado Alonzo y Realonda was born on June 19, 1861 at Calamba, Laguna. His first teacher was his mother Teodora Alonzo. He studied at the Ateneo de Manila, started medicine at the University of Santo Tomas and finished at the Universidad Central of Madrid. He also studied at the University of Berlin. He died by musketry in the hands of the Spaniards on December 30, 1896 on charges of sedition and rebellion against the Spaniards. His pen-name were Laong Laan and Dimasalang. His works and writings are the following: a) Noli Me Tangere. This was the novel that gave spirit to the propaganda movement and paved the way to the revolution against Spain. In this book, Jose Rizal courageously exposed the evils in the Spanish-run government in the Philippines. The Spaniards prohibited the reading of this novel but a lot of translation were able to enter stealthily in the country even if it means death to those caught in possession of them. The Noli Me Trangere gave Philippine Literature the immortal characters of Maria Clara, Juan Crisostomo Ibarra, Elias, Sisa, Pilosopong Tasio, Dona Victorina, Kapitana Maria, Basilio and Crispin. Rizal had a powerful pen in the delineation of these characters. b) El Filibusterismo. This is a sequel to the Noli Me Tangere. While the Noli Me Tangere exposed the evils in society, the El Filibusterismo exposed those in the government and in the church. However, Noli Me Tangere has been dubbed the novel of society while the El Filibusterismo is a novel of politics. c) Mi Ultimo Adios (My Last Farewell). This was a poem by Jose Rizal while he was incarcerated at Fort Santiago and is one that can compare favorably with the best in the world. It was only after his death when his name was affixed to the poem. d) Sobre La Indolencia De Los Filipinos (On the Indolence of the Filipinos). An essay on the so-called Filipino indolence and an evaluation of the reasons for such allegations. e) Filipinas Dentro De Cien Anos (The Philippines Within a Century). An essay predicting the increasing influence of the United States in the Philippines and the decreasing interest of Europe here. Jose Rizal predicted that if there is any other colonizer of the Philippines in the future, it would be the United States. f) A La Juventud Filipina (To The Filipino Youth). A poem Jose Rizal dedicated to the Filipino youth studying at the University of Santo Tomas. g) El Consejo de Los Dioses (The Council of the Gods). An allegorical play manifesting admiration for Cervantes. h) Junto al Pasig (Beside the River Pasig). This was written by Jose Rizal when he was fourteen years old. i) Me Piden Versos (You asked me for Verses). This poem was written in 1882. j) A Las Flores de Heidelberg (To the Flowers of Heidelberg). This is a poem manifesting Jose Rizal’s unusual depth of emotion. k) Notas a La Obra Sucesos de las Filipinas for El Dr. Antonio de Morga (Notes on Philippine Events by Dr. Antonio de Morga). This was written by Jose Rizal in 1889. l) P. Jacinto: Memorias de Un Estudiante de Manila (P. Jacinto: Memoirs of a Student of Manila). Jose Rizal wrote this in 1882. m) Diario de Viaje de Norte America (Diary of a Voyage to North America)

Marcelo H. Del Pilar Marcelo H. del Pilar is popularly known for his pen name of Plaridel, Pudpoh, Piping Dilat and Dolores Manapat. He was born at Cupang, San Nicolas, Bulacan on August 30, 1850. His parents were Julian H. del Pilar, noted Filipino writer, and Biasa Gatmaitan. His brother was the priest Fr. Toribio del Pilar who was banished to Marianas in 1872. Because there were many children in the family, Marcelo gave up his share of his inheritance for his other brothers and sisters. Marcelo started schooling at the school of Mr. Flores and then transferred to that of San Jose before University of Santo Tomas. His last year in law school was interrupted for eight years after he had a fight with the parish priest during a baptism at San Miguel, Manila in 1880. He established the “Diariong Tagalog” in 1882 where he exposed the evils of the Spanish government in the Philippines and in order to avoid the false accusations hurled at him by the priests. To avoid banishment, he was forced to travel to Spain in 1886. He was assisted by Fr. Serrano Laktaw in publishing a different Cathecism and Passion Book wherein they made fun of the priests. They also made the “Dasalan at Tocsohan” and “Kaiingat Kayo” taken from the word “igat”, a kind of snakefish caught in politics. Upon his arrival in Spain, he replaced Graciano Lopez Jaena as editor of “La Solidaridad”, a paper which became the vehicle thru which reforms in the government could be worked out. This did not last long for he got sick and even when he was gravely ill and could hardly walk, he attempted to reach Hong Kong from where he could reach his countrymen. He died of tuberculosis in Spain but before he died, he asked his companions to tell his wife and children that he was sorry he wasn’t able to bid them goodbye, to tell others the fate of our countrymen, and to continue helping the country. His works and writings are the following: a) Pag-ibig sa Tinubuang Lupa (Love of Country). This was translated from the Spanish “Amor Patria” of Jose Rizal, published on August 20, 1882 in Diariong Tagalog. b) Kaiingat Kayo (Be Careful). A humorous and sarcastic dig in answer to Fr. Jose Rodriguez in the novel Noli Me Tangere of Jose Rizal, published in Barcelona in 1888. He used Dlores Manapat as pen-name here. c) Dasalan at Tocsohan (Prayers and Jokes). Similar to a cathecism but sarcastically done against the parish priests, published in Barcelona in 1888. Because of this, Marcelo H. del Pilar was called a “filibuster”. Done in an admirable tone of supplication and excellent use of Tagalog. d) Ang Cadaquilaan ng Dios (God’s Goodness). Published in Barcelona, it was also like a cathecism sarcastically aimed against the parish priests but also contains a philosophy of the power of intelligence of God and an appreciation for and love for nature. e) Sagot sa Espanya sa Hibik ng Pilipinas (Answer to Spain on the Plea of the Filipinos). A poem pleading for change from Spain but that Spain is already old and weak to grant any aid to the Philippines. This is poem is in answer to that pf Hermenigildo Flores’ “Hibik sa Pilipinas” (A Plea from the Philippines). f) Dupluhan… Dalit… Mga Bugtong (A Poetical Contest in Narrative Sequence, Psalms, Riddles). A compilation of poems on the oppression by the priests in the Philippines. g) La Soberania en Pilipinas (Sovereignty in the Philippines). This shows the injustices of the Friars to the Filipinos. h) Por Telefono (By Telephone). i) Pasiong Dapat Ipag-alab ng Puso ng Taong Babasa (Passion That Should Arouse the Hearts of the Readers).

