political views, thoughts and theories

POLITICAL SCIENCE
(SYLLABUS)
PAPER I : POLITICAL THEORY

SCOPE OF POLITICAL THEORY:
Aristotle – father of political science
Political theory covers a very wide scope. Its scope can be base reflected through the following four streams of political theory.
(i) Classical political theory – political theory its classical form is related to Greece in the writings of Socrates, Plato and Aristotle. Its traits include :-

(a)its aim was to acquired reliable knowledge about matters related to pupil.
(b)basic unit of study is the political whole which included state as composed of inter-related structure and activities like warfare, education etc.
(c)political theory paved way for an idea of order which maintain stability and harmony in society.
(d) it thrived on significant of comparative studies which included monarchy, aristocracy, democracy etc.
(e) they advocated on ethical state, ideal state, which could achieved the best possible for its citizen.
(ii) modern, western political theory: behavioralilist, post- behavioralilist:
(a) Facts and data constitute the basis of study
(b) Human behaviour can be observed.
(c) Observation is to be objective and scientific
(d) Facts and values are separated
(e) ‘what it is’ is more important that ‘what it would be’
(f) Inter-disciplinary approach would yield better results
(g) What , how and why a state does is more important that what it has done.
(h) Post- behaviouralist believe that values one to support facts to form a theory.
(iii)Marxist political theory:
(i) Motion occurs through dialectics, thesis, anti- thesis and synthesis based on mode of production.
(j) Matter reflects more reality than spirit.
(k) Matter evolves because of economic super structure.
(l) Politics is class phenomenant . when class society is abolish, politics could lose significant.
(m) It establishes a new society based on communism.
(iv)contemporary political theory: Contemporary political theory as visualised by Held, Berry, and Rawl has the following attributes:-
(a) Task of political theory is not only evaluate social structure, but also to design appropriate institutions and policies.
(b) Political theory is contemplative and reflective enquire tries to understand human existence in general.
(c) Political theory is self-articulative and interpretative in its orientation.
(d) Political theory needs to be exploratory, sensitive and open –minded.

NEED AND SIGNIFICANT OF POLITICAL THEORY: ( IMPORTANCE OF POLITICAL THEORY)
ESTABLISH POLITICAL REALITY: Political theory indentifies the social economic and political factors which form a society the work done by political theorists lays down the assumption to political reality and removes the practices prevalent in the society.
PROVIDES CONCEPTUAL AND ANALYTICAL CLARITY : Political theory provides legitimate grounds to justify a ruler to his rule. The framer of every theory provide methods in which its misuse may be avoided. Thus, political theory provide explanation and conceptual clarity to key institutions and procedures.
HELPS IN CONSTRUCTION OF NEW CONCEPTS: Political theory motivate theorists to create new concepts this is done by collecting and researching new data. It also helps in creation of new concepts and theories.
ACTS AS A SOLUTION TO PROBLEMS: Political theory helps in solving problems related to politics, society, economy, development, freedom, law and order. Every society has certain problems. Theories emerges out of certain situations and circumstances. While identifying the reason of a problem, they provide solution to problems of past, present and future on rational grounds.
SOURCES OF INSPIRATION FOR POLITICAL IDEOLOGISTS AND MOVEMENT: Political theory gives birth to a new ideas which lay foundation for new ideologist. These ideologist pave way for new movements which may be either revolutionary or nationalistic. The theory of Marxism led revolution in China, Soviet Union. Like ways the theory of liberalism pave way for French revolution. In addition to acting as a foundation for political movements, there ideologist act as a rational basis for giving legitimacy to government Hitler and Mussolini thus took shelter in the ideology of facism. India under the ideology of communism. Political theory thus provides which pave for national movements and act as a source of legitimacy for government.

