Psychology and Education

Course Code Course Title

EDU 111 Foundations of Education Dr. F. Umar (Developer/Writer) – BUK Dr. M.E. Aina (Programme Leader) – NOUN

Course Team

NATIONAL OPEN UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA
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National Open University of Nigeria Headquarters 14/16 Ahmadu Bello Way Victoria Island Lagos Abuja Office No. 5 Dar es Salaam Street Off Aminu Kano Crescent Wuse II, Abuja Nigeria e-mail: [e-mail] URL: www.nou.edu.ng

Published By: National Open University of Nigeria First Printed 2004 ISBN: 978-058-312-2 All Rights Reserved. Printed by:

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Introduction There is a popular saying that teachers are born not made. Nothing could be further from the truth. Teachers are born and made. Teaching is becoming more scientific and teachers require extensive background in foundation courses in education. The disciplines that make-up the foundations of education course include Psychology of Education, Philosophy of Education and Sociology of Education. Psychology of Education or Educational Psychology aims at equipping the teacher with insights regarding student behaviour and learning. Philosophy of Education teaches the student the purposes of education as derived from the philosophy of a society, like the opinions of the people, which will determine the kind of Education to be given. Sociology of Education forms part of the Foundations of Education because it brings out the needs, values and aspirations of people upon which education is based. Therefore the three aspects (philosophy, psychology and sociology) are very necessary in the study of education, especially in the training of teachers. This course will expose you to concepts and principles of philosophy like the branches of philosophy, its meaning and scope, its relevance to education and its modes. In the field of psychology, the course discusses the meaning and scope of psychology, branches of psychology; learning theories, transfer of learning and motivation in learning. All of these are meant to prepare you for the important tasks of teaching. The course will consist of 16 units of teaching. They include a course guide, which explains to you what the course is all about, what sort of materials you will use as you work your way through the course. The course guide gives you advice on the amount of time you may spend on each unit of the course so that you can complete the course successfully and in good time. It also provides some guidance on tutor-marked assignments, which will be made available in the assignment file. There are regular tutorial classes that are linked to the course. You are advised to attend the sessions. What you will learn in this course The general aim of the course, Foundations of Education is to introduce you to the foundation fields of education, the aspects that make up the discipline of education. During this course, you will be learning the definitions and scope of philosophy, psychology and sociology, the relevance of philosophy and psychology to education, learning theories, transfer of learning, motivation in learning, historical and sociological perspectives of education, innovations in education, types of education in Nigeria and equality of educational opportunities.
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Later in the course, you will be learning the roles of agencies that are involved in education. Such agencies include the National Primary Education Commission, National Commission for Adult and Nonformal Education, the National University Commission, Stratification, Social Mobility and other factors that influence education. Course Aims The aims of the course can be summarised as follows: The course aims at making you understand the foundation units of education, that is, all those units that together make up the field of education. It is hoped that this will be achieved by introducing you to: i) The general concept of philosophy ii) The relevance of philosophy to education iii) Relevant Philosophical Issues in Education iv) The concept of psychology in general v) Educational psychology vi) Learning theories vii) Transfer of learning viii) Motivation and its relevance to learning ix) The growth of education in Nigeria x) Agencies Involved with education xi) All the information that will help you understand the enormous field of education as teachers in the making. Course Objectives To achieve the set aims (as the course sets overall course objectives) each unit also has specific objectives, which are always stated at the beginning of the unit. Please read them before you start working through the course. It will be helpful to you if you refer to them in the course of your study of the unit, so that you can check your progress. After completing the units, also read over the objectives of the unit. That way, you will be sure of doing what is expected of you by the unit. After you have completed the study of this course you should be able to: i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) vii) Define the concepts of philosophy, psychology and sociology Outline and explain learning theories Explain transfer of learning , Explain motivation in relation to learning Discuss philosophical issues like equality of educational opportunities Explain the growth of education in Nigeria Discuss types of education in Nigeria
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viii) ix) x) xi) xii)

Discuss the trends of education in Nigeria Explain the role and functions of Educational Agencies that are involved with education Explain the factors that influence education Discuss education and the society land Discuss education, social mobility and social stratification

Working through this Course To complete this course, you are required to read the study unit, read set books and other materials provided by the National Open University. Each unit contains self-assessment exercises and at a point in the course, you are required to submit assignments for assessment purpose. At the end of the course, there is a final examination. The course should take you about (16) sixteen weeks to complete. Below you will find listed all the components of the course, what you have to do, and how you should allocate your time to each unit in order that you may complete the course successfully and on time. Course Materials Major Components of the course are: 1) Course Guide 2) Study Units 3) References Study Units The study units in this course are as follows: Module 1 Unit 1: Philosophy of Education: Meaning and Relevance Unit 2: Equality of Educational Opportunity Unit 3: Psychology of Education Unit 4: Introduction of Learning Theories Unit 5: Readiness to Learning Unit 6: Motivation and its relation to Learning Unit 7: Transfer of Learning Module2 Unit 1: Concept and Nature of Education Unit 2: Types of Education Unit 3: The Growth of Education in Nigeria Unit 4: Educational Trends in Nigeria Unit 5: Innovations in Education
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Unit 6: The Status of Teachers in Nigeria Unit 7: Education and the Society Unit 8: Social Class and Educational Opportunity Unit 9: Factors that Influence Education The first five units discuss psychological issues in education. The meaning of psychology in general and educational psychology in particular, learning theories, transfer of learning and motivation. These are teaching and learning concepts that are necessary in the preparation of teachers. Units 5, 6 and 7 deal with philosophy issues as it relates directly to education. Units 8-16 discuss the sociological perspective of the course. These include types of education, growth, innovations in education, role of educational agencies, social class and social mobility as well as those factors that influence education in the society. Assignment File There are nine (9) assignments in this course and they cover:i) The Concept and Nature of Psychology ii) Learning Theories iii) Readiness to Learning iv) Motivation in Learning v) Meaning and Relevance of Philosophy vi) Equality of Education Opportunities vii) Types of Education viii) Innovations in Education ix) Factors that influence Education . Presentation Schedule The presentation schedule included in your course materials gives the important dates for this year for the completion of tutor-marked assignments and attending tutorials. Remember you are required to submit all your assignments by the due date. You should guide against falling behind in your work. Assessment There are three aspects of the assessments. First are self-assessment exercises, second is the tutor-marked assignments and third is a written examination. You are advised to be sincere in attending to the exercises. You are expected to apply information, knowledge and skills that. You have acquired during the course. The assignments must be submitted to your

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tutor for formal assessment in accordance with the deadline stated in your schedule of presentation. The work you submit to your tutor for assessment will count for 50% of your total course mark. At the end of the course, you will need to sit for a final examination, which will also count for 50% of your total marks. Tutor Marked Assignment (TMAs) There are five tutor-marked assignments in this course. Each assignment counts for 1 0% towards your total course mark. Assignment questions for this course are contained in the assignment file. You will be able to complete your assignments from the information and materials contained in your reference books, reading and study unit. However, you are advised to read and research widely using other references which will give you a broader viewpoint and may provide a deeper understanding of the subject. When you have completed each assignment, send it together with a TMA (tutor-marked assignment) form to your tutor. Make sure that each assignment reaches your tutor on or before the deadline given on the presentation schedule and assignment file. If for any reasons, you cannot complete your work on time, contact your tutor before the assignment is due to discuss the possibility of an extension. Extensions will not be granted after the due date unless in -exceptional circumstances. The final examination for this course will be of three hours duration and have a value of 50% of the total course grade. The examination will consist of questions which reflect the type of self-testing, practice exercise and tutor marked problems you have previously encountered. All the areas of the course will be assessed. Use the time between finishing the last unit and sitting the examination to revise the entire course. You might find it useful to review your selfassessment exercises, tutor-marked assignments and comments on them before the examination. The final examination covers all parts of the course. Course Marking Scheme The following table lays out how the actual course marking is broken down.

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Assessment Assignments 1 -5

Marks Five assignments, 10% each = 50% of the course marks 50% of the overall course marks Total 100% of Course Marks Table 1: Course Marking Scheme This table brings together the units, the number of weeks you should take to complete them, and the assignments that follow.
Unit 1. Table of Work Course Guide Nature The Concept and Nature of Psychology Motivation Meaning and Relevance of Philosophy Equality of Educational Opportunities Types of Education Innovations in Education Factors that influence Education Revision Weeks Activity Assessment End of Unit Assignment 3 1 1 2 1 1 1

4. 5. 6. 8.

3 1 1 2 1 1 1

TOTAL Table 2: Course Organiser How to get the most from this course

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In distance learning, the study units replace the course lecturer. This is one of the great advantages of distance learning. You can read and work through specially designed study materials at your own pace at a time and place that suit you best. Think of it as reading the lecture instead of listening to a lecturer. Just as a lecturer might give you an in-class exercise, your study units provide exercises for you to do at appropriate points. Each of the study unit follows a common format. The first item is introduction of the subject matter of the unit. Next is a set of learning objectives. These objectives let you know what you should be able to do by the time you have completed the unit. You should use these objectives to guide your study. When you finish studying the unit you must go back and check to see if you have achieved the objectives. If you make a habit of doing this, you will significantly increase your chances of passing the course. The main body of the unit guides you through the unit content material. Self-assessment exercises are spread throughout the units and answers are given at the ends of units. Working through these assessment will
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help you to achieve the objectives of the unit and prepare you for the assignments and the examinations. You should do each self-assessment as you come to it in the unit. The following is a strategy for working through the course. i) Read this course guide thoroughly. ii) Organise a study schedule. Refer to the course overview for more details. iii) Note the time you spend on each unit and how the assignments relate to each unit. Important information like details of your tutorials, and the date of the first day of the semester is available from your study centres. You need to gather together all this in one place, such as your diary or a wall calendar. Once you have created your own work schedule, do everything you can to stick to it. The major reason that students fail is that they get behind in their course work. If you get into any difficulties with your schedule, please let your tutor know before it is too late to help. iv) Turn to each unit and read the objectives for the unit. v) Assemble the study materials. Information about what you need for a unit is in the "overview" at the beginning of each unit. vi) Work through the unit. vii) Do your assignments carefully. They have been designed to help you meet the objectives of the course and therefore will help you pass the examination. Submit all assignments not later than the due date. viii) Review the objectives for each unit to confirm that you have achieved them. If you feel unsure about any of the objectives, review the study material or consult your tutor. ix) When you are confident that you have achieved a unit's objectives, you can now start on the next unit. Proceed unit by unit through the course and try to pace your study so that you keep yourself on schedule. x) When you have submitted an assignment to your tutor for marking, do not wait for its return before starting on the next unit. Keep to your schedule when the assignment is returned and, pay particular attention to your tutor's comments both on the tutormarked assignment form and also those written on the assignment. If you have any question or problem, consult your tutor as soon as possible. xi) After completing the last unit, review the course and prepare yourself for the final examination. Check that you have achieved the unit objectives (listed at the beginning of each unit) and the course objectives (listed in this Course Guide).

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Tutor and Tutorials There are 20 hours of tutorials (ten 2-hour sessions) provided in support of this course. You will be notified of the dates, times and location of these tutorials, together with the name and phone number of your tutor, as soon as you are allocated a tutorial group. Your tutor will mark and comment on your assignments, keep a close watch on your progress and on any difficulties you might encounter and provide assistance to you during the course. You must mail your tutormarked assignments to your tutor well before the due date (at least two working days are required). They will be marked by your tutor and returned to you as soon as possible. Do not hesitate to contact your tutor by telephone, e-mail, or discussion board if you need help. The following might be circumstances in which you would find help necessary. Contact your tutor if:    You do not understand any part of the study units or the assigned readings. You have difficulty with the self-tests or exercises. You have a question or problem with an assignment, with your tutor's comments on an assignment or with the grading of an assignment.

You should try your best to attend the tutorial. This is the only chance to have a face-to-face contact with your tutor and to ask questions which are answered instantly. You can raise any problem encountered in the course of your study. To gain the maximum benefit from course tutorials, prepare a question list before attending them. You will learn a lot from participating in discussions actively. We wish you success with the course and hope that you will find it both interesting and useful. In the long term, we hope you enjoy your acquaintance with the Open University. We wish you every success in your future.

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Contents Introduction Module 1 Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Unit 6 Unit 7 Module 2 Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Unit 6 Unit 7 Unit 8 Unit 9 Index Philosophical and Psychological Perspective

Page

Philosophy of Education: Meaning and Relevance Equality of Educational Opportunity Psychology of Education Introduction of Learning Theories Readiness to Learning Motivation and its relation to Learning Transfer of Learning Historical and Sociological Perspective Concept and Nature of Education Types of Education The Growth of Education in Nigeria Educational Trends in Nigeria Innovations in Education The Status of Teachers in Nigeria Education and the Society Social Class and Educational Opportunity Factors that Influence Education

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MODULE 1
Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Unit 6 Unit 7

PHILOSOPHICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVE

Philosophy of Education: Meaning and Relevance Equality of Educational Opportunity Psychology of Education Introduction of Learning Theories Readiness to Learning Motivation and its relation to Learning Transfer of Learning

UNIT 1
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0

PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION: MEANING AND RELEVANCE

4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0

Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 Meaning of Philosophy 3.2 Modes of Philosophy 3.2.1 Speculative Philosophy 3.2.2 Prescriptive Philosophy 3.2.3 Analytic Philosophy 3.3 The Relevance of Philosophy of Education 3.4 Philosophy as a Rational Activity Conclusion Summary Self-Assessment Exercise Tutor-Marked Assignment References/Further Reading

1.0

INTRODUCTION

Every person has a philosophy even though he does not realise this. This is more so when we conceive philosophy in a general sense as a person's "sum of his fundamental beliefs and convictions." Moreover, teachers and students implicitly ask philosophical questions such as, "Why am I teaching? What is teaching at its best? And student asks, "Why am I studying this subject? What am I going to school for anyway?" On the other side of the coin, people have some ideas concerning physical objects, man, the meaning of life, nature, death, God, right and wrong. Of course, these ideas are acquired in varied ways -through family friends, individuals and groups or they might be as a result of some
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thinking, conventions or emotional bias. This represents just a popular man-on-the-street view of philosophy that is vague and blurred. In this unit, we shall think of philosophy as an activity in three modes: The speculative, the prescriptive and analytic modes of philosophy. A description of philosophy of education and its relevance is included herein.

2.0

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to: i) Define philosophy ii) Explain the speculative, prescriptive and analytic modes of philosophy iii) Define philosophy of education iv) Outline the scope of philosophy of education.