Graciano Lopez Jaena A most notable hero and genius of the Philippines, Graciano Lopez Jaena was born on December 18, 1856. The pride of Jaro, Iloilo, he won the admiration of the Spaniards and Europeans. He is a known writer and orator in the Philippines. He wrote 100 speeches which was published by Remidio Garcia, former bookstore owner of Manila Felatica and which are still read up to now by modern Filipinos. He left the Philippines in 1897 with the help of Don Claudio Lopez, a rich uncle, in order to escape punishment from his enemies and arrived at Valencia, the center of the Republican movement of the Spaniards. He gained the acquaintance of the high officials like Piy Margall, Morayta, Moret, Castelar, and Salmeron. From Valencia, he moved to Barcelona where he established the first magazine “La Solidaridad”. This later became the voice of the Associacion Hispano de Filipinas, a Filipino-Spanish Association composed of Filipinos and Spaniards who worked for reforms in the Philippines. Because of this, Graciano Lopez Jaena successfully showed the Spaniards and the people of the world how a newspaperman can introduce changes in law reforms towards a better life and progress. Graciano Lopez Jaena, although he didn’t become a professor, was also a teacher in a sense to his friends and relatives in the Philippines. Like Antonio Maria Regidor, Tomas G. del Rosario, and Felipe Calderon, he stood for the separation of the church and the state for free education, better government and schools, freedom of worship and for an independent and free university. He sided with Jose Rizal in the controversy between Rizal and Marcelo del Pilar over who should head the Associacion Hispano de Filipinas in Madrid. He returned to the Philippines to ask for donations to continue a new government called “El Latigo Nacional” or “Pambansang Latigo”. He sold the right of La Solidaridad to Marcelo del Pilar who had become a lawyer and had brought in money from his sojourn in Spain. Graciano Lopez Jaena died in a charity hospital in Barcelona on January 20, 1896, eleven months before his best friend Rizal was shot at Bagumbayan. His works and writing are the following: a) Ang Fray Botod (Friar Botod). One of his works written in Jaro, Iloilo in 1876, six years after the Cavite Revolt attacking the friars in the Philippines. He exposed how some of the friars were greedy, ambitious and immoral. b) La Hija del Fraile (The Child of the Friar). Here Graciano Lopez Jaena explains the tragedy of marrying a Spaniard. c) Everything is Hambug (Everything is Mere Show). The theme of which is similar to that of La Hija del Fraile. d) Sa Mga Pilipino, 1891. A speech which aimed to improve the condition of the Filipinos to become free and progressive. e) Talumpating Pagunita Kay Kolumbus (An Oration to Commemorate Columbus). A speech delivered by Graciano Lopez Jaena in Madrid. f) En Honor del Presidente Morayta de la Associacion Hispano Filipino 1884. Here, Lopez Jaena praised Gen. Morayta for his equal treatment of the Filipinos. g) En Honor de los Artistas Luna y Resurrection Hidalgo 1884. A sincere expression of praise for the paintings of Hidalgo on the condition of the Filipinos under the Spaniards. h) Amor a Espana o A las Jovenes de Malolos (Love for Spain or to the Youth of Malolos). The theme is about how girls were taught Spanish in schools and whose teachers were the governors-general of the place. i) El Bandolerismo en Pilipinas (Banditry in the Philippines). Jaena refuted the existence of banditry in the Philippines and of how there should be laws on robbery and other reforms. j) Honor en Pilipinas (Honor in the Philippines). The triumphant exposition of Luna, Resurrecion and Pardo de Tavera of the thesis that intellect or knowledge gives honor to the Philippines. k) Pag-alis sa Buwis sa Pilipinas (Abolition of Taxes in the Philippines). l) Institucion ng Pilipinas (Sufferings of the Philippines). Jaena refers here to the wrong management of education in the Philippines. This was written in 1887.

Antonio Luna Antonio Luna was a pharmacist who was banished by the Spaniards to Spain. He joined the Propaganda Movement and contributed his writings to La Solidaridad. Most of his works dealt with Filipino customs and others were accusations about how the Spaniards ran the government. His pen-name was Tagailog. He died at the age of 33 in June 1899. He was put to death by the soldiers of Aguinaldo because of his instant rise to fame which became a threat to Aguinaldo. Some of his works are: a) Noche Buena (Christmas Eve). It pictured true Filipino life. b) Se Devierten (How They Diverted Themselves). A dig at a dance of the Spaniards where the people where very crowded. c) La Tertulia Filipina (A Filipino Conference or Feast). Depicts Filipino customs which he believed was much better than the Spanish. d) Por Madrid (For Madrid). A denouncement of Spaniards who claim that the Philippines is a colony of Spain but who think of Filipinos as foreigners when it comes to collecting taxes for stamps. e) La Casa de Huespedes (The Landlady’s House). Depicts a landlady who looks for boarders not for money but in order to get a husband for her child.

Mariano Ponce Mariano Ponce became the editor-in-chief, biographer and researcher of the Propaganda Movement. He used Tikbalang, Kalipulako, and Naning as pennames. The common themes of works were the values of education. He also wrote about how the Filipinos were oppressed by the foreigners and of the problemsof his countrymen. Among his writings are: a) Mga Alamat ng Bulacan (Legends of Bulacan). Contains legends and folklores of his native town. b) Pagpugot kay Longinos (The Beheading of Longinus). A play shown at the plaza of Malolos, Bulacan. c) Sobre Filipinos (About the Filipinos). d) Ang mga Pilipino sa Indo-Tsina (The Filipinos in Indo-China).

Pedro Paterno Pedro Paterno was a scholar, dramatic, researcher and novelist of the Propaganda Movement. He also joined the Confraternity of Masons and the Asociacion Hispano-Pilipino in order to further the aims of the Movement. He was the first Filipino writer who escaped censorship of the press during the last day of the Spanish colonization. The following were a few of his writings: a) Ninay. The first social novel in Spanish by a Filipino. b) A Mi Madre (To My Mother). Shows the importance of a mother especially in the home. c) Sampaguita y Poesias Varias (Sampaguitas and Varied Poems). This is a collection of Paterno’s poems.

Jose Ma. Panganiban Jose Maria Panganiban hid his identity behind his penname Jormapa. He was also known for having a photographic mind. He was a member of a number of movements for the country. Some of his writings are: a) Ang Lupang Tinubuang (My Native Land) b) Ang Aking Buhay (My Life) c) Su Plano de Estudio (Your Study Plan) d) El Pensamiento (The Thinking)

Period of Active Revolution The Filipinos did not get the reforms demanded by the Propagandists. The government turned deaf ears to these petitions; oppression continued and the church and the government became even more oppressive to the Filipinos. The good intentions of Spain were reversed by the friars who were lording it over in the Philippines. Because of this, not a few of the Filipinos affiliated with the La Liga Filipina (a civic organization suspected of being revolutionary and which triggered Jose Rizal’s banishment to Dapitan). Now, Filipinos decided that there was no other way except to revolt. The gist of literature contained mostly accusations against the government and were meant to arouse the people to unite and to prepare for independence.

Writers during the Period of Active Revolution

Andres Bonifacio Andres Bonifacio is best known as the Father of Democracy, but more than others, as the Father of the Katipunan because he led in establishing the Kataas-taasan, Kagalang-galangan Katipunan ng mga Anak ng Bayan (KKK). Andres Bonifacio came from a poor family and it is said that whatever he learned, he learned from experience. He was a voracious reader and among those he loved to read which aroused his revolutionary spirit were the Noli Me Tangere and the El Filibusterismo of Jose Rizal. He joined the La Liga Filipina founded by Rizal in 1892. He established the Katipunan which triggered the spirit of freedom especially when Rizal was banished to Dapitan. He is better known as the great Revolutionary rather than a writer, but he also wrote things which paved the way for the revolution and which also became part of our literature. Among his works are: a) Ang Dapat Mabatid ng mga Tagalog (What the Tagalogs Should Know). b) Katungkulang Gagawin ng mga Anak ng Bayan (Obligations of Our Countrymen). This is an outline of obligations just like the Ten Commandments of God. c) Pag-ibig sa Tinubuang Lupa (Love of One’s Native Land). A poem with a title similar to that of Marcelo H. del Pilar’s. d) Huling Paalam (Last Farewell). This is the Tagalog translation of Jose Rizal’s Mi Ultimo Adios.