TRADITIONAL APPROACHES TO POLITICS:
(1) Philosophical Approaches: (exponents_ Plato, Rousseau, Hegel, Mill, Kant, Bradley, Bosanquet and Sidwick, Leostrauss) Philosophical approaches is probably the oldest approach in the study of politics. Its is also known by the name of ethical, speculative and metaphysical approaches. Here , study of state , government power and man as political creature is inextricably linked with the persuade of certain goals, morals , truths or high principles supposed to be analysing all knowledge about reality. A study of politics with these approach assume a speculative character. Student of these approach seeks to influence a guide thinking and the expression of thought so as to maximise the prospects that the selected of ‘political reality’ will be made intelligible . (V.V. DYKE) There approach takes things to a high level of abstraction and result in the determination of certain norms, goals, values and ideas, principle of political behaviour. Obviously , the great works of Plato , Rousseau, Kant, Haegal, Green, Leostrauus and John Rawls not only like the studies of politics to a very level of abstraction. They also tried to mixed up the system of values with certain high norms of an idea social and political order. For this reason while there approach may be admired for preventing certain models of an ideal political behaviour, it may also be criticized for being through abstract and far away from the world of political reality.
(2)HISTORICAL APPROACH: (HEGEL, MARX, KARL POPPER , MONTESQISIEU, AVINGNY, SEELEY, MAINE, FREEMAN AND LASKI These historical approach is based represented by George H Sabine and it stands premise that in order to understand and explain political reality, it is necessary to comprehend clearly the time , place and circumstances in which it was evolve. It is inductive i.e. based on observation and the study of historical facts. The study of politics in this approach , the scholars treat history as a genetic process as the study of how man got to be. How man once was and now is.
(3)LEGAL APPROACH: The legal approach attempts to understand politics in terms of law , focusing its attention on the legal and constitutional framework in which different organs of govt. have to function. It enquires into their respective legal position, powers and procedures which make their actions legally valid. The merit of their approach is that it lay emphasis on the system of law that legistimises on the system of law that demerit is that it has a narrow perspective. It is limited to one aspect of man’s life and as such , it cannot cover the entire behaviour of an political man’.
(4)INSTITUTIONAL APPROACH : Here, a student of politics lays stress on the formal structure of political organisation. It emphasis exclusively, the formal aspects of government and politics. It also studies the organisation and functioning of government and its various organs like – legislature, executive and judiciary and political parties etc. and other institution affecting politics. It aims at description of facts and its chief classification of government, identification of levels of government, their compositions, functions and powers of inter-relationship. This approach has a merit of enabling as to lay down certain correct rules of political behaviour on the basis of comparative investigation and analysis. But it is also criticize for keeping itself confined to the study of formal governmental structure and processes of the political system of the country. It is also likely that comparative generalisation are informed by the subjective range of prejudice.

(ii) BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH: The behavioural approach originated due to dissatisfaction with traditional approaches. Many developments in social sciences like sociology, psychology and anthropology influenced the behaviouralist to restructure the study of political science. The behavioural approach focuses on political behaviour. It calls for the study of acts, attitude, preferences and expectations of man in the political context. It lays emphasis on the collection and examination of facts relating to actual behaviour of man as a social and political being. It also studies behaviour of actual actors in political field like power holders, power seekers as well as voters.
(iii) POST – BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH: Behaviouralism relying on ‘pure science: have been criticized because it failed to attend to the social and political issues of the time. In the late 1960s David Easton announced post ‘behavioural revolution’ which relied on relevance and action. It laid new emphasis ‘values’ on issues of justice freedom and equality.
(iv) SYSTEM –ANALYSIS/APPROACH: David Easton was the first political scientist to develop a systematic frame work on studies of politics. He selected the political system as the basis unit of analysis and concentrated on the intra-system behaviour of various sub-system. According to Easton the political system received inputs from the environment in the form of demands and supports; it produces outputs in the form of policies and decisions. The output flow back into the environment through feedback mechanism, giving rise to press demands.
(v) STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONAL ANALYSIS: These model /approach was developed by Gabriel Almond and J. Coleman. According to them a political system is open and is constantly influence by social cultural and economic environment and when the process of political socialisation and recruitment is completed, structures representing interest articulation and interest aggregation emerged. Political communication also plays a very important in their approach. Where by the component of a political system like individuals groups and institutions transmit and received information regarding the functioning of the political system.
(vi) MARXIST APPROACH: Marxian analysis deal with wide range of phenomena. It insist on analysis of the economic structure of society rather than the political system as the latter is dependent on the economic structure. According to them, in order to understand the characteristics of the political system, it is important to know about the historical stages of development of economic structure and class structure. At every stage, it says, the society is divided into two antagonistic classes – ‘the haves’ and ‘have not’. Politics, thus becomes a process of through which these classes try to attain power. Marxist approach assume that the state of contradiction can end only in the establishment of a socialist society. Once this is establish, it will lead to a final phase of communism which is classless and stateless society.