3.0 3.1

MAIN CONTENT Meaning of Philosophy

The word philosophy is derived from the Greek words philia (Loving) and sophia (Wisdom) and means" the love of wisdom". This is the most popular Grecian conception of philosophy, but there are conglomerate definitions of philosophy that seem more supplementary rather than contradictory. Philosophy is a personal attitude to life and the universe. When a person goes through some unusual experience, we often inquire, "How does he take it?" Or we often declare, "He takes it philosophically". The mature philosophical attitude is the searching and critical attitude, it is the openminded, tolerant attitude expressed in the willingness to look at all sides of an issue. It does not shrink from facing the difficult and unresolved problems of life. Philosophy is a method of reflective thinking and reasoned inquiry. It involves the attempt to think through one's problems and to face all the facts involved. Philosophy is an attempt to gain a view of the whole world. It seeks to combine the conclusions of the various sciences and long human experience into some kind of consistent worldview. Philosophy is the logical analysis of language and the clarification of the meaning of words and concepts.
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3.2

Modes of Philosophy

3.2.1 Speculative Philosophy
Speculative philosophy is a way of thinking systematically about everything that exists. The human mind wishes to see things as a whole. It wishes to understand how all the different things that have been discovered together form some sort of meaningful totality. Speculative philosophy is a search for order and wholeness, applied not to particular items or experiences but to all knowledge and all experience.

3.2.2 Prescriptive Philosophy
Prescriptive philosophy seeks to establish standards for assessing values, judging conduct and appraising art. It examines what we mean by good and bad, right and wrong, beautiful and ugly. The prescriptive philosopher seeks to discover and to recommend principles for deciding what actions and qualities are most worth- while and why they should be so.

3.2.3 Analytic Philosophy
Analytic philosophy focuses on words and meanings. The analytic philosopher examines such notions as 'course', 'mind', 'academic freedom', 'equality of opportunity' etc., in order to assess the different meanings they carry in different contexts. Analytic philosophy tends to be skeptical, continuous and disinclined to build systems of thought. Philosophy of Education is the application of the knowledge of philosophy to the solution of educational problems, concepts and theories. It examines, for example, concepts as equality, teaching, autonomy, freedom, morality etc., and considers their relevance to educational practice. It examines the role of aims in education as well as schools of philosophy and how they view education. Educational philosophy seeks to comprehend education in its entirety, interpreting it by means of general concepts that will guide our choice of educational ends and policies. Educational philosophy is speculative when it seeks to establish theories of the nature of man, society and the world. Its speculative aspect on the one hand, deals with the search for values, knowledge and realities while the prescriptive aspect on the other hand is the effort towards getting the desired goals and recommending same to solve the current problems of education. Educational philosophy is analytic when it clarifies both speculative and prescriptive statements.
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Activity I 1. Philosophy of education is not a worthwhile activity therefore, it should be deleted from the school curriculum. Do you agree? Justify your position. Explain briefly the difference between speculative philosophy and prescriptive philosophy.

2.

3.3

The Relevance of Philosophy of Education

As teachers, you might face numerous posers from your students. They may declare, 'Sir, this course is too argumentative, it is nothing short of mudslinging among scholars'. Of course, it may sound tautological, monotonous etc., to many among learners but its relevance cannot be over emphasised.      It encourages critical examination of issues and justification for actions. It equips teachers with the ideas required for educational reforms and considers those changes to be based on the analysis of current practices in education in line with the values of the society. Educational philosophy tends to provide an insight of what education is and the role education should perform at the various stages of growth and for what category of learners. It gives more weight to the validity or soundness of arguments than to the authority of the person arguing a case, thereby disregarding prejudice and personal interests. It has an humbling effect, in other words, it compels one to keep an open mind on evidence/findings that may render ones previous opinion less valuable.

Activity II 1. Your students have a misconceptual belief about the course Philosophy of Education. Explain briefly to them the relevance of the course to teachers. Discuss fully on the focus or validity/soundness of arguments rather than the authority of the person arguing a case.

2.

3.4

Philosophy as a Rational Activity

Reasoning involves many things. It involves the use of deductive and inductive methods, clarity in the use of language, and regard to evidence. Deductive or inductive reasoning involves arranging certain kinds of statements in such a way that we can infer conclusions from
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them. Deductive reasoning leads to a necessarily true conclusion whereas inductive reasoning leads to a causally true conclusion. Philosophy is a rational activity not in the sense that it gives us information about the world but in the sense that it enables us to scrutinise our beliefs and see whether or not they are rationally tenable. Philosophy makes us rational human beings.

4.0

CONCLUSION

Philosophy is a method of reflective thinking and re-saved inquiry. Generally three modes of philosophy are discussed with more explanation on speculative and prescriptive modes. The analytic approach is a combination of the former modes. 5.0 SUMMARY

A note to keep in mind with regard to the analytic qualities of educational philosophy: When it seeks to establish theories of the nature of man, society and the world, and in the same vein it seeks to achieve the desired goals, it assumes an analytical mode. Reader should make up the third mode (Analytic). 6.0 1. 2. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE From the conglomerate definitions of philosophy you read in this unit, project your own definition of terms. Take a rough sheet of paper and jot down what you understand by speculative, prescriptive and analytic modes of philosophy. TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT Explain in details the analytic nature of Educational Philosophy. "The study of Educational philosophy is just tilting at windmills" Do you agree? Justify your claim. REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

7.0 1. 2.

8.0

Akinpelu, J.A. An Introduction to Philosophy of Education. London: Macmillan,1984. Dewey, J. Democracy and Education. London: Collier, Macmillan, 1966.

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UNIT 2
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0

EQUALITY OF EDUCATIONAL OPPORTUNITY

Introduction Objectives Content Conclusion Summary Self-assessment Exercise Tutor-marked Assignment References

1.0

INTRODUCTION

The phrase "equality of educational opportunity" is problematic to deal with. It is an evasive phrase that needs lots of analyses and such analyses may be confusing. The problem with the definition of" educational opportunity" is two-fold-practical, how to achieve equal opportunities and conceptual- the concept of the phrase "equal educational opportunities". In this unit, we shall confine ourselves to three possible interpretation of the notion of equality of opportunity in education. Moreover, some possible factors that may impede the realisation of equal opportunity in education would be discussed.

2.0

OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to: i) ii) iii) Explain the phrase "equal opportunity in education". Discuss some possible factors that may impede attainment of equal educational opportunity. Offer recommendations on how to tackle the impeding factors.

It is obvious that people are not born equal neither are they equal in any respect. Thus, if people are not equal in any respect except that they are all human beings, then it becomes difficult to accord them equal right in life. Our mental, moral and emotional capacities are all different. Though, the National Policy on Education emphasises in section I subsection 2 that all Nigeria citizens have equal opportunity for education at all institutional levels, yet, a lot of problems emanate in the interpretation of what it actually means. Let us examine three possible interpretations.
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3.1

Interpretations of the Phrase "Equality of Educational Opportunity"

The first interpretation presupposes that each individual should receive an equal share of educational resources irrespective of potential ability. The second interpretation is to treat all those children of the same measured ability in the same way irrespective of environmental factors. The third interpretation focuses on positive discrimination in favour of educationally underprivileged children, with the sole aim, to remedy the educational lag of disadvantaged children. A learner should note that the three interpretations could easily be debunked. The first interpretation would ensure unequal outcome because individuals vary in their genetic ability. The second interpretation is faced by or is in conflict with social justice theory. Finally, discrimination assumed in the third interpretation is also unfair and unjust. We can summarise these interpretation with Akinpelu's (1984) own words, "What I suspect is that while each proponent of equal education opportunity thinks and believes that he is defending a concept, he is in actual fact defending a conception, that is his own conception". Activity I 1. 2. 3. Debunk the first interpretation of equality of educational opportunity. List the factors that may impede the attainment of equality of opportunity in education. Briefly explain some of the strategies employed by both state and federal governments in order to achieve equality of educational opportunity.

Factors Responsible for Inequality of Educational Opportunity Among the numerous factors responsible for inequality of educational opportunity are: family background, poor or rich, educated or otherwise, underaged children, intellectual ability, poor health and unfavourable environment. Discussions on these factors would be very brief as the learner should also think of other factors including those peculiar to his/her environment. Nigerian educated parents know too well the value attached to education and would also like their children to benefit from it. They can provide both moral and financial support in order to ensure that their children
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attain higher qualifications. They send their children to better or good schools with well-built structures with proper ventilation, qualified teachers, equipped library, etc. At home, some of the children have their own personal libraries, etc. On the other hand, the children of the poor and agrarian family do not enjoy such things. Is it possible for the children of the poor ones to go at the same pace with the children from educated parents? Underage children: Parents unknowingly send their children to school at an early age. This may cause a devastating effect to the child's brain. Once damage is done to the brain, the child may not keep up the pace with other children in later years. Moreover, children in the rural areas are more likely exposed to various domestic works than attending school. When compared with children from cities, the children from rural areas are unlikely to perform well in academics. Environment plays a significant role in terms of a child's educational opportunity. Most schools in rural areas are behind in terms of facilities and qualified teachers. The educational gap between northern and southern Nigeria is a trace of educational inequality. This inequality of educational opportunity started since the inception of western education. Statistical evidence has shown that the north was lagging behind other regions, particularly when pupils population was taken into account. There has been a lot of efforts to bring to people compensatory education. The main aim is to remedy the l., educational gap of disadvantaged children and thereby narrow the achievement gap) Efforts made to Bridge the Gap between Northern and Southern Nigeria Both state and the federal governments have developed strategies on how to achieve equal opportunity in education. Among the strategies are:    Bursaries and scholarships award. Students are enticed by bursaries and scholarship awards in order to cope well in their studies. With the current UBE initiative, many citizens would benefit from the programme thus reducing in- equality of educational opportunity among citizens. Many schools in the rural areas are now acquiring a new look. Some dilapidated structures were reactivated and many UBE blocks were constructed.
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

The average age for primary one is fixed at six years, parents should observe the age limit.

4.0

CONCLUSION

In this unit, you read about the problematic nature of the phrase "equality of educational opportunity". Three varied interpretations of the notion were highlighted. Social factors that are viewed to impede attainment of equal opportunity were discussed.

5.0

SUMMARY

The concluding segment of this unit focuses on the strategies employed by both state and federal governments in their efforts to attain equal opportunity for the citizens of the entity called Nigeria. Think of proffering more strategies.

6.0
1. 2.

SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE
Explain fully the phrase, 'equality of educational opportunity'. Is equal educational opportunity in Nigeria a reality or an illusion?

7.0
1.

TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT
You are a principal of a boarding secondary school faced with 1,000 number of applicants seeking for enrolment while you have in reality space for only half of that number. Would you enroll bearing in mind your intention to achieve equality of opportunity in Education? Despite the strategies you read as employed by both the state and federal governments in their efforts to achieve equal educational opportunity, enumerate your own strategies, which you think could best be employed in order to achieve equality of educational opportunity.

2.

8.0

REFERENCES/FURTHER READING

Akinpelu, J .A. An Introduction. to Philosophy of Education. London: Macmillan, 1984 Dewey, J., Experience and Education. New York: Collier Macmillan, 1963. Dewey, J., Democracy and Education. London: Collier Macmillan, 1966.

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UNIT 3
CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0

PSYCHOLOGY OF EDUCATION

4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 1.0

Introduction Objectives Content 3.1 Meaning of Psychology 3.2 Branches of Psychology 3.3 Educational Psychology and its Scope 3.4 Contribution to Theory of Education 3.5 Contribution to Practice of Education Conclusion Summary Self-assessment Exercise Tutor-Marked Assignment References INTRODUCTION

Psychology has many things to contribute in the development of many professions. Teaching as a profession benefits to a greater extent from benefits/principles deduced from psychological theories. To this end, it is important to understand the concept of psychology, its branches and that aspect of psychology which applies to teaching and learning processes. Therefore, this unit examines the meaning of psychology and contribution of educational psychology to the field of education. 2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to: i.) Define psychology ii.) List the various branches of psychology iii.) Define educational psychology iv.) Outline the scope of educational psychology v.) Discuss the contribution of psychology to the field of education 3.0 MAIN CONTENT

3.1 Meaning of Psychology Psychology as an organised field of study is not very old. As an independent discipline, psychology acquired separate status very recently. Formally, psychology was studied as a sub-branch of
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philosophy. Therefore, its first definition from the Greek words: Psyche (soul) and Logos (Science) was given by the philosophers. This psychology was defined then, as "the science of soul". This definition was derived from the argument put forward by a Greek philosopher -Democritus -who claimed that everything is composed of indivisible unitary materials known as Atoms. Thus, people are constituted of body atoms and soul atoms. Hence, psychology as a subbranch of philosophy was intended to study the soul of the people. As time progressed, some contemporary philosophers questioned the nature of soul -how can soul be objectively defined, therefore, another definition was evolved for psychology with Descarters who claimed that an individual is made up of body and mind, psychology took another meaning: The science of mind. This definition of psychology remained in vogue for a long time. However, the same question resurfaced again -How can mind be objectively defined and studied. Thus, this definition was described by the philosophers. Then psychology was defined as the science of consciousness on the basis that human beings are conscious of their external environment thence. This definition was later on rejected on the ground that consciousness is a negligible portion of an individual's total personality. Furthermore, contemporary philosophers claimed that consciousness cannot be objectively studied by absorbing an individual's activities. A great history was made in 19th and 20th centuries concerning the development of psychology as an independent discipline. With the coming to light of German and American philosopher psychologists, psychology was detached from philosophy and given a new definition and system of approach. Hence, psychology was defined as a "science of behaviour" which can be observed, verified, measured and studied in a systematic manner-in fact, in a scientific way. Psychology thus, can be simply defined as a study of individuals behaviour which consist of overt actions that are as a result of his response to stimuli. Activity I 1. Give the four definitions psychology has undergone over the past years.

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3.2

Branches of Psychology

Psychology is sub-divided in various branches: i) ii) iii) iv) v) vi) vii) viii) ix) x) xi) xii) 3.3 General psychology Human psychology Animal psychology Genetic psychology Developmental psychology Educational psychology Abnormal psychology Social psychology Experimental psychology Physiological psychology Industrial psychology Military psychology Educational Psychology and its Scope

This is a branch of psychology, which deals with the application of psychological theories (findings) into the field of education. The scope of educational psychology includes the followings: 1. 2. 3. Learner: His developmental characteristics, individual differences, intelligence, personality and mental health. Learning process: Theories of learning, motivation of learning, factors affecting learning; diagnosis of learning problems, etc. Evaluation: Evaluation of learning outcomes, and are of statistical methods in conducting research related to practice and theory of education.