Emilio Jacinto Emilio Jacinto was the intelligent assistant of Andres Bonifacio in the establishment of the Katipunan. He is called the Brain of the Katipunan. He edited Kalayaan (Freedom), a Katipunan newspaper. Bonifacio withdrew his writing of the Kartilya in deference to Jacinto’s work as secretary of the Katipunan. His Kartilya was the one that was followed by the members of the organization. Here are few of his writings: a) Kartilya ng Katipunan. This is a primer book on the Katipunan. b) Liwanag at Dilim (Light and Darkness). A collection of essays on different subjects like freedom, work, faith, government, and love of country. c) A Mi Madre (To My Mother). A touching ode to his mother. d) A La Patria (To My Country). This is considered as Bonifacio’s masterpiece.
Apolinario Mabini Apolinario Mabini is known in literature and history as the Sublime Paralytic and the Brain of the Revolution. He was born in Batangas on July 22, 1864. Because he was born of a poor family, he had to work in order to study. He became known to his professors and classmates at Letran and UST because of his sharp memory and the simple clothes he used to wear throughout his schooling. He became the right-hand of Emilio Aguinaldo when he founded the Republic of Malolos. His contributions to literature were writings on government, society, philosophy and politics. Here are some of his works: a) El Verdadero Decalogo (The True Decalogue). This was his masterpiece and his aim here was to propagate the spirit of nationalism. b) El Desarollo y Caida de la Republica Pilipina (The Rise and the Fall of the Philippine Republic). c) Sa Bayang Pilipino (To the Filipino Nation) d) Pahayag (News)

Jose Palma Jose Palma became popular because oh his Himno Nacional Filipino (The Philippine National Anthem) which was set to music by Julian Felipe. He was born in Tondo, Manila on June 6, 1876. His brother, Rafael Palma, became the president of the University of the Philippines. He joined the revolution against the Americans together with Gregorio del Pilar, the youngest Filipino general who died during the revolution. Aside from the National Anthem, here are some of his works:

a) Melancholias (Melancholies). This is a collection of his poems. b) De Mi Jardin (In My Garden). This is a poem expressing one’s longings for hs sweetheart.

Newspapers during the Revolution In the effort of the Revolutionists to spread to the world their longings for their country, many newspapers were put up during the Revolutionary period. They were: a) Heraldo de la Revolucion. This printed the Revolutionary Government, news and works in Tagalog that aroused nationalism. b) La Independencia (Independence). This was edited by Antonio Luna and whose aim was for Philippine Independence. c) La Republica Pilipina (The Philippine Republic). This was established by Pedro Paterno in 1898. d) La Libertad (Liberty). This was edited by Clemente Zulueta.

THE AMERICAN REGIME

Historical Background The Filipino Revolutionists won against the Spaniards who colonized us for more than 300 years. Our flag was hoisted on June 12, 1898 as a symbol of our independence. General Emilio Aguinaldo was elected the first President of the Philippine Republic but this was short lived. The Fil-American war resulted in the defeat of General Miguel Malvar in 1903. The peace movements started as early as 1900. Many Filipinos started writing again and the nationalism of the people remained undaunted. Filipino writers went into all forms of literature like news reporting, poetry, stories, plays, essays, and novels. Their writings clearly depicted their love of country and their longing for independence. The active arousal in the field of literature started to be felt in the following newspapers: 1. El Nuevo Dia (The New Day). This was established by Sergio Osmena in 1900. The American censors twice banned this and threatened Osmena with banishment because of his nationalistic writings. 2. El Grito del Pueblo (The Call of the Nation). This was established by Pascual Poblete in 1900. 3. El Renacimiento (The Rebirth). This was founded by Rafael Palma in 1901.

There were also plays written then but after the first and second presentations, the Americans put a stop to these because of the consistent theme of nationalism. Among the plays are the following: 1. Kahapon, Ngayon at Bukas (Yesterday, Today and Tomorrow). This was written by Aurelio Tolentino depicting the suppression done by the Americans and their plan to colonize the Philippines. 2. Tanikalang Ginto. This was written by Juan Abad. 3. Malaya. This was written by Tomas Remigio. 4. Walang Sugat. This was written by Severino Reyes.

Characteristics of Literature during the American Regime Three groups of writers contributed to Philippine Literature during this period. During the first year of the American period, the languages used in writing were Spanish and Tagalog and the dialects of the different regions, but Spanish and Tagalog predominated. In 1901, a new group started to write in English. Hence, Spanish, Tagalog, the regional dialects, and finally, English were the mediums used in literature during these times. While the three groups were one in their ideas and spirit, they differ in their methods of reporting/writing. The writers in Spanish want to write on nationalism like honoring Rizal and other heroes. The writers in Tagalog continued in their lamentations on the conditions of the country and their attempts to arouse love for one’s native tongue. The writers in English imitated the themes and methods of the Americans.

Literature in Spanish
The inspiration of our Filipino writers was Rizal not only because of his being a national leader but also because of his novels Noli Me Tangere and El Filibusterismo. These two novels contained the best qualities of a novel ever written, in English or in Filipino. Those who were inspired to write in praise of him were the following:

1. Cecilio Apostol. He wrote poems dedicated to Jose Rizal, Emilio Jacinto, Apolinario Mabini and all other heroes. He has written a poem entitled “A Rizal” (To Rizal) is considered to be the best poem in praise of the hero of Bagumbayan.

2. Fernando Ma. Guerrero. It is believed that Fernando Ma. Guerrero shared with Cecilio Apostol the reign in the balagtasan in Spanish during that time. He also dedicated a poem to Rizal but he collected the best of his poems in a book called “Crisalidas”, meaning a kind of black, wooly caterpillar. One of the poems included in his book is entitled “Invocacion a Rizal” (A Call to Rizal), which he wrote on June 19, 1901 to commemorate Rizal’s birthday.

3. Jesus Balmori. He was well-known for his penname Batikuling. He and Manuel Bernabe participated in a debate on the topic “Remembrance and Forgetfulness”. He was selected Poet Laureate in Spanish, besting Manuel Bernabe.

4. Manuel Bernabe. He was a lyric poet and the fierceness of his nationalistic spirit was unchanged in any topic he wrote about. In his debate with Balmori, he was more attractive to the public because of the melodious words he used. He defended Ovlido (Forgetfulness).

5. Claro M. Recto. In nobility of speech and theme, Claro M. Recto can compare with the other writers of Spanish. He collected his poems in a book entitled “Bajo Los Cocoteros” (Under the Coconut Tree). He dedicated his poem “Ante El Martir!” (Before the Martyr) to Rizal.

6. Adelina Guerrea. She was the first woman poet in the Philippines who obtained the Zobel Prize in her song “El Nido” (The Nest).

