Present Foragers

There are three reasons why we must be cautious about drawing inferences about past forages from observations of present forages. First, early foragers lived in many types of environments. Thus, what is observe among recent and contemporary food collectors, who generally live in deserts, the arctic and tropical forest may not be comparable to what we would have observed in more favorable environments in the past. Second, contemporary foragers are not relics of the past. This is because societies have evolved and continue to evolve. Foragers respond to differences in local environmental changes. Thirdly, recent and contemporary foragers have interacted with societies that didn't exist until after 10,000 years ago. Three types of reciprocity are generalized, balanced and the Kula Ring. Generalized reciprocity is when goods or services are given
to another without any apparent expectations of a return gift.
This type of reciprocity sustains the family in all societies. Parents give freely to their children, but they actually calculate how their children will reciprocate later. The social implications are reduced tensions, less envy and anger, and peaceful social relations. In exchange for gifts, a person can gain "social credit" for a potential return in the future. A parent that gives to their children may have their children take care of them later. Balanced reciprocity is explicit and short term in its expectations of return. This type of reciprocity involves an immediate exchange of goods or services or an agreed upon exchange of a limited amount of time. The exchange itself may be fun, adventuresome, or aesthetically pleasing or it may enhance social relations. Because each party has something the other wants it can enhance the relationship and cooperation between trading partners. The third is type is the Kula Ring. This type of reciprocity is practiced by the horticulture Trobriand Islanders who
live off the eastern coast of New Guinea. This type of reciprocity involves trading ornaments, food and other necessities with people of neighboring islands. The possession red or white ornaments allow a man to organize an expedition to the home of one of his trading partners on another island. The high point of the expedition is giving the valued kula ornaments. While there, a visitor can accomplish a years worth of trading without seeming to do so. Socially, the trading of goods is done with ease and enjoyment. It also keeps the traditions of the island alive like: myth, romance, ritual and history. This type of trading will probably held social relations be better because each person gives what they have to the people that need it.
Reciprocity is used as a leveling device because it can equalize the distribution of goods within a community. It can also equalize the distribution of goods between communities. By giving away surplus goods "social credits" can be built up and the favor can be returned at a later date. This helps to balance the distribution of goods in a community and between communities.

Ember R. Carol and Melvin Ember, Cutural Anthropology 12th edition.