Activity II 1) 2) Give the meaning of Educational Psychology. List the three aspects that formed the scope of Educational Psychology:

Psychology and its Relation to Education The contribution of psychology to education can be viewed from two facets 3.4 Contribution to Theory of Education

This include the followings:
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    3.5

Aid teachers in understanding the developmental characteristics of learners so as to effectively impact instruction and mould the behaviour of learners. Aid teachers to understand the nature of the learning process. Assist teachers to provide for individual differences within learners. Aid teachers to know effective methods of teaching. Contribution to Practice of Education

This include the following:  Curriculum planning.  Classroom management.  Using teaching aids/materials.  Time-tabling.  Schools administration. Activity III Mention the areas in which psychology contributes to the: 1) Theory of education a) b) c) d) 2) Practice of Education a) b) c) d) e) 4.0 CONCLUSION

The importance of psychology to the theory and practice of education cannot be over emphasised. Psychology offers to education many principles and conditions that teachers need to study critically and objectively so as to facilitate classroom learning. 5.0 SUMMARY

This unit defines psychology by tracing the developmental changes of its scope right from the time it was a sub-branch of philosophy. * Psychology is at last viewed as a scientific study of human behaviour
24

* The application of psychological principles to the field of education is the concern of educational psychology. The learner, the learning process and evaluation are the subject matter of educational psychology * Psychology contributes to education in two dimensions: contribution to theory of education, and contribution to the practice of education. 6.0 1. 2. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE Define Educational Psychology. What are the contributions of Educational Psychology to the practice of Education? TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

7.0

Explain, using relevant examples the contributions of psychology to education. Model Answer The contributions of psychology to education are summarised below:      Assist teachers in understanding the developmental characteristics of learners. This will help in imparting instruction and mould the behaviour of learners. Assist teachers to understand the nature of learning and how it takes place -all with the view to assist learners to learn. Aid teachers to provide for individual differences that exist between learners during teaching-learning interactions. Aid teachers to know the effective methods of teaching. .Aid teacher to use teaching aids/materials effectively. Other contributions are in the areas of curriculum planning, classroom management and time-tabling. REFERENCES

8.0

Akinboye, J.O. et ai, Psychological Foundations of Education. Ibadan: Heinemann Educational Books. (Nig) Plc., 1984.

25

UNIT 4 CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0

INTRODUCTION TO LEARNING THEORIES

4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 1.0

Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 Definition of Learning 3.2 Types of Learning 3.3 Theories of Learning 3.4 Principles of Learning 3.5 Application Conclusion Summary Self-Assessment Exercise Tutor-Marked Assignment References INTRODUCTION

Learning is a fundamental process, which enables an organism to service. Learning enables the organism to acquire the fundamental skills with which it can adopt and even change its environment. Learning is one of the key concepts in education. Hence, learning has been identified as one of the focal areas of educational psychology. Furthermore, classroom implications of the theories of the learning were considered. 2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to: 1. 2. 3. 4. Define learning in various perspectives. Enumerate various theories. Explain the main tenets/principles of learning. Discuss the implications of the theories of learning within the class situation. MAIN CONTENT Definition of learning

3.0 3.1

Learning has been defined in several ways. A common definition used very often is as follows:

26

Learning is a psychological process that refers to any change of behaviour that is relatively permanent and could be attributed to a result of some particular experience, observation or training. From this definition, three things are noteworthy. They are; 1. 2. 3. Change in behaviour; Relative permanence; Consequence of experience, observation or tracing. All the three must exist before learning can take place. Types of Learning

3.2

Learning is complex and multifaceted in such a way that no single activity can represent it completely. The followings form types of learning: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Classroom learning Social learning Incidental learning . Problem solving learning . Verbal learning Skill learning

ACTIVITY I 1. List the three components of learning that must exist before learning takes place. a) b) c) Give an example of each of the following forms of learning: a) Classroom learning b) Social learning c) Incidental learning d) Problem solving learning e) Verbal learning f) Skill learning Theories of Learning

2.

3.3

A very large number of theories have been propounded by various scholars in the field of psychology to explain the nature and complexity of the learning process, A theory refers to any systematic or coherent set of ideas, principles or laws proposed to further our understanding, control and prediction of natural phenomena.

27

Learning theories can be broadly classified into two categories. 1. S -R Theories (behaviours) Associations/Connectionists Some examples of learning theories include the following: i. ii. iii. iv. v. vi. Pavlov's conditioning theory of learning Thorndike's theory of learning Skinner's theory of learning Watson's theory of learning Guthrie's theory of learning Hall's theory of learning

2. Cognitive field theories Some examples of theories under this category include: a. b. c. Gestalt's theory of learning Field's theory of learning (Kurt Levin) Tolman's sign

All these theories employed experiments with some kinds of animals (dogs, cats, rats, pigeons, monkeys) to observe the nature and processes of learning. Full details of the experimental designs of these theories are not provided herein, however some principles of learning deduced from the experiments are highlighted below: ACTIVITY II 1. Learning theories can be broadly classified into two categories as follows: a) b) Give three examples of learning theories under each of the two categories given above. a) i ii. b) i. ii. Principles of Learning

2.

3.4

Pavlov's theory of learning The following are the learning principles Pavlov gave after his experiments with dogs.

28

i)

ii) iii)

iv.

Reinforcement -repeated presentation of food (reinforcement) made the animal to repeat behaviour (salivation). Discontinued presentation of reinforcer (food) made behaviour to disappear. Extinguish -this is the animal's inability to repeat (forget) learned behaviour due to lack of reinforcement. Stimulus Generalisation -Pavlov observed that his dog which learnt to salivate at the sound of the bell, salivated on learning another similar sound (e.g. buzzer or whistle). Learning process in human beings hold to this principle. Stimulus discrimination -Pavlov observed that his dog salivated in the presence of a small red bell rather than other bells. Thus the ability to discriminate the small red bell from the other bells is pertinent and occurs through discrimination.

Thorndike's principles of learning The following forms the tenets of learning deduced from Thorndike's experimentation with rats. i. Law of effect. ii. Law of exercise (practice). iii. Law of readiness. iv. Law of intensity. v. Law of recency.' vi. Law of multiple responses. These principles need to be fully studied and understood by classroom teachers. This is because they all have far reaching effects on how human beings (pupils/students) learn. 3.5 Application

The above principles can be wisely applied into classroom teaching/learning processes. The following recommendations are given. i. ii. iii. iv. v. More opportunities should be given to learners to use and repeat (practice) the knowledge they acquired in the classroom. To strengthen learning, a room should be given for re-learning of the learnt materials. Assignments, exercise and drills should be given after each instruction. Adequate teaching materials need to be employed in classroom instruction. Pupils/students should be rewarded after making correct responses during teacher-learner interactions. vi. Readiness factors: motivations, experience relevance of materials and

29

personal adjustment of learners should be adequately taken care of before instructions are designed. ACTIVITY III 1. List the four tenets of learning given by Pavlov. a) b) c) d) Mention the six principles of learning given by Thorndike. a) b) c) d) e) f) Mention two suggestions not given herein on how to apply the principle of learning into classroom situations. a) b) CONCLUSION

2.

3.

4.0

The nature and process of learning are very complex. Various theories of learning have offered substantive explanations on learning processes. To clarify the complexities of learning process, teachers need to understand the various perspectives of the learning process and the tenets put forward. Unless such is done, teachers would not impart the desired goals into the students. 5.0 * * * SUMMARY This unit provides definition of learning and identifies the theories that explain learning process. The unit also provides some basic learning principles given by Pavlov and Thorndike. Recommendations on the application of the learning principles were also given. SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE Define learning according to your understanding of the term. Explain law of effect, law of exercise and law of readiness.

6.0 1. 2.

30

3.

Select at least three tenets of learning given by Pavlov and explain how you can use then to achieve an effective teaching/learning process. TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

7.0

Question: Explain briefly, the following principles of learning: (i) (ii) (iii) Law of Effect Law of Exercise Law of Readiness

Question: Show how these principles can be applied into classroom situations. Model Answers (i) Law of Effect: is defined as the satisfaction and dissatisfaction an organism has after making a response to stimulus (stimuli). Therefore, learning can only take place if the learner is satisfied with the learning outcome. Law of Exercise: States that, successive repetition of stimulus = response connection and strengthens learning. That is, learning is effective if the learner re-learns the material learnt. Law of Readiness: This principle states that learning can only take place if the learner is physiologically and psychologically ready for learning.

(ii)

(iii)

Application of the principles in a classroom situation:     Teachers should give learners more opportunity to practice or relearn the materials learnt. Assignments, exercises and drills should be given after each instruction. Teachers should reward learners appropriately. Readiness factors such as motivation, experience, relevance of materials and personal adjustment of the learner should be taken care of by the teacher. REFERENCES

8.0

Lawson, R., Learning and Behaviour. New York: Macmillan, 1965. Gottsegen, et al (eds), Professional School Psychology. New York: Grune and Stratton, Inc., 1970.

31

UNIT 5 CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 1.0

READINESS TO LEARNING

Introduction Objectives Main Content Conclusion Summary Self-Assessment Exercise Tutor-Marked Assignment References INTRODUCTION

The preceding unit dealt with the process of learning and stated that learning can only occur if the organism is ready physiologically and psychologically. In addition, certain factors such as relevance of materials and methods of instruction, organism's level of lesson adjustment, his emotional state as well as his motivational level are important to learning. This unit, therefore, is concerned with such factors that determine an individual's readiness to learn. How to impart readiness in learners is another focus of the unit. 2.0 OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit, you should to be able to: i. Define readiness to learn. ii. Enumerate factors of readiness to learn. iii. Explain the factors of readiness to learn. iv. Discuss how readiness can be built for effective teaching and learning. 3.0 MAIN CONTENT

One of the principles of learning postulated by Edward Thorndike is Law of Readiness. The principle holds that before an organism acts (i.e. learns), it has to be ready -the tendency of the learner before making a connection between stimulus and response (i.e. learning). The term readiness is defined as a "state of body, mind and feeling produced by a combination of growth (maturation) and experience which implies fitness and ability to embark on some new task." Simply

32

put, readiness is the levels of preparedness of a learner that enables him to learn new tasks. Factors that determine readiness to learn: i) Maturation -This refers to the sort of growth and development that occurs mostly independent of any effort to promote it. Maturation determines the extent to which various body structures and organs are ready to perform complex actions. It is when various parts of the body are fully developed that certain complex learning is made possible. No matter the level of motivation or environmental treatment, learning cannot take place if certain organs in the body are yet to fully develop (e.g. brain). Experience: Experience here is simply defined as previous learning or entry behaviour. Entry behaviour refers to the knowledge, skills etc, a learner is supposed to possess before learning a new task. The science of learning states that some basic skills are necessary before complex tasks are tackled. Relevance of Materials and Methods of Instruction: A learner may be capable (i.e. matured) and may possess the experience needed but may fail to learn if the materials to be learnt are not suitable or relevant. This holds true if the methods of instruction are not relevant. Other factors: Some other factors of importance include level of motivation, positive attitude and learners' personal adjustment. These factors are important in the acquisition and constructive use of readiness.

ii)

iii)

iv)

ACTIVITY I 1. 2. Give the meaning of readiness Mention the three components of readiness a) b) c) List the factors that determiines readiness. a) b) c) d) e)

3.

33

Building Readiness (i) Providing pre-school experiences: Pre-school experiences include those skills needed by a child before formal schooling system. They are needed by all children if they are to adapt to the demand of school. They include:  Writing, painting, counting, use of vocabulary etc.  Social skills such as sharing, cooperation, competition, group work, following rules and regulations.  Others: pictures study, book study etc. Providing Readiness programmes in Schools: Children in school who show lack of readiness in school tasks should be identified. Diagnostic tests and other procedures should be used to identify such children. Then remedial classes should be provided according to the children's deficiencies. Building Self-Confidence: Psychologists have emphasised that positive attitude to oneself (i.e. positive self-concept) is a very important factor that determines one's readiness to learn.

(ii)

(iii)

Therefore, teachers should strive hard to build self-confidence through the following:     Frequent praise by teachers Giving room for competition Giving student's responsibilities Individual counselling.

ACTIVITY II 1) List those pre-requisite skills needed by a child before formal school system begins. a) b) c) d) e) List some of the deficiencies school children may have that need remedial programme. a) b) c) d) e)

2.

34

3.

Mention some ways teachers can build positive attitude into their students/pupils. a) b) c) d) e) CONCLUSION

4.0

Readiness to learn is one fundamental principle of learning to take place effectively. Readiness factors must operate. Hence, teachers need to understand the concept of readiness as well as how readiness can be built. 5.0   SUMMARY This unit has explained the concept of readiness. Readiness to learn is the state of learners preparedness to embark on a given learning task. Readiness factors include motivation and experience. Others include relevance of materials and methods of instruction, learner levels of motivation, positive attitude and the child's personal adjustment. Strategies for building readiness include provisions of pre-school experiences, diagnosis learner's readiness deficiencies and remediation. Another strategy is building self-confidence in learners. TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT i) ii) iii) Define the term ‘Readiness to Learn’. Enumerate the Readiness factors. How would you build in Readiness in learners?



6.0

Question:

Model Answers Readiness to learn means a state of body, mind and feeling of a learner, produced by a combination of growth (motivation) and experience that enable him to embark on learning new tasks. In a nutshell, readiness to learn means learners fitness (physiologically and psychologically) and ability to embark on the learning of new tasks).   Readiness factors include the following: Maturation .Experience
35

 

Relevance of materials and methods .Levels of learner's motivation Positive attitude and learner's personal adjustment

Building Readiness     7.0 Providing pre-school experiences such as writing, painting, counting and use of vocabulary. Other experiences include social skills such as sharing, cooperation, group work, etc. Providing remedial classes. Building self-confidence in learners through frequent praises and giving student's responsibilities. Individual counselling. REFERENCES

Oladele, J.O., Fundamentals of Psychological Foundations of Education. Lagos: John-Lad Ent., 1984. Maynard, N. J., Child-Study: Some Practical Techniques for Teachers. London: 1970.