7. Isidro Marpori. He became famous for his four books entitled “Aromas de Ensueno” (Scents of Dreams).

8. Pedro Aunario. He wrote the “Decalogo de Proteccionismo.”

9. Macario Adriatico. He wrote the legend of Mindoro entitled “La Punta de Salto” (The Place of Origin).

10. Epifanio de los Santos. He is known as Don Panyong. He was a good leader and biographer during his entire life.

Filipino Literature
The “Florante at Laura” of Francisco Balagtas and the “Urbana at Felisa” of Modesto de Castro became the inspiration of the Tagalog writers. Julian Cruz Balmaceda classified the three kinds of Tagalog writers:

1. Poets of the Heart (Mga Makata ng Puso) a. Lope K. Santos e. Jose Corazon de Jesus b. Inigo Ed. Regalado f. Cirilo H. Panganiban c. Carlos Gatmaitan g. Deogracias del Rosario d. Pedro Gatmaitan, h. Ildefonso Santos
2. Poets of Life (Mga Makata ng Buhay) a. Lope K. Santos d. Patricio Mariano b. Jose Corazon de Jesus e. Carlos Gatmaitan c. Florentino Collantes f. Amado V. Hernandez
3. Poets of the Stage (Mga Makata ng Tanghalan) a. Aurelio Tolentino b. Patricio Mariano c. Severino Reyes d. Tomas Remegio

In the realm of short stories that started to appear in the column “Pangsandaliang Libangan” (Short-time Leisure) and “Dagli” (Fast), we find here the names of the following writers: a. Lope K. Santos b. Patricio Mariano c. Rosauro Almario
In the short stories printed in the Liwayway Publication, we find the following writers: a. Deogracias Rosario b. Teodoro Gener c. Cirio H. Panganiban
Noted novelists and biographers in the Filipino literature during the American Regime are: a. Valeriano Hernandez Pena b. Lope K. Santos c. Inigo Ed. Regalado d. Faustino Aguilar

Here are some of the writers and their biographies:
1. Lope K. Santos. Novelist, poet, author, and grammarian who covered three periods of Tagalog literature: American, Japanese, and Contemporary periods. If Manuel L. Quezon is called the Father of the National Language, Lope K. Santos is called the Father of the National Language Grammar. He was also called the “Apo” of the Tagalog writers. “Banaag at Sikat” was his masterpiece.

2. Jose Corazon de Jesus. He was very popularly known as “Huseng Batute”. He was also called the Poet of Love in his time. “Ang Isang Pusong Kahoy” (A Tree) is an elegy that is believed to be his masterpiece.

3. Amado V. Hernandez. He was dubbed as “Makata ng Mga Mangagagawa” (Poet of the Laborers) in our literature because he pictures in his poem the intense love for the poor workers and laborers. To him, a poem is a scent, bittersweet memories, a murmur of flowing water. The pen is powerful, and according to him, even a king can be bent by the pen. He contributed a lot of writings to literature like “Isang Dipang Langit” (A Stretch of Heaven), “Bayang Malaya” (A Free Nation), “Munting Lupa” (A Small Plot), and his masterpiece “Ang Panday” (The Blacksmith),

4. Valeriano Hernandez Pena. Together with Lope K. Santos, he reached the summit of his novel-writing. He was known as “Tandang Anong” and his pen-name was “Kuntil Butil” (Small Grain). His masterpiece was “Nena at Neneng”.

5. Inigo Ed. Regalado. He was a son of a popular writer during the Spanish time known as Odalager. He proved that he not only followed the footsteps of his father, but also reached the peak of his success by the whim of his pen. He also became a popular story-teller, novelist, and newspaperman.

The Tagalog Drama
During the advent of the American Period, Severino Reyes and Hermogenes Ilagan started the movement against the Moro-Moro (a play on the Christian struggles against the Muslims)) and struggled to show the people the values one can get from the zarzuela and the simple plays. The following are the writers of the Tagalog drama during the American Period:

1. Severino Reyes. He is the Father of the Tagalog Drama and author of the immortal “Walang Sugat”.

2. Hermogenes Ilagan. He founded the group “Campana Ilagan” that presented many dramas in Central Luzon.

3. Patricio Mariano. He wrote a novel also entitled as “Ninay” and “Anak ng Dagat”, his masterpiece.

4. Julian Cruz Balmaceda. He wrote “Bunganga ng Pating” (Shark’s Mouth). This gave him much honor and fame.

The Tagalog Short Story
The collections of Tagalog short stories were published during the American Period. First was “Mga Kuwentong Ginto” (Golden Stories) published in 1936, spearheaded by Alejandro Abadilla and Clodualdo del Mundo, and contained 25 best stories according to them. The second was “50 Kuwentong Ginto ng 50 Batikang Kuwentista” (50 Golden Stories by 50 Noted Storytellers) published in 1939, spearheaded by Pedrito Reyes. The “Parolang Ginto” (Golden Lantern) and “Talaang Bughaw” (Blue List) of Alejandro Abadilla became popular during this period.

Tagalog Poetry
Almost all Tagalog writers during the American Period were able to compose beautiful poems which made it difficult to select the best. Even if poetry writing is as old as history, poetry still surfaces with its sweetness, beauty, and melody.

The Ilocano Literature
The following are those recognized in the field of Ilocano literature:
1. Pedro Bukaneg. He is the Father of Ilocano Literature. From his names was derived the word “Bukanegan” which mean a poetic contest in Ilocano.

2. Claro Caluya. He is the Prince of Ilocano Poets, and is known as a poet and novelist.

3. Leon Pichay. He is known as The Best Bukanegero. He is a poet, novelist, short story writer, dramatist, and essayist.

The Pampango Literature
Two stalwarts in the literature of the Kapampangans stand out. They are:
1. Juan Crisostomo Soto. He is the Father of Kapampangan Literature. The word “Crisotan” (meaning Balagtasan) in Tagalog was taken from his name.

2. Aurelio Tolentino. The dramatist with whom the Kapampangans take pride. Included in his writing were “Kahapon, Ngayon at Bukas” that resulted his incarceration, and “Luhang Tagalog”, his masterpiece.

The Visayan Literature
The following are the top men in Visayan Literature:
1. Eriberto Gumban. He is the Father of Visayan Literature. He wrote a zarzuela, a Moro-Moro and a play in Visayan.

2. Magdalena Jalandoni. She devoted her talent in the novel “Ang Mga Tunok San Isa Ca Bulaclac”.

Philippine Literature in English during the American Period
In a way, we can say that we trace the beginnings of Philippine Literature in English with the coming of the Americans. For this purpose, the American Period in Philippine Literature was divided into three time frames:

The Period of Re-orientation
English as a literary vehicle came with the American occupation in August 13, 1898 and as historians say, a choice bestowed on us by history. By 1900, English came to be used as a medium of instruction in public schools. From the American forces were recruited the first teachers of English. By 1908, the primary and intermediate grades were using English. It was also about this time when the University of the Philippines, the forerunner in the use of English in higher education, was founded. Writers of this period were still adjusting to the newfound freedom after the paralyzing effect of repression of thoughts and speech under the Spanish regime. They were adjusting to the idea of democracy, to the new phraseology of the English language and to the standards of the English literary style. Writers had to learn direct expression as conditioned by direct thinking. They had to learn that sentence constructions, sounds and speech in English were not the same as in the vernacular. They had to discard sentimentality and floridity of the language for more direct and precise English. Not much was produced during this period and what literature was produced was not much of literary worth. The first attempts in English writing were in two periodicals of this time: a. El Renacimiento. This was founded in Manila by Rafael Palma in 1908. b. Philippines Free Press. This was established in Manila in 1905 by R. McCullough Dick and D. Theo Rogers.