CRITICISM : Organic theory of state is criticized and is difficult to agreed in respect of the similarities which it has drawn between the body and the state. Many essential features of the human body are not found in the body politics. The state does not grow, live or die in the same way as a living body. More over, the cells of the organism of a human organism are the mechanical parts, have no independent life of their own, no power thought or will but the birth of the state are conscious parts, moral and intellectuals beings each having a will of its own and possessing the power of though and foresight. Further parts of the human body separated from it cannot live an independent life. Removing from the body and it perished. But the individuals separated from the state do not cease to be a living parts. So in short the organic theory of state is misleading and not maintainable. In the words of Gettel ‘the organic theory is neither satisfactory explain nation of the nature of state, nor a trustworthy guide to state activity.
MECHANISTIC THEORY OF STATE Mechanistic theory of state pointed out that the state is not a natural institution, but an artificial creation of man to fulfil certain needs of man. Its main exponents were Thomas Hobbes, John Locke and Benthan. It is regarded as a modern theory, but the origin of its idea of the state as an artificial device is found in a rudimentary from throughout the history of political thought. However, it was in the 17th century with the advance of the scientific revolution and the machine age, that a mechanistic theory of the state was systematically formulated. The mechanistic theory viewed the state as a social institution and clearly distinguishes between the state and society it treats the state not as the whole of society, but only as a special organisation of the society. Society is a natural growth, but at some stage of that growth a new device was found necessary for its continue survival and for the advancement of civilization. The state was created for the fulfilment of the purpose. Since the stat is man’s own creation the state exists for its maker; It is not an end in itself but a means to an end. Thus, the mechanistic theory of state gave rise to their doctrine of ‘individualism’ which accorded prominence to the individual and reduced the state to a servant of the individual. This doctrine sought to curtail the regulatory power of the state over social and economic processes. It also holds that there are varying or conflicting interests within the society, and the state does uses its supreme regulatory power to harmonised these interest. In short the mechanistic theory compares the state to a building and the creator of state to as architect. The structure of the state is built through a contract or contravention; makers of the state can remodel or demolish the old structure of state and built and new one if they want. The state is also put on a level with machine which is operated by the mechanic.
MARXIAN THEORY/MARXIST THEORY OF STATE:
According to Marx the state is not something introduced in the society from outside. But is a product of societies internal development. The state was brought into being by changes in material production. He stated that the state has not always existed, Primitive society which had no state either.
The further development of productive forces, led to the disintegration of primitive society. Private property appeared, accompanied by classed (slave and slave owners) It become necessary to protect private property, the rule and the security of its owners, and these bought the state into being. The birth of the state and its further development were accompanied by class struggle. The main features of state according to Marxian theory is the existence of public authority representing the interest of the class which dominates economically and not the entire population.
According to Engels ‘ the state is an organisation of the possessing class for its protection against the non-possessing class’.
In the ‘communist manifesto’. It is pointed out that the political power of one class for oppressing another.
This is because unless the capitalist used the force of the state. They cannot retain their superior status. So, the state coercive agencies and authorities come handy for them. It is further stated that government is an obstructive rather than creative force in social evolution. Basically according to Marx state is a bad institution and would never act for the good of the society. Its machinery is used to retain economic and political hegemony of one class over the other. Because of the control of the state, the ruling class used the might of the state to keep the workers in perpetual subjection, servitude, and state of survility. Further the ruling class were able to make its will into law and enforce it overall.
Marx was thus against the state and sought its complete abolition but he did not seek its abolition immediately after the successful proletarian revolution.
He would retain state for a temporary period to facilitate smooth transition from capitalism to stateless and classless society i.e. communism.