36

UNIT 6

MOTIVATION LEARNING

AND

ITS

RELATION

TO

CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 1.0 Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 What is Motivation? Conclusion Summary Self-Assessment Exercise Tutor-Marked Assignment References INTRODUCTION

Another important factor in determining an individual's tendency to learn is motivation. Motivation is concerned with an individual's internal as well as external energies in the direction of an intended goal. An individual cannot learn effectively if he is not motivated to do so. Hence, teachers need to understand the concept of motivation and how it applies to teaching and learning processes. This is the focus of this unit. 2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you should be able to: i. ii. iii. iv. Define and explain the term motivation. Explain the theories of motivation. List and describe the types of motivation. Discuss the application of theories of motivation in the classroom. MAIN CONTENT What is Motivation?

3.0 3.1

The term motivation has been defined in several ways. In a nutshell, motivation answers the question: Why a behaviour? That is, why does a person behave in the manner he behaves. An answer to this question is pertinent for teachers. If teachers can understand the reason for the actions or responses of their students, then they can be able to facilitate learning in the classroom. A more simplified definition of motivation is as follows:
37

Motivation is the force or condition within the organism that impels it to act or respond. Another definition claims that motivation refers to the biological, social and learned factors that initiate, sustain and stop goal-directed behavioul: From these definitions three types of motivation may be discerned: i) Extrinsic Motivation: These include those forces outside an individual that regulates his behaviour. The energising motive is something external to the individual (e.g. food, water etc.), Teachers use of this type of motivation needs to be judicious and commensurate with effort put in. Teachers should avoid use of expensive things to motivate students. Intrinsic Motivation: These include forces within the individual. It has nothing to do with the external world. It is a sort of motivation that comes as a result of an inherent feeling of selfsatisfaction as one participates in learning activity. This kind of motivation is tied to the learning task itself. Therefore, teachers need to provide relevant simple and appropriate learning task to the learners if this type of motivation is to be sustained: Achievement Motivation: This refers to the motivation for achievement in the school, place of work, profession etc. It implies the craving for accomplishment, conquest, competence etc. Achievement of success in learning is thus determined by student's motive to achieve. Thus, if a learning task that has a low probability of success is given little incentive, achievement will likely be curtailed than if the incentive is high.

ii)

iii)

ACTIVITY I 1. 2. Give three definitions of motivation. List the three types of motivation.

Theories of Motivation There are numerous theories of motivation. Some of these are briefly stated as follows: 1. Hedonistic Theory

Those who subscribe to this theory are of the view that human actions are mainly triggered by a desire for pleasure and the avoidance of pain. In other words, people engage in activities for no other reason than the pleasure associated with them.

38

2.

Physiological Equilibrium Theory

This theory holds that human beings are supposedly constituted by a balanced state of physiology. This balanced state is called "Homeostasis". Ideally, as long as this state of equilibrium is maintained, it seems there will be no need for human activity. However, because this equilibrium is inevitably distorted presumably from birth, human activity begins with the motivating force being the desire to recapture the physiological equilibrium. Thus, hunger, thirst, etc., signify a disequilibrium that leads to need, drive and consequently activities to satisfy them. 3. Drive Reduction Theory

This theory postulates that human beings act in order to reduce drive. A drive is a state of tension which occurs whenever a need (want or deficiency) exists. The need could be physiological or social. The motivational force wherever a drive exists is reduction of the accompanying tension, which is usually unbearable. 4. Cybernetic Theory

This theory sees motivation as being intrinsically attached to human activity. The theory claims that motivational force flows from within the individual rather than being a result of pursuing outside incentives. Forces such as curiosity, competence, and reprocity are three forms of intrinsic motivation. 5. Conditioning Theory

This theory sees motivation purely in terms of antecedent factors or consequence of behaviour. Human- beings act in anticipating positive consequences of their actions. 6. Maslow's Growth Theory

This theory views motivation as a growth process moving from a lower to higher level. All human activities are motivated by the desire to pass through what he calls the hierarchy of motives. Human beings act to satisfy hierarchy of needs. The needs hierarchy is as follows. High 5 4 3 2 Low 1 Self actualisation Self-esteem Belongingness and love affiliation Safety needs Physiological needs
39

Motivating students for better learning. The following ways are recommended for teachers on how to motivate students for effective learning.         Make your lesson interesting and appealing. Develop a state of need in the students by exposing them to the objectives of the lesson. Structure your learning situation and material in a way that allows success in earlier steps, reinforce later steps. Provide adequate feed back to students on a continuous basis. Make judicious use of incentives. Evolve a token economy system. Develop an atmosphere for healthy competition among students. Make all learning meaningful and relevant to the experiences of the students. Develop curiosity by widening the experiential horizon of the students. Make all learning pleasant, desirable and worthwhile. Develop positive attitude and intentions toward learning in students.

ACTIVITY II 1. Name the six theories of motivation given above. a) b) c) d) e) f) List the Maslow's hierarchy of need from low to high. a) b) c) d) e) Outline the ways teachers can motivate their students for better learning. CONCLUSION In this unit, motivation has been defined. We have also looked at types of motivation: Various explanations on why people act the way they act was postulated. The theories highlighted include: The Domestic theory, Physiological Equilibrium theory, Drive theory,
40

2.

3.

4.0  



Cybernetic theory, Conditions theory, and Maslow's Growth theory. Strategies for motivating students for effective learning were also given. SUMMARY

5.0

One of the basic learning condition is motivation. Without motivation, human beings cannot act or function properly. Equally important is motivating students for effective learning. Without applying effective strategies for motivation, students learning cannot take place. 6.0 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Try and answer the following questions: 1. 2. 3. 7.0 Define the concept of motivation. As a classroom teacher, outline and explain the strategies that you will employ to motivate your students to learn: List and explain the motivation theories discussed. TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT (a) (b) What do you understand by the term 'motivation'? How would you motivate your students to learn properly?

Question:

Model Answers Motivation is defined as a force or condition within or without the learner that compels him/her to act or respond to the learning situation. How to motivate students to learn       Teachers to make their lessons interesting and appealing. Teachers to develop in their learners a state of need by exposing them to the objectives of the lesson. Learning situation and materials should be structured in such a way that allows success in earlier steps. Teachers to reinforce students' response to learning situation. .Teachers to provide adequate feedback to students. Teachers to develop atmosphere for healthy competition among students. Teachers to develop curiosity by widening the experiential horizon of the students.

41

8.0

REFERENCES

Oladele, J.O, Fundamentals of Psychological Foundations of Education. Lagos: John -Lad Ent., 1984. Durojaiye, M.O.A, A New Introduction to Educational Psychology. London: Evans, 1976.

42

UNIT 7 CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0

TRANSFER OF LEARNING

4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 1.0

Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 Meaning of Transfer of Learning 3.2 Forms f Transfer of Learning 3.3 Conditions for Transfer of Learning Conclusion Summary Self-Assessment Exercise Tutor-Marked Assignment References INTRODUCTION

One of the tendencies of an organism is its ability to select from its experience, those responses which are appropriate to the learning of new and somewhat different ideas and skills. Learning cannot be meaningful and useful if an individual cannot carry what is learnt into new situations. This is because, when we learn a new thing, our past experience is involved. Thus, it can be said that all retention or remembering is a kind of transfer of learning. This unit, therefore, is concerned with how human beings transfer one experience into another situation, all with the aim of facilitating effective teaching and learning processes in the classroom. 2.0 OBJECTIVES

By the end of this unit, you can be able to: 1. 2. 3. Define and explain transfer of learning. Explain the three forms of transfer of learning. Outline and explain the strategies to be followed in gaining maximum benefit of transfer of learning in learning situations. MAIN CONTENT

3.0

43

3.1

Meaning of Transfer of Learning

Transfer of learning is said to occur whenever a previous learning has some effects on the learning of new responses. "The influence that learning one task may have on the subsequent learning of another is called transfer of learning". 3.2 Forms of Transfer of Learning

There are three forms of transfer of learning. They include the following: 1. Positive transfer: Positive transfer occurs when the previous performance (i.e. experience) benefits the performance on the subsequent tasks. For example, learning to add three digits will facilitate the learning of adding four digit in solving simple arithmetic problems. Negative transfer: It occurs when the previous performance (experience) disrupts the performance on the second task. In other words, when skills learnt in another task make the learning of another task difficult, negative transfer has taken place. Zero transfer: This occurs when the previous performance (experience) has no effect on the performance of the second task. In other words when skills learnt in one task has no influence on the learning of the subsequent task. Conditions for Transfer of Learning

2.

3.

3.3

When the stimulus pairs are different but the responses are the same, the transfer effect is positive. The greater the similarity between the stimuli in the two situations, the more the positive transfer. Advice to Teachers The following suggestions should be followed to gain the maximum benefit of transfer of learning.     Learning in the classroom should be such that it results in a thorough mastery of whatever is to be learned. The pupils should have experience with a wide range of problems that differ somewhat from one another, this may function as training for flexibility. The teacher should emphasise principles and their application. Pupils must have the opportunity of participating in the use of the principles with a variety of problem situations. Develop positive attitude and transfer consciousness in students.
44

 

Make curriculum and teaching relevant to past and expected student experiences. Pay special attention to aspects that will facilitate positive transfer in your teaching.

ACTIVITY 1 1. 2. How does transfer of learning occur? The three forms of transfer of learning include: a) b) c) Outline the limits you will use to facilitate transfer of learning in your classroom. CONCLUSION In this unit, transfer of learning has been defined and explained. The three forms of transfer: Positive, Negative and Zero transfer of learning have been explained. Suggestion for gaining maximum use of transfer of learning in teaching-learning situation have been put forward. SUMMARY

3.

4.0   

5.0

Transfer of learning is in fact, a part of learning process. Since learning has been conceptualised as building of experience upon experience, transfer of learning facilitates students learning in the classroom. Hence teachers need to fully understand the concept of transfer of learning and how to poster transfer in learning during their classroom instructions. 6.0 SELF-ASSESSMENT EXERCISE

Try and answer the following questions; 1. 2. 3. 7.0 Explain what is meant by "Transfer of learning." Illustrating your answer with examples, explain the three forms of transfer. How would you poster transfer of learning in your students? TUTOR-MARKED ASSIGNMENT

What is transfer of learning? What is positive transfer of learning? As a teacher, how would you facilitate transfer of learning in your students?

45

Model Answers The influence that the learning of one task has on the subsequent learning of another task is called transfer of learning. Positive transfer of learning -Positive transfer of learning occurs when previous learning benefits the learning of a subsequent task. How to facilitate transfer of learning     Teachers to ensure that learning in the classroom is made in such a way that it results in a thorough mastery of whatever is being learnt. Teachers to emphasise principles and their application. Learners to be exposed to a wide range of problems that differ somewhat from one another. Make curriculum and teaching relevant to past and expected student's experiences. REFERENCES

8.0

Remembers, H. H. et al, Study Manual for Introduction to Educational Psychology. New York: Harper Rosey,1960. Marie I, Towards Maturity,. The Psychology of Child Development. 1960.

46

MODULE 2

HISTORICAL AND SOCIOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES Concept and Nature of Education Types of Education The Growth of Education in Nigeria Educational Trends in Nigeria Innovations in Education The Status of Teachers in Nigeria Education and the Society Social Class and Educational Opportunity Factors that Influence Education

Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4 Unit 5 Unit 6 Unit 7 Unit 8 Unit 9

UNIT 1 CONTENTS 1.0 2.0 3.0

CONCEPT AND NATURE OF EDUCATION

4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0

Introduction Objectives Main Content 3.1 The Concept and Nature of Education 3.1.1 The Concept of Education 3.1.2 Education as a Process 3.1.3 Education as a Product 3.1.4 Education as a Discipline Conclusion Summary Self-Assessment Exercise Tutor-Marked Assignment References

In this unit, learners will be introduced to the definition of the concept of education and its nature so as to serve as a background knowledge for further studies into various aspects of the foundations of education. ' At the end of this unit, you should be able to: i) understand thoroughly the concept and nature of education it) have an insight into the nature of education in general. 3.1 The Concept and Nature of Education 3.1.1 The Concept of Education The concept of education is not as simple as we generally assume. But in spite of the difficulties, it is now generally agreed that education implies development in the child what the society believes to be valuable.
47

Education is as old as man on earth, and there is no society without one form of education or the other, because, without education, socialisation within the society cannot be possible. The term education is elusive. It is simply difficult to say what education is but rather, simpler definition has been given by UNESCO. They viewed education as "Organised and sustained instruction designed to communicate a combination of knowledge, skills and understanding valuable for all the activities of life". To Ezewell (1983), education is viewed as "a cultural process in itself and the way a new-born individual is transformed into a full member of a given society"; In addition, education is generally aimed at making an individual to be socially, mentally, emotionally and morally sound so as to be able to contribute his quarter to the development of his society in general. Education as it is today known, is a triune concept with at least three connotations. It is a process, a product, and a discipline. But this is only lexically so, for the three concepts are in turn interlaced. Thus, we can say that education is a means through which an individual "develops his abilities skills, capabilities and all forms of behaviour patterns that are of positive value in the society he lives" (Good 1945). In this definition, the "means" is the process; ,while the skills, and all forms of behaviour patterns acquired, which constitute the aggregate of all the processes, are the products. In our .study of both the process and the products, we ask such questions as why do we educate? And how do we educate? This constitute the discipline. 3.1.2 Education as a Process Education is a process whereby the immature members of a group or society are brought to maturity through the influence of the environment. An individual is said to be mature when he has been conditioned to the habits, attitudes, values and customs of the group to which he belongs. An individual's environment includes those forces, which direct his actions. They may be physical or non-physical, near in time and space or extensively remote. They may include animate objects like man and other living things as well as inanimate objects or nonliving things. Environment may be social or psychological. The social environment consists of all the activities offellow beings that are bound up in the carrying on of the activities of anyone of its members. The psychological environment, on the other hand, consists of all those things "around us" which stimulate us to action and make us behave in the way we do. !J Concept and Nature of Education 35 Education is a social process which begins at birth. As a social being, the child interacts with the people nd things around him, at first
48