Poetry during the Period of Re-orientation
In 1907, Justo Juliano’s “Sursum Corda” which appeared in the Renacimiento was the first work to be published in English. In 1909, Jan F. Salazar’s “My Mother” and “Air Castles” were also published. It was also in 1909 when Proceso Sebastian followed with his poem “To My Lady in Laoag” was also published in the same periodical.

The Period of Imitation
By 1919, the UP College Folio published the literary compositions of the first Filipino writers in English. They were the pioneers in short story writing. They were then groping their way into imitating American and British writers which resulted in a stilted, artificial, and unnatural style, lacking vitality and spontaneity. Writers of this folio included Juan F. Salazar, Jose Ma. Fernandez, Vicente del Fierro, Francisco Tonogbanua, Maximo Kalaw, Vidal A. Tan, Francisco M. Africa, Victoriano Yamzon, and Fernando Maramag, who was considered to be the best editorial writers during this period. They all pioneered in English poetry.

Essays during the Period of Imitation
The noted essayists of this time were Carlos P. Romulo, Jorge C. Bocobo, Mauro Mendez, and Vicente Hilario. Their essays were truly scholarly characterized by sobriety, substance, and structure. They excelled in serious essay, especially the editorial type. The next group of writers introduced the informal essay, criticism, and the journalistic column. They spiced their work with humor, wit, and satire. This group included Ignacio Manlapaz, Godefredo Rivera, Frederico Mangahas, Francisco B. Icasiano, Salvador P. Lopez, Jose Lansang, and Amando G. Dayrit.

Short Stories during the Period of Imitation
In the field of short stories, “Dead Stars” by Paz Marquez Benitez written in the early 1920’s stand out as a model of perfection in character delineation, local color, plot, and message. Other short stories published this time were but poor imitations of their foreign models. The “UP College Folio” was later replaced by the “Philippine Collegian”. Newspapers and periodicals also saw print during this time like “The Bulletin”, “The Philippines Herald”, “The Philippine Review”, “The Independent”, “Rising Philippines”, “Citizens”, and “The Philippine Education Magazine” in 1924. Here are literary feats during this period: 1910 : Bernardo P. Garcia’s poem “George Washington” was published in El Renacimiento 1917 : Eulogio B. Rodriguez, a research writer in the UP College of Liberal Arts won the “Vilamor Prize” in the provincial history competition. He was an authority on literary and cultural development in the Philippines 1919 : Paz Marquez Benitez was named the editor of “Woman’s” 1920 : Marcelo de Gracia Concepcion gained recognition for Filipino poetry abroad with his publication of the poem “Azucena” in the United States. Procopio L. Solidum wrote “Never Mind and Other Poems” 1921 : Lorenzo E. Paredes wrote the first poetry anthology “Reminiscence”. Zolio M. Galang published his first volume of essays entitled “Life and Success”. 1924 : “Journal” was the first literary magazine in English published in the Philippines. Eliseo Quirino and Vicente Hilario wrote the essay “Thinking for Ourselves”. Rodolfo Dato published “Filipino Poetry”, the first anthology of poems. Carlos P. Romulo published a collection of plays entitled “Daughters for Sale and Other Plays”. 1925 : Zolio M. Galang published the first anthology of short stories “Tales of the Philippines”.

The Period of Self-Discovery and Growth
By this time, Filipino writers had acquired the mastery of English writing. They now confidently and competently wrote on a lot of subjects although the old time favorites of love and youth persisted. They went into all forms of writing like the novel and drama.

Poetry during the Period of Self-discovery
Noteworthy names in this field include Marcelo de Gracia Concepcion, Jose Garcia Villa, Angela Manalang Gloria, Abelardo Subido, Trinidad Tarrosa, and Rafael Zulueta de Costa. They turned out not only love poems but patriotic, religious, descriptive, and reflective poems as well. They wrote in free verse, in odes and sonnets and other types. Poetry was original, spontaneous, competently written, and later incorporated social consciousness. Jose Garcia Villa, the first to break away from the conventional forms and themes of Philippines poetry, placed the Philippines on the literary map with the publication of his books in the U.S. The breakthrough of poetry during this time were: 1925 : The Philippine Writers Association was organized in Manila 1926 : “Manila: A Collection of Verses” by Luis Dato was published 1932 : “Bamboo Flute” by Marcelo de Gracia Concepcion was published 1934 : “Moon Shadows on the Water” by Aurelio S. Alvero and “An English-German Anthology of Filipino Poets” by Pablo Laslo edition were published. 1936 : “My Book of Verses” by Luis Dato was published 1937 : Rafael Zulueta de Costa published “First Leaves” 1939 : “Nuances” by Aurelio S. Alvero was published 1940 : “Like the Molave and Other Poems” – a first-prize winning collection of poems by a single author in the Commonwealth Literary Contest won by Rafael Zulueta de Costa. “Many Voices” won second award in this Commonwealth Literary Contest 1941 : “Poems” by Jose Garcia Villa was published

Short Stories during the Period of Self-discovery
Probably because of the incentives provided by publications like the Philippine Free Press, The Graphic, The Philippine Magazine and college publications like the UP Literary Apprentice, poetry and short story flourished during these times. Here are some of the breakthrough in short stories during this time: 1927 : Paz M. Benitez published her first anthology of Filipino short stories entitled “Filipino Love Stories” 1929 : Jose Garcia Villa published “Philippine Short Stories” 1930 : Jose Garcia Villa “Mir-in-isa” won first place in The Age Press short story writing contest 1932 : Zolio M. Galang published his first volume of short stories entitled “Tales of the Philippines”

The Commonwealth Literary Contest awarded first prize to the short story “How My Brother Leon Brought Home a Wife” by Manuel Arguilla. Other short story writers this time include: Osmundo Sta. Romana, Arturo Rotor, and Paz Latorena who wrote the story ‘Sunset”. From 1930 to 1940, the Golden Era of Filipino writing in English saw several short story writers who wrote famous literary pieces. Among them are: “The broken Parasol” by Jose Lansang, “Talanata’s Wife” by Sinai C. Hamada, “Wanderlust” by Fausto Domingo, “His Gift” and “Yesteday” by Amando G. Dayrit, and “The Woman Who Looked Out of the Window” by Amador T. Daguio. The characteristic of short stories during this time shows the remnants of Spanish influence in the use of expressions that were florid, sentimental, exaggerated and bombastic. The influence of the Western culture also was very evident.