UNIT II STATE
STATE: The word ‘state’ in a literal sense is used in different ways. It refers to a ‘condition’ or to a ‘description’ of things. It also refers to anything that is ‘official’ in contrast to a thing that is under private ownership and control. It becomes a synonym of the ‘government’. After the disintegration of the Great Roman Empire towards the end of the 5th century, the teutonic-tribes established their principalities and they used the word ‘status’ from which the English word ‘state’ is derived. (Jenks) In political theory the word ‘state’ has a technical expression implying human associations having for elements- Population, territory, government and sovereignty. The term ‘state’ is very old but its last element ‘sovereignty’ is a contribution of the modern age. It has been defined by a number of political thinkers who tried their best to let us know what they meant by the term ‘state’. A few popular definitions are-
(1) Aristotle defined the state as ‘ a union of families and villages having for its end a perfect and self-sufficing life which we mean a happy and honourable life.
(2) Ciecero defined the state as ‘a numerous society united by a common sense of right and a mutual participation in advantages’.
(3) Burges defined the state as ‘ particular portion of mankind viewed as an organised unit’.
(4) According to Bluntschli, ‘ the state is politically organised people of a definite territory’.
(5) According to Woodrow Wilson ‘the state is people organised for the law within a definite territory’.
(6) Professor Laski defined state as ‘a territorial society divided into government and subjects claiming within its allotted physical area, a supremacy over all other institutions’.
(7) G.D.H. Cole says that the state “ is whole community of its members regarded as organised social unit”.
ELEMENTS OF STATE:
(i) POPULATION : There can be no state without population. No state can exist in an unpopulated territory. The state is a human institution and exist for the human being. Rousseau viewed the inhabitants of the state as the ‘active citizen’ who participated in the formulation of ‘general will’ and as the ‘subjects’ who did not so participate but were bound by general will. It is so difficult to say how many people are necessary to constitute a state. Plato fixed the no. of people in a state at 5,040 citizens, whereas Rousseau fixed it at 10,000. Aristotle, though did not lay down a definite no. yet felt that the no. should not be either too large or too small. He laid down principle that the population will be large enough to be well-govern. Obviously the population should neither too thick nor too small. Very thick population may entail economic problems and small population may result in constant dependant on other.
(ii) TERRITORY: State must have a definite territory of its own where its people live. It is necessary that the people had their permanent residence. The size of the territory must also be definite, its boundary lines should be fixed. Aristotle viewed and suggested that the area of the state should neither be so small that the people face the problem of space, nor it should be so big as its boundary line may be effectively defended. The proper size of the territory of the state should e such that people may lead a self-sufficing life. It may also be added that the term ‘land’ and ‘territory’ includes all on or above the surface like rivers, forests, mountains, as well as below the surface like minerals including a belt of the sea or ocean. If the state have an outlet to that side.
(iii) GOVERNMENT: State is an abstract entity. To execute the will of the state a machinery called government is necessary. Government is the organisation of the state, the organ of unity, the organ whereby the common purpose which underlie that unity are translated into practical reality, government is the agency of the state. The government determines the common policies and regulates the common affairs. Government is the agency to look after the administration of the state of the state on behalf of the citizens of the country. The institution of the government is indispensable to the existence of the state.
(iv) SOVEREIGNTY: This is the most important characteristic of the state. It is considered its hallmark. It represents the supreme power of the state. This power may belong to a person or a body of persons. Sovereignty of the state has two aspects- internal and external. Internally it means complete legal authority over all things and individuals within its territorial limits. Externally it means legal independence of the state from outside control. Thus, sovereignty means internal supremacy and external independence.
PURPOSE AND LIMITATIONS OF STATE:
PURPOSE : All schools of political thought with the exception of anarchists, recognised the need of state for human development and progress. The primary purpose of the state is to establish and maintain peace, order and security. There are various schools of philosophy which holds different views regarding the purpose of the state. To the Greeks the purpose of the state was self-sufficiency and well –being of the community.
The social contract theorists like Thomas Hobbes, John Locke thought that the purpose of the state was to maintain life and property. Rousseau thought that the end of the state was to make good life possible for an individual happiness. Many writers think justice as the end of the state. So, the precise purpose of the state is a matter of great controversy among the political philosophers. There are two main schools of philosophers:-
(a) STATE ID AN END AND INDIVIDUAL IS THE MEANS TO AN END: The idealist philosophers glorified the state and declared the state is an end in itself and individual is only a means to an end. The state should be omnipotent and omni-competent. It should perform and control all the activities of the individuals such as social, economic, spiritual or political. In the words of T.H. Green “state is indispensible to the fullest growth of personality of man. Idealist feel the state is everything and individual is just born to obey the state and thereby satisfied the needs of his existence. Whatever state does , it does for the good of the individual has no rights against the state. He is supposed to perform duties towards the state and therein lies his real liberty.