completely dependent on them. From birth through childhood to adulthood, he asses through different stages of life. At each stage, he has distinct needs and varying capacities. Through .Ie responses which others make to his own behaviour, he comes to understand and evaluate his surround- .Igs and to distinguish good from bad. At each stage of his growth he is expected to behave according to the norms of each group to which he elongs, The roles and the parts he plays in each sub-culture and at each level are quite distinct. And he ~arns these accordingly. Education is, therefore, a process through which the individual passes from birth to eath. ,.1.3 Education as a Product ~ducation as a product is the sum total of a man's experiences. Through the process of education, we learn. 'his learning may be simply cognitive, as when we acquire ordinary knowledge; that is when we simply now. Or it may be the acquisition of a motor skill, as when we learn to eat, write or drive. Or it may be simply ffective, as when there is a formation or change of attitude in us. In otherwords, the knowledge we have of l1ings around us; the things we can do today, and our attitudes, interest, tastes and values are the products of ducation. ~xplain what you understand by "social environment" and "psychological environment"? 1.1.4 Education as a Discipline ~ducation as a discipline is an organised body of knowledge, multipatrious in nature which deals with issues )f what, why, how, who and even when in the educational process. The questions often asked here are: .Why do we educate? .How do we educate? .Who do we educate? .What do we educate with? .When do we educate? In other words, education as a discipline deals with such pathogenic questions of context, reasons, meth- )ds, and timing in the process of education, as well as the background of the individual to be educated. These luestions are usually treated under different specialisations within the broader field of education. For exam- Jle, the questions of who and when do we educate take us to the field of educational psychology, that of why :0 educational philosophy, that of who to educational methodology, while the issue of what comes under the focus of educational curriculum. In summary we can illustrate the triunity of education diagrammatically as follows: What do you consider as the best definition of education? "Education goes beyond literacy alone." Discus$ the above statement in relation to the definition of the concept of education. The nature of education can also be viewed from the dimension of formal, informal and non-formal educa- tion. From the definition of
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education given earlier in this unit, it is clear that complete education cannot be acquired from outside the classroom only. A large part of education can be acquired from outside the class- room. Such sources include the home, peer groups, and other non-classroom situations. Formal education means any form of teaching-learning process which has a generally accepted and regular set of rules, organisation and pattern. It may generally be referred to as schooling. The following character- istics make formal education unique. 1. It is strictly controlled. 2. It is curriculum-oriented. 3. It is evaluation and or examination oriented. Concept and Nature of Education 37 ~. It requires regular financing. 5. It involves professionally qualified staff. Simply put, formal education is a consciously planned form of education. In modern times, formal education is exemplified by the training presently given in our schools and colleges. .. [nformation education is an aspect of socialisation. This is the process of fitting individuals into an organised way of life and an established tradition of a society. This form of education is the process of acquiring knowledge about the world around us through living with others. It takes place everywhere, at home, in playgrounds, among peer groups, between club members, college cliques and workshop gangs, in the market places and business circles etc. As we interact with members of the community, we incidentally acquire experiences which we put into Ilse in our lives. Much learning occurs without the deliberate intention on the part of the learner or the teacher. The nature of education has been the subject of considerable amount of analysis by philosophers of educa- tion. It is regarded as the greatest asset a society can boast of and a great legacy that parents can leave for their children. All this is for the fact that education is the most powerful instrument of social change, economic, political and cultural development and scientific and technological development. Education also serves the functions of developing social, psychological, mental, emotional and intellectual development of an individual. Furthermore, education can be formal, non-formal and informal each with its unique characteristics that differentiate it from another. For instance, while the formal education is systematic and at the same time costly, non-formal education is flexible in its curriculum and is generally cost-effective while informal educa- tion on the other hand is acquired either through interaction in the society or through distinct personal experi- ence.

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Yet others may see education as the quality of being able to read, write, perform skills and become morally acceptable to one's society. It is important to note that education serves both the needs of the individual and the needs of the society. F or the individual, education means the provision of opportunity for him to realise his potential goals and abilities in life. The realisation of such abilities and goals will in turn make the individual a useful and happy citizen in the society. The above explanation shows that education goes beyond literacy alone. It also includes the acquisition of functional skills, moral identity, ambition to succeed in life and to improve the society. At the national level., education can be defined as a tool for building a united, independent and wealthy egalitarian society which is capable of maintaining its traditions and values. "Education goes beyond literacy alone." Discuss the above statement in relation to the definition of the concept of education.

I. Give the meaning of readiness. 2. Mention the three components of readiness. a) cC ~b) c) 38 Foundations of Education I~I liiiMM'M (1) Education is constantly changing and adapting itself to new demands and new circumstances. (2) It is, therefore, difficult for any definition of education to be comprehensive enough to satisfy the different concepts and interpretations of education which change with people, place and time. The concept of education is elusive. Any attempt to arrive at a consensus definition would enable an indi- vidual to distinguish between: .Good and bad attitude or behaviour .Right and wrong attitude or behaviour .Just and unjust behaviour .Social and anti-social behaviour Instruction: Answer 1 question only 1. Define the tenn/concept of education. \. 2. Why do you think education is viewed differently? 1. Distinguish between formal, informal and non-formal types of education. 2. Discuss the'importance of education to the individual and to the society in which he lives. ~[8~irt~ Fafunwa, A.B: History of Education in Nigeria. London: George Allen & Union, 1974. Moumouni, A: Education in Africa. London: Deutsch, 1968.
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Adesina, S. et al Foundation Studies in Education. Ibadan: University Press Limitep, 1985. Bernice, L. et al; Society and Education. USA: Allyn and Bacon Inc., 1964. Fafunwa, A. B: History of Education in Nigeria. Ibadan: NPS Educational Publishers Ltd., 1995. 40 Foundations of Education Unit I provides you with the definition of the concept education and further explore you to it's nature. In this unit, you will be exposed to the different types of Education as an additional knowledge for proper under- standing of the course foundations of education. , i\1l:iiiJi O'i1!¥'o b""i""'e"' c"Wtt"'f'B"", ' i"." "rl~' d '" ,Y" ... ."~il£!¥ti,4£!4"",,',£!11,, ,Jiflii ~ By the end of this unit, you should be ab.I~ to:i. Understand the different types of education; and n. Distinguish between traditional and western types of education. . .. 3.1 Types of Education 3.1.1 Traditional Traditional education is the indigenous, ancient or old education in any society, which is aft old as the society itself. Through this system of education, attitudes, the beliefs, the morals, the customs, the traditions etc., of the society are passed from one generation to the other. The aims and objectives of such type of education are to produce people or citizens who are honest, respectable, skillful, intelligent, cooperative and culturally groomed. The curriculum, methodology, general organisation and administrative structure of traditional education are patterned in accordance with the opinions, beliefs, customs, principles, experiences and practices of the community in which the education is taking place. Traditional education in Nigeria has been highly developed long before the advent of western education. The curriculum of traditional education consists mainly of the learning offunctional skills, morals, which are necessary to live in peace and protect the community from external aggression by neighbouring ethnic groups. Most of the teaching and learning were conducted informally through socialisation processes. Lit- eracy was not given much attention and so most of the learning and teaching were done through oral work and memorisation. The period of graduation required for the mastery of any skill depended on when the learner can show enough practical evidence of competence
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during the entire period of apprenticeship. The learners are usually grouped according to their age grades, sex or kinship. In the traditional education, the staffing system is not regular or specific. The teacher of a particular skill or moral must be versed in the field he or she is supposed to teach. Today such practices have changed. One single staff in the traditional system of education may perform the role of a teacher, an elder, a craftsman, a moralist, a disciplinarian, a judge, a priest, etc. The learning experiences in traditional education in Nigeria includes various types of skills such as pottery, weaving, agriculture, mothercraft, cooking, trading, wrestling, oratory, fortune-telling, traditional healing, fishing, respect for elders, taboos and cultural norms, hunting, warfare, tactics, blacksmithing and many other drafts and services. List (10) ten crafts, skills and or services that are rendered in your society and explain how one of the skills is being taught traditionally? . Types of Education 4 J At this juncture, it is important to mention that the curriculum, methodology, and general organisation of . iditional education in Nigeria has undergone a lot of changes because of its contact with western civilisation ld ideas. 1.2 Muslim Education ~e history of Muslim education in Nigeria dates back to the early 13th century; during this period there were lamiccentres allover the West African states. Wherever the Islamic religion spread, Islamic education as also introduced. The Quran, which is the holy book of Islamic religion, was the basis for all Islamic lucation and tradition. Mosques were also built as places of worship. Islamic schools were introduced into lrious parts of the country. The system of education that was popularised can be divided into three phases. The first begins at about five when young Muslim children are sent to the Quranic schools where they are ught to memorise the Quran in well drawn out stages. Here, children are taught stories about the prophet ld some elementary history of the religion. They also learn how to conduct a service. Thus learning to be a )od Muslims by acquiring the habits of prayer and worship. During the second phase, students begin a more meaningful study of the Quran. They learn to read and rite Arabic and as they become more competent as they learn grammar, literature, poetry, Islamic law and ) on. The third stage is really a continuation of the second phase, with a wider curriculum content to incorporate ~ammatical inflexion, syntax, algebra, jurisprudence, scholastic theology and the interpretation of the laws of :lam. During this stage, students decide on areas of specialisation. They