Essays during the Period of Self-discovery
Essays during this period improved with the years in quality and quantity, in content, subject, and style. Essayists like Carlos P. Romulo became even more eminent editorial writers. The notable writers of essays during this period were: 1. Political and Social Reflective Essays. Through their newspaper columns the following became very popular: Federico Mangahas, Salvador P. Lopez, Pura S. Castrence, Vicente Albano Pacis, Ariston Estrada, and Jose A. Lansang. 2. Critical Essays were espoused by the following: Salvador P. Lopez, I.V. Mallari, Ignacio Manlapaz, Jose Garcia Villa, Arturo B. Rotor, and Leopoldo Y. Yabes. An example of a critical essay is “They Called it Brotherhood” by Maximo V. Solivens. 3. Personal or Familiar Essays were written by the following: F.B. Icasiano (Mang Kiko), Alfredo E. Litiatco, Solomon V. Arnaldo, Amando G. Dayrit, and Consuelo Gar (Catuca).

Some of the notable works 1940 : “Literature and Society” by Salvador P. Lopez won first prize in the Commonwealth Literary Contest of 1940. The book is a collection of critical reflections and serious essays. : Camilo Osias published “The Filipino Way of Life” a series of essays on the Filipino way of life as drawn from history, folkways, philosophy, and psychology of the Philippines. 1941 : F.B. Icasiano (Mang Kiko) published reprints of the best of his essays in the Sunday Times Magazine under the column “From My Nipa Hut”. These are essays of the common people and were written with humor and sympathy, : Carlos P. Romulo had an editorial printed in the Philippine Herald, entitled “I Am a Filipino”. It was reprinted in his book “My Brother Americans” in 1945 in New York by Doubleday & Co.

Other essayists during this period include Ignacio Manlapaz, Vicente Albano Pacis, I.V. Mallari, Jose M. Fernandez, Leopoldo Y. Yabes, Isidro L. Ritizos, Jose A. Lansang, Federico Mangahas, Pura Santillan, and Amando G. Dayrit, who has a column entitled “Good Morning, Judge”. The Philippine Wrters’ League put out a collection of essays entitled “Literature Under the Commonwealth”.

Biography during the Period of Self-discovery
In 1935, I.P Caballero and Marcelo de Gracia Concepcion wrote about Manuel L. Quezon, entitled “Quezon”. In 1938, “The Great Malayan” won a prize in the national contest sponsored by the Commonwealth of the Philippines. This was written by Carlos Quirino, the most famous biographer of the period. He also wrote “Quezon, the Man of Destiny”. In 1940, I.V. Mallari’s “The Birth of Discontent” revealed the sensitive touch of a writer who, in a simple language, was able to reveal his profound thoughts and feelings.

History books during the Period of Self-discovery
Not much about history has been written by Filipino writers. In 1937, with regard to literary history, we can cite “The Brief History of the Philippine Islands” by Teofilo del Castillo.

Publications during the Period of Self-discovery
The “Philippine Free Press” provided the first incentives to Filipino writers in English by offering prizes to worthwhile contributions. Other publications followed suit.

Drama during the Period of Self-discovery
Drama during this period did not reach the heights attained by the novel or the short story. The University of the Philippines provided the incentives when they introduced playwriting as a course and established the UP Little Theater. Among the works during this period were: 1. “Daughters for Sale and Other Plays” by Carlos P. Romulo 2. “The Radiant Symbol” by Jorge C. Bocobo 3. “The Husband of Mrs. Cruz” and “A Daughter of Destiny” by Vidal A. Tan 4. “The Oil Lamp” and “The Earthquake” by Augusto C. Catanjil 5. “The Waves” by Hilarion Vibal 6. “The Land of Our Fathers” by Severino Montano 7. “Panday Pira: The Cannon Maker” by Jose M. Hernandez 8. “Plays” by Wilfredo Ma. Guerrero

By and all, the plays during this period were considered “too wordy” and left nothing to the imagination. This probably accounts the lack of drama awards during the Commonwealth Literary Contest of 1940 and 1941.

THE JAPANESE PERIOD

Historical Background
Between 1941-1945, Philippine Literature was interrupted in its development when the Philippines was again conquered by another foreign country, Japan. Philippine Literature in English came to a halt. Except for the “Tribune” and the “Philippine Review”, almost all newspapers in English were stopped by the Japanese. This had an advantageous effect on Filipino literature which experienced renewed attention because writers in English turned to writing in Filipino. Juan Laya, who used to write in English, turned to Filipino because of the strict prohibitions of the Japanese regarding any writing in English. The weekly “Liwayway” was placed under strict surveillance until it was managed by a Japanese named Ishiwara. In other words, Filipino literature was given a break during this period. Many wrote plays, poems, and short stories. Topics and themes were often about life in the province.

Filipino Poetry during this period
The common theme of most poems during the Japanese occupation was nationalism, country, love, life in the barrios, faith, religion and the arts. Three types of poems emerged during this period. They are: 1. Haiku. This was a poem of free verse that the Japanese liked. It was made up of 17 syllables, divided into three lines. The first line has 5 syllables, second line has 7 syllables, and the third line has 5 syllables. The Haiku is allegorical in meaning, it is short and covers a wide scope in meaning. 2. Tanaga. Like the Haiku, Tanaga is short but it had measure and rhyme. each line had 17 syllables and also allegorical in meaning. 3. Usual Form (Karaniwang Anyo). This is a poem in its usual form, with four line in each stanza.

Filipino Drama during this period
The drama experienced a lull during the Japanese period because movie houses showing American films were closed. The big movie houses were just made to present stage shows. Many of the plays were reproductions of English plays to Filipino. The translators were Francisco Soc Rodrigo, Alberto Concio, and Narciso Pimentel. They also founded the organization of Filipino players named Dramatic Philippines. Few of the plays were: 1. “Panday Pira” by Jose Ma. Hernandez 2. “Sa Pula, Sa Puti” by Francisco Soc Rodrigo 3. “Bulaga” by Clodualdo del Mundo 4. “Sino Ba Kayo?”, “Dahil sa Anak”, and “Higante ng Patay” by Julian Cruz Balmaceda

Filipino Short Story during this period
The field of the short story widened during the Japanese Occupation. Many wrote short stories. Among them were Brigido Batungbakal, Macario Pineda, Serafin Guinigundo, Liwayway Arceo, Narciso Ramos, NVM Gonzales, Alicia Lopez Lim, Ligaya Perez, and Gloria Guzman. The best writings in 1945 were selected by a group of judges composed of Francisco Icasiano, Jose Esperanza Cruz, Antonio Rosales, Clodualdo del Mundo and Teodoro Santos. Some of the notable works chosen during this time were: 1. “Lupang Tinubuan” by Narciso Reyes 2. “Uhaw ang Tigang na Lupa” by Liwayway Arceo 3. “Lungsod Nayon at Dagat-Dagatan” by NVM Gonzales

Literature in English during this period
Because of strict prohibitions imposed by the Japanese in the writing and publishing of works in English, Philippine Literature in English experienced a dark period. Writings during this time were journalistic in nature. Writers felt suppressed but slowly, the spirit of nationalism started to seep into their consciousness. While some continued to write, the majority waited for a better climate in publishing their works. Noteworthy writer of the period was Carlos P. Romulo who won the Pulitzer Prize for his bestsellers “I Saw the Fall of the Philippines, I See the Philippines Rise” and his “Mother America and My Brother Americans”. Journalists include Salvador P. Lopez, Leon Ma. Guerrero, Raul Manglapuz, and Carlos Bulosan. Nick Joaquin produced “The Woman who Looked Like Lazarus”. Fred Ruiz Castro wrote a few poems, and FB Icasiano wrote numerous essays in “The Philippine Review”. Carlos Bulosan’s works included “The Laughter of My Father” in 1944, “The Voice of Bataan” in 1943, and “Six Filipino Poets” in 1942. Alfredo Litiatco published “With Harp and Sling” and in 1943, Jose P. Laurel published “Forces that Make a Nation Great”. The Commonwealth Literary Awards gave prizes to the following meritorious literary works and writers: 1. “Like the Molave” a poem by Rafael Zulueta de Costa 2. “How My Brother Leon Brought Home a Wife” a short story by Manuel E. Arguilla 3. “Literature and Society” an essay by Salvador P. Lopez 4. “His Native Soil” a novel by Juan Laya

President Manuel L. Quezon’s autobiography “The Good Fight” was published posthumously. Other writers of this period were Juan Collas, Tomas Confesor, Roman A. dela Cruz, and Elisa Tabunar.