(b) THE INDIVIDUALIST IS AN END AND THE STATE IS THE MEANS TO AN END: The theory of individualism advocated by J.S. Mill, Herbert Spencer and Adam Smith emphasis the fact that state is only means to an end and the end id the individual’s happiness and his welfare. The individualist philosophers give maximum important to the individual and they considered the state to be sub-ordinated to the interest of the people. The doctrine revolves around two points. First is the curtailment of the function of the state to barest minimum and second is the maximum liberty to the individuals. The individualist considered the state to be a necessary evil. It is an evil because it encourages to regulate human relations and safeguard individual liberty, they want the state to perform only two functions.

LIMITATIONS ON THE SPHERE OF STATE ACTIVITY Despite the fact that the area of state activity has expanded, it does not imply that political authority can encompass the whole range of human life. So there are certain points where state activity should stop. In this direction , we may look into the following important directions:-
(1) OPINION: If the purpose of the state is to develop the personality of its citizens, it is require that there should be no unwarranted interference of state in the sphere of man’s personal freedom. Eminent figures like Milton, Mill and Laski have laid much stress on the freedom of thought and expression. It naturally implies the freedom of opinion. People should have freedom to express themselves whether in support of or against the matter in question.
(2) MORALITY: Morality consist of those rules and principles or norms which are concerned with good and bad according to our conscience. It is a ‘belief-determined code’ which springs from the individual’s sense of right and wrong. Morality, is therefore, an individual affair, state cannot impose anything on the people that violates the canon of morality.
(3) RELIGION: State intervention is unjustify in matters of faith. We are living in an age of secularism. It means that religion and politics should be kept apart, one should not interfere in the domain of another. There should be no discrimination on the basis of religion. Machiavelli warned rulers not to play with the religious feelings and sentiments of the people. So the state should not interfere in the religious affairs of its citizens.
(4) CULTURE: It is the expression of the total life of the people. It manifests itself indiverse sphere like art, music, painting, literature, religion , fashion, manners, modes of life and ideas of the people. What we have said above applies here too that while the state may help the growth of culture, it cannot impose a new culture on its members. People should have full freedom in its sphere.
(5) CUSTOMS: Allied with this is the case of custom. People observe their well established practices. This faith in tradition is so deep that they resent any encroachment of the state in this sphere unless a custom has outlived its usefulness, state action is not warranted doing away with it.
SOVEREIGNTY
The term ‘sovereignty’ has been derived from the Latin word ‘supernus’ which means supreme of paramount power. There are two aspects of sovereignty –internal and external sovereignty. Internal sovereignty means some persons , assembly of groups of persons in every independent state had the final legal authority to command and enforced obedience this sovereignty exercises its absolute authority over all individuals or associations of the individual within the state. And, by external sovereignty it means that the state is subject to know other authority and is independent of any compulsion on the part of other states. Every independent state is at liberty to determine its foreign policy and to join any bloc of power it likes. Any other state does not deserve any right to interfere with the external matter of an independent states. In short, external sovereignty means national freedom.
DEFENITIONS OF SOVEREIGNTY:
(1) “sovereignty is the sovereign political power vested in him whose acts are not subject to any other and whose cannot be over-ridden” – by Grotius
(2) “sovereignty is the supreme power of the state over citizens and subjects unrestrained by law”. By Bodin.
(3) “sovereignty is that power which is neither temporary nor deligated nor subject to particular rules which cannot alter not answerable to any other power over earth”. By Pollock.
(4) “sovereignty is the supreme will of the state”. By Willoughey.

CHARACTERISTICS OF SOVEREIGNTY:
(1) Sovereignty is permanent and it continues uninterrupted as long as the state exists. Changes in government, the death of the king or the over throw of the government does not lead to the destruction of sovereignty. Bearers of the authority may change, but the state endures and so does sovereignty.