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often travel to the major centres of :lamic education such as Ilorin, Kano, Fez, Cairo, Sankore, Timbuktu, Sudan and many others. _._11 :ompare and contrast the system of impacting traditional and Muslim education in Nigeria. Simply put Muslim education system comprises the Quranic schools, the 11m; and the Madrash schools, rhich are aimed at exposing the learner (man or woman) baby boy or girl to the divine words of God to nable him/her recite portions of the Quran during regular prayers and other religious duties of Islam; to repare the learner for useful living as a committed and practising Muslims in later life: to achieve moral and piritual excellence in life. The contributions of Islamic education in Nigeria's social, economic, political and educational affairs can- lot be overemphasised. Islamic education introduced some Arabic words into Nigerian languages. The Iausa and Yoruba, Kanuri and Fulani languages are mostly affected. For instance, Yoruba words such as 'Alafiah" (good health), "Barka" (congratulations) are derived from words which were introduced through slamic conquests. Arabic numeral and architechture were also brought by Islamic education. Evidences of the legacies, which Nigeria got through Islamic education can be seen in the building of nosques and Islamic palaces all over the country. The most striking features of such buildings were the lomes, minarets and artistic designs. Islamic education has also introduced new forms of dresses such as mes used in Mecca and other middle east countries into Nigeria. An example of such dresses is the turban. ~ew agricultural crops and animals were introduced from the east. Many equipment and important discoveries in mathematics, astrology, medicine, physics and chemistry were brought by Islamic education. The shariah law, which is the basis for Islamic law is used in many parts of the states today. 3.1.3 Western Education Any discussion on western education will be incomplete without mentioning the activities of the missionaries in the areas that would later be called Nigeria whose sole aim was to propagate the religion of Christianity. .__111111. 42 Found,ationsofEducation With the introduction of Christianity, western type of education naturally followed, as it was a common strategy, that as soon as a station was established, one of the first facilities to be provided was a school. Since the motive of the missionaries was solemnly to spread Christianity, the purpose of education for them was ultimately directed at training the convert and their followers to become teachers, catechists, interpreters, cooks and servants. The school curriculum organisation,
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control and general management of the type of education received were heavily Christian biased. For nearly forty years the organisation, control and general management of western education were left exclusively in the hands of the Christian missions that brought the education into the country. With the amalgamation of southern and northern protectorate in 1914, to form a single country now known as Nigeria, the British colonial government then became more involved in establishing educational institutions in various parts of the country. Various commissions were set up by the colonial government to look into the types, finance and organisational structure of the existing schools with a view to giving recommendations for improvement. Notable among such commissions were the famous Phelps Stroke Commission (1920) and the Asquith and Elliot Commission of 1959. The report and recQmmendations of these commissions brought improved western education into Nigeria. Grants-in-aids advisory and inspectorate services, educational administration and infrastructure, staffing conditions, methodology and the curriculum were all up-graded. In 1960 when Nigeria got independence, the trend of events in the education sector automatically changed and today the business of western education is both in the hands of the government and the private concerns, who run schools to suit the modern development in spheres of Science and Technology. Western education has contributed immensely to the political, cultural and economic progress in Nigeria. The English language, which is now the official language of the country was brought through western education as a medium of instruction. Most countries of the world such as United States of America and the commonwealth countries used the English language as their medium of instruction. Nigeria, therefore, benefits from this communal advantage through international trade, diplomacy and the acquisition of advanced technology. Today, Nigeria still depends on Britain, United States of America and other European countries for further studies and transfer of technology despite the establishment of many educational institutions in Nigeria itself. Western education also introduced improved education into Nigeria. Most of the institutions established were patterned after those of Europe. The introduction of western culture such as western art, music, dresses, architecture and other ways of life are all the product of western education. Literacy and numeracy were highly improved by western education. Discuss the contributions of western education to the people of Nigeria and the country as a whole.
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In this unit, you were exposed to the different types of education that prevail, including the traditional, the Muslim and the western type of education. In addition, the processes and/or methods employed, the aims and objectives of each type of education was thoroughly discussed with a view to providing detailed knowledge to the learners. This unit discussed the types of education that is in practice in Nigeria as an aspect of the foundations of education. Each type of education is significant in the Nigerian context, especially now that Nigerian youth lypes OJ J:.au~anon 4..1 and children are receiving one or another type of this education. Briefly discuss the stages or phases of Muslim education in Nigeria? &III 11811 1. "Traditional education is less important, especially in a modem society". Do you agree? 2. "Western education has contributed to the political, social and economic development of the country Nigeria". How far is this statement true? Fafunwa, A.B, History of Education in Nigeria. London: George Allen & Union, 1974. Moumouni, A, Education in Africa. London: Deutsch, 1968. A. Segun et aI, Foundation Studies in Education. lbadan: University Press Limited. Bernice L. N. et aI, Society and Education. USA: Allyn and Bacon Inc., 1964. Fafunwa, A. B, History of Education in Nigeria. lbadan: NPS Educational Publishers Ltd., 1995. 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Content , f!... 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 SUn11n81Y 6.0 .Self-assessment Exercise 7.0 Tutor-m:arkedAssignment 8.0 References ~,~ .." "...,. "J LJU"""""" ", 1"1;""" "J 8' In this unit, students should further be introduced to the historical growth of education in Nigeria from the colonial era to the period of the drafting of the National Policy on Education in 1977. At the end of this unit, you should be able to: (i) List the different phases in the growth of education in Nigeria and (ii) Explain the development that has taken place in the field of education. 3.1 The Growth of Education in Nigeria The growth of education in Nigeria has taken different phases from the colonial era up to 1960, .the post- independence period down to the
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period 1977 when the National Policy on Education was drafted. We will now examine these phases chrQnologically(" \ 3.1.1 Education During the Colonial Era Christian missionaries in their concerted efforts to carry out evangelism introduced western education in Nigeria. The first known school was established in 1843 by Mr. and Mrs. Decraft of the Methodist Mission in Badagry. Subsequently, many different missions established schools. These schools could be likened to the early Muslim Quranic schools where pure religious training were received. An examination of Nigeria's educational policy in ancient and colonial times will show that the needs of the individuals and of the community were reasonably well cared for, but the degree of sophistication was low. Some ninety per cent or more of the community were engaged in food production. The women fetched , water. Cooperative building was common and specialist masons and bricklayers emerged. Architectural designs adapted to tropical environment have survived. Weavers, dyers, soap makers were trained. Able-bodied adults carried goods from village to village, using beasts of burden. Pottery was devel- oped everywhere. The extraction of potions from medicinal herbs was practiced down from generation to generation. The priestly class healed the sick and mediated between the living and the dead. The family unit was intact and the relationship between families was regulated by rules, customs and conventions governing marriage, birth, betrothal, entertainment, worship, peaceful co-existence, death and burial. Although technol- ogy was everywhere in evidence, science as we know it today was absent. Education and training to improve the quality of life was almost nonexistent. The families were increas- ingly disorganised, and the labour force poorly trained. Industrial, commercial and infrastructural services received little stimulation in the public interest. A few educated men were dissatisfied with the 'status quo'. and therefore criticised the colonial regime. Some colonial administrators with humane tem~raments wanted innovation and change and made contributions that were historically significant. The Phelps-Stoke Commis- sion, Mr. E.R. Hussey, the Elliot Commission, the Ashby Commission with a show of philanthropy that must be acknowledged and externally acclaimed, laid lasting foundations on which a good deal of post-independ- ence educational policies and activities were based. The 1950s were the most exciting years in Nigerian history in general and in the history of education in particular, not only did the regional government then plan to make great strides in spreading education but they also put these plans into practice. 46 Foundations of Education
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Furthermore, the governments realised their sense or responsibility by taking stock of their policies and programmes. They ushered in a new era in education which opened wider horizons in the 1960s and still wider in the subsequent years ahead, For example, the western regional government presented a comprehensive proposal for the introduction of a free, universal and compulsory education, otherwise known as Universal Primary Education (UPE) for the western region by January 1955. The proposal included a massive teacher-training programme, the expan- sion of teacher training facilities and secondary schools, the introduction of secondary technical education and secondary modern schools. In the east, there was a similar proposal for free primary educati.on, in the proposed scheme, the local government bodies in the region were expected to pay forty-five per cent of the cost of a free junior primary education programme. There was to be an increase in teachers from 1,300 to 2,500 annually and the estab- lishment of a secondary school in every division. This modest proposal was rejected by subsequent govern- ment and prefers the rapid introduction of Universal Primary Education on a large scale. The idea of as- sumed local contributions was abandoned and instead the government proposes an eight-year free education plan and set January 1957 as the commencement date. ~~ --=Examine the Nigeria's educational policy in ancient and colonial times. The development of education in the north lagged behind that of the south. While the western and eastern regions vied to be the first region or government to give its people a free and universal primary education between 1952 and 1958, the northern region was unable to enter the race principally for financial reasons compounded by the enormity of the number of children of school age resident in the region. 3.1.2 Post-Independence Period up to 1969 Nigeria won freedom in October 1960. The greatest gift of the independence in spheres of education was the :\shby report, which aimed at expansion of education at all levels but particularly at the university level to produce high level manpower for management and administrative posts. The recommendation of the com- mission aimed at two objectives thus: 2) To upgrade Nigerians who are already in employment but who need further education. 3) To design a system of post-secondary which will as a first objective produce before 1970, the flow of high level manpower which Nigeria is estimated to need and to design it in such a way that it can be enlarged without being re-planned to meet Nigeria's need up to 1980. 3.1.3 National Curriculum Conference A curriculum conference was held in 1969 to re-examine the purpose and curricular of Nigerian education at the various levels of the
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educational system for the first time in the history of educational development in the country. A philosophy of education was evolved on the basis of the nation's goals. The curriculum confer- ence witnessed many eminent Nigeria intellectuals. The curriculum conference was followed by the national seminar on National Policy on Nigerian Education under the chairmanship of Chief Simeon Adebo (a former Nigeria Representative to the United Nations). The outcome of the seminar was the National Policy on Education in Nigeria, which underwent thorough series of processes, and was reviewed in 1981. This national conference was not concerned with the development of a national curriculum nor was it expected to recommend specific content and methodology. Rather, in this first phase, it was to review old and identify new national goals for Nigerian education, bearing in mind the needs of youths and adults in the task of nation-building and national reconstruction for social and economic well-being of the individual and the society. 1 ne Lrrowth OJ t,'ducation in Nigeria 47 In the discussion of the major educational aspects of the conference theme, nine specific decision areas were identified as crucial to the attainment of conference objectives. 1. National philosophy of education 2. Goals of primary education 3. Objectives of secondary education 4. Purpose of tertiary education 5. The role of teachers education 6. Functions of science and technical education 7. The place of women's education 8. Education for living 9. Control of public education 3.1.4 National Policy on Education in Nigeria' The national policy which was reviewed in 1981 stresses that education in Nigeria is no more a private business, but a big government investment that has witnessed a progressive evolution of government's complete and dynamic intervention and active participation. This implies that the federal and state governments have realised that without a comprehensive and qualitative education, the country cannot achieve the goals of a nation in terms of political, economic, social, intellectual, technological and scientific development. Likewise, to neglect the education of its people is tossing with the lives of its people, and its own survival in the end. This had led various governments (state and federal) in Nigeria to commit enormous parts of education in the country. The governments have taken over the control of education at various levels. Education has also become an instrument of winning support- ers by the politicians. Explain why OPE was not attempted in the northern region. -Rapid progress in the forms and systems of education in Nigeria started in 1960 and after the country's independence. This period started with
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the submission of the Ashby Report on Education in 1960 -which gave Nigerian government an unlimited encouragement to increase her investment in all branches of educa- tion for the development of her manpower needs. The implementation of the recommendations contained in the report helped to expand Nigeria's educational system both in quality and quantity. In a related dev~lopment, the National Curriculum Conference, which stimulated the drafting of the Na- tional Policy on Education for the attainment of the National goals is another step in expanding the quality and quantity of education in the country. 8_111The unit discusses the growth of education in Nigeria from it's baby stage when the whole affairs were in the \ hands of missionaries and later the colonial government to the period when Nigeria got independence in 1960 up to the time when Nigeria developed it's National Policy on Education. -", r 48 Foundations o/Education Examine the factors that stimulate the formulation of Nigeria's National Policy on Education. Discuss the phases in the growth of education in Nigeria. Model Answer In an attempt to discuss the phases in the growth of education in Nigeria, there is the need to explain the early attempt by the missionaries to provide education, the involvement of the colonial government in education, the changes that come up with independence in educational sector and all the post-independence blessings that are remarkable in the field of educational enterprise. It is a well-known fact that the missionaries were the first providers of western education though in their own way with emphasis on the 3Rs that is reading, writing and computation all with a view to soften the process of evangelisation. Fafunwa, A. B, History of Education in Nigeria. London: George Allen & Urwin, 1974. Moumouni, A, Education in Africa. London: Deutch, 1960. Adesina, S. et ai, Foundation Studies in Education. Ibadan: University Press Limited, 1985. Bernice L. et ai, Society and Education. USA: Allyn and Bacon Inc., 1964. Fafunwa A., History of Education in Nigeria. Ibadan: NPS Educational Publishers Ltd., 1995. 1.0 mtroduction 2.0 Objectives ~ ~.O Content 4.0 Concl~ion 5.0 S\m1n1aI'Y 6.0 Self-assessment Exercise ... 7.0 Tutor-markedAssignment.. 8.0 References ,
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50 Foundations o/Education * I\'W .",/," In the last unit, you were introduced to the different phases in the growth of education in Nigeria. Here in this unit, you will be exposed to the trends in the dissemination of education, specifically, the levels of education from pre-primary to the tertiary level. i~ll8~ At the end of this unit, you should be able to: (i) State why different levels of education exist; and (ii) Explain the relationship between the different levels of education. 3.1 Educational Trends: Levels of Education This is the first level of education. The third national development plan ignores the whole question of pre- school education; the action was attributed to the in-adequate understanding of the whole concept of preschool education. But the National Policy on Education has been explicit on this issue, not only by itemising what it considers the functions of pre-primary education but also by providing policy guidelines on the establishment of such institutions. The fundamental aim of which is to prepare under-primary school going age children from the age of3-6 for primary school and at the same time to inculcate the culture of attendance. 3.2 Primary School Level The second level through which the education flows is the primary level. In this category, children who are up to six years of age or enrolled to undergo primary school education which will last the period of 6 years during which pupils are thoroughly prepared, among otl1cr things, to sit for a standard examination that will take them to the higher level- the post-primary school level. 3.3 Post-Primary School Level This level which is generally regarded as secondary school level is aimed at (i) Preparation for useful living within the society; and (ii) Preparation for higher education. An examination of the structure and content of the school will be necessary in order to know the extent of its contribution to the present system. The policy prescribes a two-tier secondary education for a duration of six years. The first three years would be devoted to the intensification of the general education already begun in primary school. It is also note worthy that the junior secondary school level would be devoted to prevocational education. Apart from its comprehensive nature, the senior secondary school will be for those who have shown
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education, thus replacing the six form. 3.4 Higher Education The education as incorporated in the National Policy on Education encompasses post-secondary section of the national educational system which is given in Universities, Polytechnics and Colleges of Technology including such courses as are given by the Colleges of Education, the Advanced Teacher Training Colleges, Correspondence Colleges and such institutions as may be allied to them. You have, in this unit, being exposed to the different levels of education in Nigeria, starting from pre-primary school level to the higher education level. This is to provide you with the structural patterns which a child in the Nigerian society has to follow, to attain higher education level. This unit encompasses the different levels of education in Nigeria, the duration for each level, the aims and or objectives of each level and the reasons for categorising the education into the levels. B!!O_O!"t@"'f_O'"" "C'I"~C &iUIII~I":,!~" Draw a table showing the different levels of education, the expected age for each level and the duration. 1. How effective is the two-tier secondary education system int he preparation of students for useful living within the society. 2. What do you understand by pre-school education? Of what value is this to overall educational develop- ment? "1iI4! Fafunwa, A.B., History of Education in Nigeria. London: George Allen & Urwin, 1974. Moumouni, A. Education in Africa. London, Deutch, 1960. Adesina, S. et ai, Foundation Studies in Education. Ibadan: University Press Limited, 1985. Bernice L. et al,. Society and Education. USA: Allyn and Bacon Inc., 1964. Fafunwa A. History of Education in Nigeria. Ibadan: NPS Educational Publishers Ltd., 1995. 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Content 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 SlU11Ina1Y 6.0 Self-assessment Exercise 7.0 Tutor-marked Assignment 8.0 References lnnovations in Education 53 The Nigerian educational system, which has its roots from the educational activities of the foreign missions are developed and structured in response to many diverse and distinct needs and demands. It is, therefore, not surprising to have us here discussing about the significant innovations that have taken place over time in the course of

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our discussion of foundations of education. Some of these innovations include UPE and UBE. At the end of this unit, you should be able to: 1. Explain that education is subject to change over space and time; and 2. Describe how society's demand and needs can affect the structure and mode of educational practice in any given society. 3.1 UPE The abbreviation UPE, which stands for Universal Primary Education, represents a strident attempt to universalise primary education in the country. A nationwide free primary education scheme has never before been attempted in Nigeria. This is not because there has been no enlightened public to call for it. In fact, Obafemi Awolowo and several other leaders of thought during the first republic, and lots of eminent educa- tionists including Professor Fafunwa and Professor Hanson have in the past kept up a sustained plea for such a scheme. And so convinced were some of the earlier political leaders ofUPE's vast potential for good that even before independence, UPE schemes were proposed and implemented in the former western Region in 1955 and in the eastern region in 1957. These early efforts represented an awareness of the importance of universal education in the building of an orderly modern society. The Federal Military Government of Nigeria has decided as a matter of policy to embark on a scheme of universal free and compulsory primary education as from September 1976. For a country with the size and complexity of Nigeria, this is a bold venture and indeed a milestone in the history of organised education in the country. The concept of universal free primary education stems from the realising that education is not only an investment in human capital but also a prerequisite as well as a correlate for economic development. The Universal Primary Education (UPE) programme was a gigantic undertaking. When the scheme started in September 1976, it was estimated that the primary school population will jump from about 4,000,000 now to 7,400,000. By 1980, this enrolment figure was supposed to have risen to about 11,500,000. By 1976 not less than 36,000 additional primary school classrooms with not less than 60,000 additional teachers were needed. There are a number of motives behind the scheme among which includes: -Ensuring uniformity in staPldard. -Ensuring uniformity in method of operation The government formulated uniformed operational policies and provides funds for the take off of the programme. The funds covered areas like: -Providing new and expanding existing infrastructures for Teacher Training Colleges. -Training of UPE teachers and paying them. -Building of additional classrooms and new schools where there is none.