THE REBIRTH OF FREEDOM

Historical Background
The Americans returned in 1945. Filipinos rejoiced and guerrillas who fled to the mountains joined the liberating American Army. On July 4, 1946, the Philippines regained its freedom and the Filipino flag wave joyously alone. The chains were finally broken.

State of literature during this period
The early post-liberation period was marked by a kind of “struggle of the mind and spirit” posed by the sudden emancipation from the enemy and the wild desire to see print media. Filipinos had, by this time, learned to express themselves more confidently but post-war problems beyond language and print-like economic stability, the threat of new ideas and mortality had to be grappled with side by side. There was a proliferation of newspapers like the “Free Press” and “Morning Sun” of Sergio Osmena Sr., “Daily News” of Manuel Roxas, “Manila Times” and “Daily Mirror” of Joaquin Roces, “Evening News” of Ramon Roces, “Philippine Herald” of the Sorianos, “Chronicle” of the Lopezes, and the “Bulletin” of Menzi. This only proved that there were more readers in English than in any other vernaculars like Tagalog, Ilocano, or Hiligaynon. Journalists had their day. They indulged in more militant attitude in their reporting which bordered on the libelous. Gradually, as normality was restored, the tones and themes of the writings turned to the less pressing problems of economic survival. Some Filipino writers who had gone abroad and had written during the interims came back to publish their works. Not all books published during this period reflected the war years; some were compilations or second editions of what had been written before. Some of the works during this period are: 1. “The Voice of the Veteran” a compilation of the best works of Amante Bigornia, Roman dela Cruz, Ramon de Jesus, and JF Rodriguez 2. “Twilight in Tokyo” and “Passion” by Leon Ma. Guerrero 3. “For Freedom and Democracy” by SP Lopez 4. “Betrayal in the Philippines” by Hernando Abaya 5. “Seven Hills Away” by NV< Gonzales

Poetry in English during this period
For many years, many books were published both in English and in Filipino. Among the writers during this time were Fred Ruiz Castro, Dominador I. Ilio, and CB Rigor. Some notable works of the period include the following: 1. “Heart of the Islands” (1947) a collection of poems by Manuel Viray 2. “Philippines Cross Section” (1950) a collection of prose and poetry by Maximo Ramos and Florentino Valeros 3. “Prose and Poems” (1952) by Nick Joaquin 4. “Philippine Writing” (1953) by TD Agcaoili 5. “Philippine Harvest” by Amador Daguio 6. “Horizons Least” (1967) a collection of works by the professors of the University of the East, mostly in English (short stories, essays, research papers, poems, and dramas) spearheaded by Artemio Patacsil and Silverio Baltazar. 7. “Who Spoke of Courage in His Sleep” by NVM Gonzales 8. “Speak Not, Speak Also” by Conrado V. Pedroche

Jose Garcia Villa’s “Have Come, Am Here” won acclaim both here and abroad. Other poets were Toribia Mano and Edith L. Tiempo. The themes of most poems dealt with the usual love of nature, social and political problems.

Novels and Short Stories in English during this period
Longer and longer pieces were being written by writers of this period. The “Without Seeing the Dawn” a short story by Stevan Javellana tells the grim experiences of war during the Japanese Occupation. In 1946, the Barangay Writer’s Project, whose aim was to publish works in English by Filipinos, was established. In 1958, the PEN (Poets, Essayists, Novelists) Center of the Philippines was inaugurated. In the same year, Francisco Arcellana published “PEN Anthology of Short Stories”. In 1961, Kerima Polotan’s novel “The Hand of the Enemy” won the Stonehill Award for the Filipino novel I English. In 1968, Luis V Teodoro, Jr.’s short story “The Adversary” won the Philippines Free Press short story award. A year later, his story “The Trail of Professor Riego” won second prize in Palanca Memorial Awards for Literature and in 1970, his short story “The Distant City” won the Graphic Short Story Award.

Filipino Literature during this period
Philippine literature in Tagalog was revived during this period. Most themes in the writings dealt with the Japanese brutalities, of the poverty of life under the Japanese government and the brave guerrilla exploits. Newspapers and magazine publication were re-opened like the “Bulaklak”, “Liwayway”. “Ilang Ilang”, and “Sinag Tala”. Tagalong poetry aquired not only rhyme but substance and meaning. Short stories had better characters and events based on facts and realities and themes were more meaningful. Novels became common but were still read by the people for recreation. The people’s love for listening to poetic jousts increased more than before and people started to flock to places to hear poetic debates. Many books were published during this time, among them were: 1. “Mga Piling Katha” by Alejandro Abadilla 2. “Ang Maikling Kwentong Tagalog” by Teodoro Agoncillo 3. “Ako’y Isang Tinig” a collection of poems and stories by Genoveva Edroza Matute 4. “Mga Piling Sanaysay” by Alejandro Abadilla 5. “Maikling Katha ng Dalawampung Pangunahing Autor” by Alejandro Abadilla and Ponciano Pineda 6. “Parnasong Tagalog” a collection of selected poems of Huseng Sisiw and Balagtas, collected by Alejandro Abadilla 7. “Sining at Pamamaraan ng Pag-aaral ng Panitikan” by Rufino Alejandro. He prepared this book for teaching in reading and appreciation of poems, dramas, short stories, and novels. 8. “Manlilikha, Mga Piling Tula” by Rogelio Mangahas 9. “Mga Piling Akda ng Kadipan” by Efren Abueg 10. “Makata” the first cooperative effort to publish the poems of 16 poets in Filipino 11. “Pitong Dula” by Dionisio Salazar 12. “Manunulat: Mga Piling Akdang Pilipino” by Efren Abueg. In this book, Abueg proved that it is possible to have a national integration of ethnic culture in our country. 13. “Mga Aklat ni Rizal” Many books about Rizal came out during this period. The law ordering the additional study of the life of Rizal helped a lot in activating our writers to write books about Rizal.