(2) EXCLUSIVENESS: The sovereign power is exclusive and none to complete with it. There can be only one sovereign power in a state which can legally command the obedience of its inhabitants.
(3) ALL COMPREHENSIVENESS: The state is all comprehensive and the sovereign power is universally applicable. Every individual and every association of individual is subject to the sovereignty of the state. No association of group of individual however, rich or powerful it may be , cannot resist or disobey the sovereign authority.
(4) INALIEN ABILITY: Sovereignty is inalienable. By inalienable we meant the state cannot part with its sovereignty. Sovereignty is the life and soul of the state and it cannot be alienated without destroying the state itself.
(5) INDIVISIBLITY: Indivisibility is the life-blood of sovereignty. Sovereignty cannot be divided. Getgel has also very xxx remarked in this regard. “if sovereignty is not absolute, no state exist. If sovereignty is divided , more than one state extst.”
(6) ABSOLUTENESS: The sovereignty of the state is absolute and unlimited. It is subject to no legal limitations, either internally or externally. Without sovereignty there can be no state and it is the supreme characteristic of statehood. Sovereignty, therefore implies absence of any restrain on its authority, either from within or without. To hold otherwise is to create some higher powers by which the sovereign authority is limited. Absoluteness of sovereignty also implies its universality, permanence and indivisibility.
UNIT –III DEMOCRACY
DEMOCRACY: The term democracy is derived from the Greek word ‘demos’ and ‘kratos’, the former meaning ‘the people’ and the latter ‘power’. Democracy thus means ‘power of the people’.
DEFINITION:
(1) Greek ‘democracy is the government in which people rule over themselves’.
(2) Herodotus says, ‘the democracy denotes that form of government in which the ruling power of the state is largely vested in the members of the community as a whole’.
(3) Abraham Lincoln, “it is a government in which ruling power of state is legally vested, not in any particular class or classes, but in the member of the community as whole”.
(4) Bryce, “it is that form of government in which the ruling power of state is legally vested, not in any particular class or classes, but in the member of the community as whole”.
(5) Gettel, “democracy is that form of government in which the mass of population possesses the right to share in the exercise of sovereign power”. In brief we can say that democracy is that form of government in which the sovereign power of the state is in the hand of the people are the source of state power and the people take part in the government directly or through their representative. It is evident that the people cannot themselves run the administration, and it is not possible to have unanimity of views on all political matter. Thus, generally speaking democracy in the government of the majority safeguard the interest of the people. In this form of government the interest of minorities are not ignore.
KINDS OF DEMOCRACY
(1) DIRECT DEMOCRACY: When the people themselves directly express their wills on public affairs, the type of government is called pure or direct democracy. The people formulate laws and make policies in a mass meeting without any representatives, Hearn Shaw has said “ a democratic form of government, in the strict sense of the term, is the one in which the community as a whole, directly or immediately without agents or representatives, performs the functions of sovereignty”. Direct democracy was established in ancient Greek city-states. In India, direct democracy was seen in Vajji Sangha during the Buddhist period. Today when large and complex societies have emerged and when area of the state is very extensive, direct democracy is impracticable. This system now prevails only 4 Cantons of Switzerland. They are Appenzell, uri, unter Walden and Glarus. Direct democracy now assumes in the form of Referendum, initiative, plebiscite and Recall.
(2) INDIRECT OR REPRESENTATIVE DEMOCRACY: In a representative or indirect democracy the will of the state is formulated and express not directly. By the people themselves, but by their representatives to whom they dedicate the power of deliberation and decision making. This is largely due to that modern state are large in size and huge in population. Hence such state opting for democracy are to be govern by the representatives elected by the people. Such a type of democracy is based upon the principle that those sovereignty belongs to the people it is their representatives who exercise it. According to J.S. Mill “indirect or representative democracy is one in which the whole people or some numerous portion of them exercise the governing power through deputies eradically elected by themselves”. Another writer Bluntschli has said “in the representative democracy the rule is that the people govern through its officials; while it legislate, and control the administration through its representatives”. This type of government was established in England in the 17th century. In France it was established in 1830 and in Italy in 1948. In Germany it was established after the First world War. According to the Waymer constitution. Again this system was established in west Germany after the second world war. Today, this system is seen in many countries like India, USA, Canada, Australia etc.