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For UPE planning to be meaningful, it has to contain more than mere expedient schemes. It must include at least: 1. Drawing up and analysing objectives, 54 Foundations of Education 2. Assessing resources 3. Mapping out stage-by-stage programmes designed to achieve the objective effectively and with mini- mum of cost. 4. Allocating resources to the various phased programmes, and checking how each stage in the scheme is progressing his order to be in a position to know if the purpose assigned to each stage is being attained satisfactorily. Ifnot, then 5. Revise line of action in the light of experience gained in the process. The most important thing about prior-planning in a scheme that is to cover a whole nation like Nigeria is to avoid wastage of resources and to ensure that the scheme serves the purpose to which it was designed. As a forward-looking nation, Nigeria cannot afford to abdicate its responsibility to provide for the adequate cultural socialisation and proper adjustment of its youth. And no social agency has been invented that can handle the task of cultural transmission better than school. Explain in detail the motives behind UPE scheme in Nigeria. Education lies at the heart of development, whether it be personal development or national development. Education and development are continuing longterm processes, which require careful planning if the im- proved conditions of life that th~y are to bring can be realised. Consequently there is an imperative urgent need for the effective integration of theory and practice in planning a programme of teacher education for UPE. The planners of the UPE programme must, therefore, aim at producing teachers whose academic and professional studies comprised three distinct and yet integrated curriculum course, namely: conceptual, factual content and practical operational methodological ways of making the ideas and principles change behav- iour patterns in our children. In Nigeria, upward ability is mostly achieved through education. When UPE is fully implemented in Nigeria, interpersonal perceptions will not fail to note the provision for equality of opportunity. Among the component states of the federation, the much talked about imbalance in education, as between the northern and southern states will be wiped out with time, perhaps in a single generation. Where the stakes are so high, and tie in so smoothly with basic government policy, it would be naive not to use the tool of universal education, which has proved so effective in a similar situation allover the world. The end-results are so desirable that the Nigerian people have decided not to risk failure by leaving the process to the uncertain policies and precarious finances of the state governments as in the past, hence the massive federal intervention.
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Again, at the federal and state levels, Nigerians from allover the country are working together in the planning stages of the scheme, and will continue to work together, sharing hopes and feelings with regards to its implementation and maintenance, inspection, supervision, and evaluation. This kind of experience is likely to result in increased desire for co-operation in other areas and help load the bases in favour of national unity. The UPE becomes a necessary tool in the search for solutions to some of our most thorny political and social problems. And no responsible or truly Nigerian government can, with a conscience, delay its adoption any longer. What in your own opinion is the end-result ofUPE in Nigeria? 3.2 UBE UBE is another abbreviation that stands for yet another laudable Education programme tagged Universal Basic Education. The programme was launched in Sokoto State by the Nigerian Civilian President -Chief Olusegun Obasanjo, in yet another bid to come up with a programme that will be universal- throughout the country so as to extend the fruits of education to all nooks and crannies of the Nigerian nation. Innovations in Education 55 The programme will among other things cater for the sons and daughters of the Nigerian masses including the Nigerian nomads with a view to extending equal educational opportunities to all citizens. The federal government have demonstrated its interest in the area of education provision, the state and local governments who are supposed to be stakeholders in this gigantic efforts to a large extent have not yet come up with any good stories to write home about. Some opinion holds that UBE programme is another UPE in disguise, especially for the fact that up till the time of writing this paper, there was little or absence of a serious commitment to the programme both on the part of the federal, state and local governments. UBE may be quite laudable only if its conception and implementation modalities are well articulated. Primary education seems to have suffered from a number of inadequacies, such as inadequate planning, shortage of skilled manpower and limited resources, and reforms in education are normal processes in any effort geared towards development. It is quite right to review educational patterns from time to time. This is because time itself is not static and innovation is inevitable. But when reforms are made, they should involve the persons for whom they are meant. Right from the conceptualisation, the citizens who the reform is meant to service, should be adequately involved, so that the new programme would in the end be an innovation that would be better than what the former practices have been.

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Azare (2000) rightly concludes that in a democratic society like Nigeria, such reforms must not only involve the people for whom the reforms were meant, but they must also be carried out within the framework of the constitution. Another basic problem the UBE needs to address is the all-important issue of teachers. First, the teaching profession in Nigeria has not attained its rightful status. Everyone and anyone today is a teacher. Primary and secondary school dropouts have been found in our primary schools teaching. Those who have been through teacher training institutions are not certificated. There is also the problem of decadence of the inspectorate. Inspection being very crucial, to instruc- tions, suffers utter neglect in this country. Examine the role of teacher training institutions in the implementation process of the programme like the UBE. 3.3 Prospect of the UBE in Nigeria Although the Universal Basic Education is besieged with problems, there are prospects to look forward to. With good planning and management, the programme can serve our children and youth very positive~y. Planning is very important. It is our guide. Articulate plans pave way for good management. Good management provides adequate and suitable manpower. Since one of the many problems of the UBE in the late seventies is lack of the adequate planning, the UBE should not be left to lack the same setback. People with adequate and sound knowledge of our educational system should be contracted to plan functional stra.tegies that would make the UBE programme viable. The practice of contracting economists to plan education should be discouraged. Education is not all about money. The community today is in good stance to help out in the education of its children. There has to be an effective awareness campaign to re-alert the public on the need for community partnership in education. It is the responsibility of both the government and the community to educate the young. 56 Foundations o/Education The government should strive to put the gains of Education Tax Fund to use. With proper and honest management of the E. T.F., the government at all levels may not even be burdened with the funding of education. The money accrued from this fund could be used to fund education. And everyone now has a stake in education. Finance is very important to take care of the provision of teaching and learning materials, structures and infrastructures as well as meet the obligations of teachers' remuneration. Another source to finance primary and indeed levels of education is the establishment of Education Development Bank through its revolving interests and gains.

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It would.also be desirable to establish a Primary Education Teaching Commission. Someone has proposed an Institute of Certified Teachers of Nigeria (ITCN). This body would handle the issue of staffing and comprehensive personnel management programmes, which will ensure earnest allocation in a manner that would attract, retain and maintain staff with skills needed for effective teaching and learning as well as management of primary schools. Efforts to improve education should start at the primary level, not through pronouncements and piecemeal approach, but through a holistic approach aimed at practicalising minimum quality control standards in all areas as specified in the National Policy on Education and other documents. However, teachers have to take decisive steps to improve themselves for the benefit of their job. After all, no country can raise above the level of its teachers. If teachers are not good enough how do we expect them to raise a good enough youth population at the pool of any country's workforce and ultimate development. Whether or not Nigeria is, by international practice or constitutional provision, obliged to provide universal education for her citizens to the extent that Nigerians have come to regard and claim it as a birth right, whether or not Nigeria will come to be an effective democracy, which would give the UPE and UBE among other things a basic political and civic function, there seems to be no doubt that UPE and UBE in Nigeria will as elsewhere enhance the stature of men, and improve the quality of life for all citizens. Primary education whether it is described as UPE or UBE remains the bedrock upon which the entire educational system rests. We look forward to the UBE programme to fulfill our dream. It is not the name of a programme or what management body takes charge that does the magic. The magic is in the way and manner through which this level of education is governed. It~iOJ This unit discusses two popular educational programmes that were designed with a view to fulfilling the objective of providing equal educational opportunity for all Nigerian children and or youth. IfjlJmz Discuss the motives behind OPE programmes in Nigeria. "UPE and UBE are designed in an attempt to universalise education". Discuss. Taiwo, Ajayi et ai, Contemporary Issues in Nigerian Education. IjebuOde: Triumph Books Publishers; 1993. Nwagwu N.A, UPE: Issues, Prospects and Problems. Lagos: Academy Press Ltd., 1976. Fafunwa A. B, History of Education in Nigeria. Ibadan: Samadex Nig. Commercial Ent. Ltd, 1995.

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.~1 rm m ~... = rL;rim;! U;j~~" ., " ",);:;:;:, iUnlt%" ,"' '" '!!))"!f,~heCtS,tati :i"~'lllp$;l~::;/'i 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Content 4.0 Conclusion ' 5.0 Summar)' 6.0 Self-assessment Exercise 7.0 Tutor-marked Assignment 8.0 References . 58 Foundations o/Education The Teaching profession in Nigeria has many setbacks. Notable among them is how members of the society look upon the profession. Teachers are key elements in the development of any society as education is, but the problem is that the status of teachers remains very low. What is the cause of this and how can the problem be remedied. This unit discusses the present status of teachers and looks at the possible solutions to the problem. By the end of this unit, you should be able to: i.) Outline the possible causes that make teaching profession of low status. ii.) Offer possible suggestions that might uplift the status of teachers. The Status Of Teachers -An Overview. Historically, the teaching profession was of noble origin. A very long time ago, teachers were regarded as top members of the social strata. The knowledge they possessed enabled them to be regarded as such. History has it that teachers had been at the services of kings and rulers of ancient kingdoms in Greek, Asia and Europe. The service they rendered as transmitters of knowledge made them noble. In old Greece, Spartan and Athenian societies, teachers were employed not only to teach the royals, but also to offer military and political advice. By then teachers were handled with care. The teacher at the beginning of the Nigerian educational system was also of noble origin. When the British introduced the formal educational system in what is today Nigeria through the missionaries, the then teachers were of high status. With the self-government, teachers continued to enjoy the pride their predecessors had in the ancient times during colonialism. Factors Responsible for the Falling Status of Teaching. .Number of teachers compared with other professions in Nigeria is very large .Recruitment of teachers indiscriminately to meet the teachers requirement of the UPE scheme .The coming into teaching profession of many unqualified teachers .Lack of strong unionism to press for improved teacher's status

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.Poor salary for teachers as a result of governmental policies and large number of employed teachers .Teacher themselves have a poor selfimage of themselves .Deplorable conditions of service .Poor performance of teachers as a result of some of the factors stated above. 1. Read (a) and (b) and judge them TRUE or FALSE a) History has it that teachers did not enjoy any pride in ancient kingdoms. b) The teaching profession has always had a noble origin. c) Think of possible solutions to the problems being faced by teachers and how the situation can be improved upon. The Status a/Teachers in Nigeria 59 As a matter of fact the status of teachers within the Nigerian context is very low. A number of factors contribute to that. These factors need to be carefully considered by teachers in training so as to seek rem- edies to the problems. Unless care is taken, the teaching profession will die completely and the society will suffer at large. , ~ t This unit ~~ves an overview of the status of the teaching profession by tracing the historical aspect of the profession. .Factors responsible for the fall in the status of the teaching profession are outlined. .Participants have been taxed to study the factors and think of possible solutions. , ~'. 1. What other reasons can you give in addition to those outlined for the fall in the status of teachers in ~l. Nigeria. 2. Outline some solutions that might help to uplift the status of teachers in Nigeria. ~-~ ~'""""'""'M'~""'""""M_'W"""" .W**"-*~ IIII" * 1:\"'CC*'"";""d";""""'!,,,y,r"""'"'*"* 'C""I",.,&'*""""j : 1. Outline the possible causes that make teaching profession of low status. 2. What suggestions would you give to uplift the status of the teaching profession in Nigeria? Model Answers: Possible causes for the fall in the status of the teaching profession: .Large number of teachers in the profession as compared to other professions. .Recruitment of teachers indiscriminately to meet the demand of educational policies such as UPE. .The employment of many unqualified teachers.
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.Lack of strong unionism to press for teachers' status. .Poor salary for teachers. .Poor performance and self-image of teachers due to the factors above. Onwuka, U. "The Status of Teachers in Nigeria" Cudimac Series No. 10 Nsukka. Allan, P. (ed). The Effective Teacher in Primary and Secondary Schools. London: Word Lock Educa- tional,1983. mmm~~:rsm;m c . c 1m3 ;~ic _. 1.0 Introduction 2.0 Objectives 3.0 Content 4.0 Conclusion 5.0 Summary 6.0 Self-assessment Exercise 7.0 Tutor-marked Assignment 8.0 References We have in our previous discussion concentrated on the historical perspective of the foundations of education with a view to providing the learner with the meaning and nature of education, the growth of education and the educational trends. In this unit and others that follow, there is a shift of emphasis on the sociological perspective, thus we will be discussing education and the society. At the end of this unit, you should be able to: 1. List and appreciate the importance of education to the society; and 2. Explain that education is a pre-requisite for a meaningful development. The necessity for survival forces human society to transmit its values, attitudes, knowledge and skill to succeeding generations. The initial mechanism for doing this is through primary socialisation. The process of primary socialisation begins in the family, and as the society grows increasingly complex, formal education institutions assure the responsibility of developing and preparing the new generations for participation in the activities of the society, In industrial societies, education not only contribute in transmitting knowledge and skills, but is also the principal means of social mobility of persons. 3.1 Education and Society In changing society, there is always some divergence between what the society is and what it wants to be, between its practice and its ideals. Thus the educational system, being part of the culture has two supplementary functions 1. To be a mirror that reflects the society as it is, and; 2. To be an agent of social change and a force directed toward implementing the ideals of society. As a mirror of or stabiliser for society, the school reflects the existing social structure and tends to make
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children like their parents. We have seen that the school sometimes groups children according to the social class of their parents; it sometimes reward and punishes children in relation to their family status as well as in relation to their personal ability and performance; and it prepares most children to fill the same places in the social structure that their parents fill. Accordingly, the school teaches the 3Rs, the workings of government, to the established political and economic system. ..' As an agent for social change and as a force directed towards implementing the ideals of the society, , ,: the educa~ional system must be something of a d~sturber of the status quo. For instance, since the society places a hIgh value on health, the school seeks to Improve health. .. , f 3.2 The Famil y[ .. ~. The family is the first social group in which the child holds a membership, and the family is, of course the first ~ socialising agency in the child's life. The mother, the father, the siblings and other relatives are the first people with whom the child has contact and the first to teach him how to live with other people. The family is a smaller and more closely -knit social system, relationships are intimate and face-to-face; the old and the young are related in a well- define hierarchy of status. The family may be described as a system of interacting personalities. And while its members will change somewhat through the years, the family provides the individual with a primary group membership that en- dures throughout one's life. Every family acts to teach the child the culture and sub-culture to which he belongs. In the gross sense, a child born into an American family learns the American culture. He learns to speak English rather than Spanish, to eat with fork rather than with chopsticks. The child also learns in the family the social moral and economic values of the capture of the society. The family also inculcates either directly or indirectly how to relate with the adults, and how men relate to women, how to curb his aggressiveness and yet to cultivate his competitiveness how to develop loyalties, and how to seek for self-achievement. The overall expectan- cies and way of life of the culture are transmitted to the child through the family. 3.3 The School