The Palanca Awards
Another inspiration for writers in Filipino was the launching of the Palanca Memorial Awards for Literature headed by Carlos Palanca, Sr. in 1950. Until now, the awards are still being given although the man who founded it has passed away. The awards were given to writers of short stories, plays, and poetry. The first awardees in its first year (1950-1951) in the field of short story were the following: 1. “Kwento ni Mabuti” by Genoveva Edroza 2. “Mabangis na Kamay… Maamong Kamay” by Pedro S. Dandan 3. “Planeta, Buwan at mga Bituin” by Elpidio Kapulong

Republic Cultural Heritage Award
The Republic Cultural Heritage Awards are given every June 12, to commemorate the Philippine Independence Day. Below are the list of awardees from 1960-1971: 1960 : NVM Gonzales (Poet and Fictionist) 1961 : Nick Joaquin (Poet, fictionist, playwright, essayist, and critic) Cesar Adib Majul (Historian) 1962 : Amando V. Hernandez (Poet and fictionist) Jose Garcia Villa (Poet and short story writer) 1963 : Kerima Polotan (fictionist) Teo S. Baylen (poet and fictionist) 1964 : Carlos A. Angeles (Poet) Carlos Quirino (historian) 1965 : Carlos P. Romulo (essayist, novelist, and playwright) Horacio de la Costa (historian) Alejandro G. Hufana (poet) Bienvenido N. Santos (poet and fictionist) 1966 : Inigo Ed. Regalado (novelist) Alejandro Abadilla (Poet) Arturo B. Rotor (short story) 1967 : (no writer awardee) 1968 : Domingo Abella (historian) Ricardo Demetillo (poet) 1969 : Nicolas Zafra (historian) 1970 : Lazaro Francisco (novelist) 1971 : Lope K. Santos (novelist) F. Landa Jocano (anthropologist and writer)

THE PERIOD OF ACTIVISM

Historical Background
According to Ponciano Pineda, youth activism in 1970-1972 was due to domestic and worldwide causes. Activism is connected with the history of our Filipino youth. Because of the ills of society, the youth moved to seek reforms. Some continued to believe that the democratic government is stable and that it is only the people running the government who is at fault. Some believed that the socialism or communism should replace democracy. Some armed groups were formed to bring down the democratic form of government. Many young people became activists to ask for changes in the government. In the expression of this desire for change, keen were the writings of some youth who were fired with nationalism in order to emphasize the importance of their petitions. Many young activists were imprisoned in military camps together with rebel writers. As early as this period of history, we can say that many of those writers who were imprisoned were true nationalists and heroes of their time. Many books aptly record and embody these times but many of those are not known to many, and many of these writers still have to be interviewed. We just leave to scholars and researchers the giving of credit, to whom the credit is due.

The Seeds of Activism
The seeds of activism resulted in the declaration of Martial Law in 1972. we can, however, say that the seeds were earlier sown from the times of Lapu-Lapu, Lakandula, and Rizal. The revolution against the powerful forces in the Philippines can be said to be the monopoly of he youth in whose veins flow the fire in their blood. What Jose Rizal said of the youth being the hope of the fatherland is still valid even today.

Period of the Bloody Placards
Ponciano Pineda also said that this was the time when the youth once proved that it is not the constant evasion that shaped our race and nationalism. There is a limit to one’s patience. It may explode like a volcano if overstrained. There are a lot of questions raised in the minds and hearts of the young people. What about life? What avails life is one is a coward who does not take a stand for himself and for the succeeding generations?

The Literary Revolution
The youth became completely rebellious during this period. This was proven not only in the bloody demonstrations and in the sidewalk expressions but also in literature. Campus newspapers showed rebellious emotions. The once autocratic writers developed an awareness for society. They held pens and wrote on placards in red paint the word “Makibaka” (To dare!). They attacked the ills of the society and politics. Any establishment became the symbol of the ills that had to be changed. The frustrations of youth could be felt in churches and schools. Even the priests, teachers, and parents, as authorities who should be respected became targets of the radical youth and were thought of as hindrances to the changes they sought. The literature of the activists reached a point where they stated boldly what should be done to effect these changes. Some of those who rallied to this revolutionary form of literature were Rolando Tinio, Rogelio Mangahas, Efren Abueg, Rio Alma, and Clemente Bautista.

Palanca Awardees for Literature in English
Below are the Palanca Awardees for English Short Stories (1970-1972) 1. “The Ritual” by Cirilio F. Bautista 2. “Beast in the Fields” by Resil Mojares 3. “Children of the City” by Amadis Ma. Guerrero 4. “The Archipelago” by Cirilio F. Bautista 5. “From Mactan to Mendiola” by by Federico Licsi Espino, Jr.
Below are the Palanca Awardees for English Poetry (1970-1972) 1. “The Tomato Game” by NVM Gonzales 2. “The Apollo Centennial” by Gregorio C. Brilliantes 3. “After this, Our Exile” by Elsa Martinez Coscolluela 4. “Batik Maker and Other Poems” by Virginia R. Moreno 5. “The Edge of the Wind” by Artemio Tadena 6. “Tiniklin (A Sheaf of Poems)” by Federico Licsi Espino, Jr.

Below are the Palanca Awardees for English One-Act Play (1970-1972) 1. “The Grotesque Among Us” by Maiden Flores 2. “Age of Prometheus” Jesus T. Peralta 3. “Operation Pacification” by Alfredo O. Cuenco, Jr. 4. “Grave for Blue Flower” by Jesus T. Peralta 5. “The Undiscovered Country” by Manuel M. Martell 6. “The Boxes” by Rolando S. Tinio 7. “Now is the Time for All Good Men to Come to the Aid of their Country” by Julian E. Decanay 8. “The Renegade” by Elsa Martinez Coscolluela

Writers during this period
Jose F. Lacaba, in his book “Days of Disquiet, Nights of Rage: The First Quarters Storm and Related Events” wrote of the tragic and tumultuous moments in our country’s history. He mentioned that those students demonstrating at the time knew and were aware that what they were doing would be crucial to our country’s history. Politicians endorsed bills for those who interfered with student demonstrators. Mayor Antonio Villegas himself, on February 18, 1970, led demonstrators away from angry policemen. Other politicians like Eva Estrada Kalaw, Salvador Laurel, and Benigno Aquino wrote about condemnation of police brutalities. Jose F. Lacaba’s book is truly a representative of writers who were eyewitnesses to this time of “terror and wrath”. Other writers strove to pour out their anguish and frustrations in words describing themselves as “gasping for air, thirsting for the water of freedom”. Thus, the Philippine Center for the International PEN (Poets, Essayists, and Novelists) held a conference centering on the “writer’s lack of freedom in a climate of fear”. For a day, they denounced restrictions on artistic freedom and passionately led a plea for freedom. Among the writers of this group were Nick Joaquin, Salvador P. Lopez, Gregorio Brillantes, F. Sionis Jose, Petronilo Daroy, Letty Jimenez Magsanoc, Mauro Avelina, and Jose W. Diokno. People in the other media participated in this quest for freedom. Journalists Jose Burgos Jr., Antonio Ma. Nieva, movie director Lino Brocka, art critic Leonidas Benesa, book publisher Gloria Rodriguez, and music critic Anna Leah S. de Leon were battling head-on against censorship. They came up with resolutions that pleaded for causes other than their own, like the general amnesty for political prisoners and other secret decrees imposing free expression. They requested editors and publishers to publish the real names of writers in their columns. It called on media to disseminate information on national interest without partisan leanings and resolved to be united with all causes decrying oppression and repression.