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According to Marx Webster, School is an organisation with an administrative structure, characterised by a high degree of specialisation. The primary function of the school is education; and all the personnel of the school are in school to further such functions of educating the learners. The school exists to serve the interest of the community. The community provides the atmosphere and resources with which the school can work. The school must change continuously in both size and functions in response to the social and technological demand of the community. This is important because the commu- nity is never static. It is always changing because of the effects of influences within an outside the commu- nity, the curriculum of teaching, methodology, recruitment of qualified staff and admission of more pupils from every section of the community. The school must be ready to help the community to carry out any form of project when occasion demands. Such projects may include enlightenment on educational matters and environmental development and sanitations and the organisation of literacy programmes such as extra-organisation of literacy programmes such as extra-mural classes, nursery schools and adult education. 3.4 The Community A community simply defined, is the group of people living in one place, district or country considered as a whole'. (Oxford Dictionary). Similarly put in a more academic manner, community is 'a territorially bounded social system within which people live in harmony, love, intimacy and share common social economic and cultural characteristics. , People who think about education in broad terms as a process of teaching children the concept and attitudes of their society and of teaching them how to behave in their social, civic, and economic relations tend to think of the whole community as an educative agent. From this point of view, the school cannot do the job of education, therefore, the result of living and growing up in a community. 3.5 Religious Organisations These are organisations that serve as agencies of education. They.have among their numerous activities provision of programmes of instructing for young people, some want to perpetuate the beliefs of their groups. Some work directly with children in their different institutions and have different categories of instructors. The religious organisations have several functions in relation to children. One is to prepare the child to become a member of the group, this is done by teaching children the religious beliefs and practices of the religion and secondly, is to teach the child moral behaviour and moral principles. In addition, the religious organisations provide models for character development, through their leaders, youth groups and other adult members.
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II: ., i;]IIIB In this unit, you were exposed to the various relationships between education and society and how agencies of education can contribute in the process of educating members of the society. Education and the Society 63 It is a truism that school and the family share responsibility for educating child. And there is no doubt that the responsibility of educating the rest is in the hands of all the mentioned agencies I. Name all the agencies of education you know and write brief~on any one? --~ Explain the function of education to the society Fafunwa A. B., History of Education in Nigeria. Ibadan: NPS Educational Publishers Limited, 1995. Adesina, S., Planning and Educational Industries. Nig. Ltd. Box 2651 Lagos: Box 998 Ibadan Nigeria, 1977. Aminu, K. I., Historical Foundation of Education in Nigeria. Kano: Debis-Co Press & Publishing Com- pany Limited, P.O. Box 11961 (GPO), 2001. Neugarter H., Society and Education. USA: Aliyu And Bocon INC Boston, 1964. Social Class and Educational Opportunity 65 ~' ,. ~ c In all human societies, people have been different from each other, different in age, sex, height, intelligence, attitudes, some have gotten on well in life while others find themselves in the bottom of the ladder. But individual differences often lead to group differences, thus in every society, we find a collectivities of people who are like one another in some respect and different from others. It is in view of the above that this unit will be discussing issues relating to social class, educational opportunities, stratification and social mobil- ity. ! r ( fjy Cf At the end of this unit, you should be able to (i) Appreciate the differences between yourself and others; and (ii) ~e reasons why some people are better than others in terms of educational opportunities. 3.1 Social Class and Educational Opportunities The term social class refers to "a collection of men (and women) who share basically the same position in the allocative scheme or more or less endogamous stratum consisting of families of about equal prestige who are or would be acceptable to one another, for social interaction that is culturally regarded as more for less symbolic of equality".
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Class is an aggregate of stratum of people socially bunched together by some prior determined criteria in a given community or society. It is entirely devoid of legal or religious sanctions and is by far more open than any other stratification system. It's history can be traced to the development of capitalism when reward and status began to be based more on competition and achievement than on birth and ascription. This means that class is a phenomenon of the modern, complex society rather than of traditional simple society. Class is a social institution, though much more informally institutionalised than say caste. The basic unit of a class is the family, that is to say, class membership is a family not an individual status; for a class is a conglomeration of group of families of equal standing. Members of the same family are generally regarded as class equals in as much as they behave and interact with one another in ways which can be described essentially as on equal basis. In general, one's family orientation basically determines one's class position until one graduates into an adult or old enough to establish one's own class which may be higher, lower or equal to one's class position in one's family of orientation. Ordinarily, the husband's socio-economic position determines the clas~ placement of the entire family while the rest of the members of the family share his status. On the contrary, neither the social origin of the wife nor her occupation after marriage influences significantly the class placement of the family except in some scattered instances. One democratic imperative of education in most countries today is to provide equal educational opportu- nity in which all children are given access to education and are able to develop their inherent capabilities as best as they can. However, one of the causes of these inequalities is social class difference. In practical life, every society's class differences remain an obstacle to the egalitarian tendencies of school system. No matter the professed political ideology, and it affects both the child's access to education and his ability to benefit from formal schooling. This differential is more pronounced the higher one ascends the educational ladder, thus more at the tertiary stage than in second level institutions, and more in secondary schools than in primary schools. In countries where education is neither free nor compulsory, this inequality of opportunity is said to be found both in access and achievement. But in countries with free and compulsory education, these differen- tials are manifest only in the children's ability to benefit from this education. Children in these situations have 66 Foundations of Education access to schools but the home and other environmental experiences continue to affect their performance. 3.2 What Accounts for these Difference?
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Firstly, lower class families due to their poor economic dispositions cannot afford the high cost of education for their children. Equality true is the discrimination at secondary school level in that the quality of education is positively related to income and the effect of this class bias on the quality of students at different socio- economic levels will be in part, responsible for the lower educational performance of the children of the working class or the systematic difference between the upper and the lower classes. There is no doubt that the upper classes are better able to provide for their children's education than the working class. They can more easily pay the education bills of their young ones. The lower classes on the other hand, are usually unable to afford the money that will enable their programmes to sail through the educational hurdle. Secondly, it is also thought that the poor educational performances of children from lower classes are due more to the intellectual improverishment of their out-of-school experience than to deficiencies in intellectual potential. Upper class families can provide their children with a richer social and intellectual environment and norms that are conducive and encouraging to intellectual activism. In addition, evidences from several studies suggest that teachers often judge their pupils on the basis of their social class origin, often discriminating, albeit unconsciously, against working class children. This bias arises from the fact that teachers are themselves middle class either by virtue of their social origin in the middle class or through the acquisition of middle class values in their successful passage through primary, secondary and perhaps also tertiary institutions. This discrimination no doubts lead to differential perform- ance by children from different social class. Thus, in the area of moral standards, children from working class homes come to school with standards totally different from those of the school, which always transmits middle class values. 11'~ji~:. Show how parent's socio-economic background affects children's performance at school? 3.3 Stratification Stratification may be referred to as any classification based on individual or group differences. Sociologists believe that in modem societies, stratification is plainly of crucial importance in all areas of life, not just for analytical conveniences but also for administrative and other purposes. Stratification in society arises from two main factors namely the fact that (a) many good things in life are scarce and not easily accessible by all and sundry e.g. education, good food etc., and (b) those who are able to get these things do so essenti~lly by virtue of individual and group differences and certain qualities which they posses

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such as intelligence, wealth, high income, high honour and other social endowments. 3.4 Why Study Stratification? Discussion here will lead us to first of all examine one's class position which tends to determine to a large extent one's life chances, namely one's education, one's income, one'sjob expectations, one's leisure activities, one's attitudes and so on. Secondly, people often respond to other people and to situations not just as individuals but as members of a class or group. Thus if a child's background is middle class, he will have middle class approach to situations, if it is that of working class he carries working class characteristics. Conversely, people tend to react to others on the basis of what they perceive to be these others' class position. The study of stratification is, uv~,u, v,u u"u ~...,"' "yy'" ,..",,)' '" therefore, another way, of understanding why some people behave as they do. Thirdly, classification of people is also a convenient device for simplifying the world in which we live. Of course, classes tend to produce numerous organisations and other kinds of groupings based on commonness of interests and which tend to behave in the same way or act together e.g. labour unions. The study of stratification makes our understanding of these organisations and groupings in a society easier. In the world of information media and advertising, knowledge of classes could be an indispensable neces- sity. A knowledge of the characteristics and composition of the various groups in the society could be a useful asset in the spread of information and in advertising. It could enable a producer to know where to place certain information or a media agent to couch his message appropriately. , 3,5 Social Mobility The term social mobility refers to the movement of an individual from one position to another in the social structure. Social mobility may mean movement from one social class to another, involving the consolidation of the various elements of the new social position including occupation, income, types of house and new organisation membership. We, therefore, have class structure through which this mobility occurs, thus we have - upper class, middle class, and lower or working class. For those whose bread is buttered, it is easy for them to move upward from the lower class to even the upper class. This may be due to educational attainments, wealth or power. Social mobility tends to occur by an uneven and at first partial movement across the line that divides one class from another. Mobility on the other hand requires vive and purpose, and willingness to sacrifice some iTJlmediate pleasures for a greater future gain. So does success in school. The working class youth who succeeds in college not only learns

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the social and occupational skills necessary for mobility but learns also how to work and wait. In this, you were exposed to the different aspects of foundations of education including social class, educa- tional opportunities, stratification and social mobility. These are crucial aspects of the sociological aspects of ~ education, since it shows how individuals live and rise. You now study classes and group with the aim of not just to find similarities and differences between them but with these findings to draw attention to those who may be concerned with the welfare of the members of that society to areas of needs and concern. Equal educational opportunity can never be realised in a developing country like Nigeria. Discuss. Discuss the importance of the study of social stratification in relation to educational opportunities. Ezewu, E. Sociology of Education. Lagos: Longman Nig. Ltd. Ikeja, 1984. Fafunwa A., History of Education in Nigeria. Ibadan: Samadex Nig. Commercial Ent. Ltd., 1985. Adesina, S. et ai, Foundation Studies in Education. Ibadan: University Press, 1985. This unit is designed to introduce to you the different factors that influence the education of our children from the sociological perspective of the foundations of education. Discussions will be focused on the social status of parents; culture and the environment in which the children like all can influence the children's education. At the end of this unit, you should ,be able to: (i) State why some children perform poorly while others perform excellently in schools. mI"t:";"flitit Ifl~Qc.(~("'~ 3.1 Parents Social Status There is a plethora of evidence to suggest that social class positions influence education in many ways, but in particular, who goes to school, one's achievement in school and for how long one remains in the system. Whatever conclusions are arrived at, there is no doubt about the positive influence of parents social class on the education of their children, they eat the best food, they sleep in the best house, they are exposed to the best modem materials and even attend the best schools. The existence of educational inequalities is never in doubt, and one of the causes is attributed to the social class position or status. Parents of different social status have different attitudes to childcare and train their children differently. This affects the child's education in many ways. In achievement motivation for example, parents 'who set high goals for their children indicate a high evaluation of their competence to do a task well and impose standards of excellence upon problem-solving tasks, even in situations where he has both freedom of action and
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responsibility for success or failure. These factors are believed to be more pronounced among the upper than the lower classes. It is also evident that in modes of thought and actual development of intelligence and perception, children of the upper class have greater language dexterity and wider vocabulary, which enable them to express their ideas more articulately. All these have added advantage to children from the 'upper class over equally bright one's but coming from the working class'. The working class child comes to school with many handicaps. His innate intelligence is under-developed in certain aspects that are important for success in the educational system as it is now organised and his personality is so structured that he is unlikely to do well in school. According to Adesina (1985), the socio-economic status, refer to the home background, and the parental economic status of the child. The child, during socialisation process, is taught how to behave, interact with people, accept certain values and traditions of the society. The economic aspect is the extent to which the parents of the child can finance his needs, for example, good quality food, toys, books, pictures, clothes, medical care because social amenities have their effect on performance in school. 3.2 Culture Culture simply means civilisation and a cultured man is synonymous with a civilised man. In a related development, culture is viewed as "that complex whole which include knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, laws, customs and any other capabilities acquired by man as a member of society. Culture plays an important role in the education of its owners, it is for that reason that we now classify culture into the following component parts so as to attest its influence on the education of our children: (1) Speech, which includes language, writing system, e.g. we can distinguish between Arabic, the Chinese and the Greek system of writing. (2) Material traits, which includes food habits, shelter, transportation, dress, utensils and tools, weapons, ,,! occupations and industries. ~ ..(3) := includes carving, painting, drawing, music, etc. .70 Foundations of Education (4) Mythology and scientific knowledge. (5) Religious practices, which include ritualistic forms, treatment of the sick, care of the dead. (6) Family and social practices which includes forms of marriage, method of reckoning relationships, inher- itance, social control, sports and games. (7) Governrnent,judicial and political forms. (8) Welfare. From the above we can see that everything we do is culturally conditioned. The way we eat and sleep the
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way we dress and the types of dresses we use, the language we speak, the values and habits we hold, the goods and services we produce, the transportation system we have and the entertainment we enjoy -all are part of our cultural heritage. In its characteristics, culture is ideal and manifest. Ideal culture involves the ways people ought to behave or what they believe they ought to do. Manifest culture involves those things, which they actually do that are recognisable by others; that is, what others see them do. Culture is also shared and learned. Culture is shared when we consider the fact that people are born into an existing culture and it becomes a group property and that it is through interaction that individuals imbibe the values of the group. Culture is learned when we consider the fact that although cultural elements belong to the,meIfibers of the group as a right, all individuals do not imbibe the cultural values.at the same rate. Culture, therefore', can be summarised as the content of education and for that reason should have a bearing on our school curriculum. Any education enterprise that does not take into cognisance of the peo- ple's culture is bound to fail. . "The parent's social status in a society seriously affects his children's education" Discuss in favour or against this statement. 3.3 Environmental Factors If environment suggests the physical setting of the society or community in which one lives, it is, therefore, no doubt that, that environment can affect the learning of children in schools because this physical setting varies enormously from class to class. One has only to consider the housing typical of lower class families in rural areas as compared with that of the middle class family in a house in a sub-urban community or bigger houses in the cities. Children from the poor rural areas suffer lack of good drinking water, hygiene, food, and nutrients. In fact, all the characteristics of a rural setting suggest poor environmental quality and therefore, this has an adverse effect on the children's education. Envir.onment may in a more academic manner mean all the external conditions affecting a person. Such external conditions or surroundings usually have a powerfu I effect on the growth and development of people. Environment in this context includes the physical, chemical, social and economic factors, which affects the growth and development of a child. 3.4 The Physical Agents of Environment When a child is born, the toys and other hardwares, which are given to him, are physical in nature. He can touch, manipulate, dismantle and assemble them as he pleases. During all these processes, the child learns a' lot of things. As the child grows up, he comes into contact with ?ooks; television sets, learning aids and ! equipment. All these physical
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facilities enable the child to learn faster and carry out many functions. The J physical elements of the environment which influence the chilq includes his clothes, shoes, ornaments, types j of dwelling, furniture and the urban infrastructures. As mentioned above, a child who comes from a slum, for j instance, will behave differently from one who comes from a sub-urban setting. This is the effect of environ.J Factors that Influence Education 71 ment. A child who has been exposed to a lot of learning equipment and audio-visual aids will have a more improved perception than the one who has none of such facilities. Children in the urban areas are exposed to modem facilities for learning, their environmental quality is a model and that automatically should have a positive influence over their education. This unit contained some of the factors that can influence the education of children in their early life and aspect like the culture of the people should adequately be taken care of when designing any educational enterprise. To cap it all, this aspect of the sociological perspective of the foundations of education is very important and therefore, is pertinent for educational planners to consider very important factors like the culture of the people in whatever educational enterprises. Why do you think the people's culture is a factor that influences the education of their children? Explain why the inculcation of cultural values is important in the process of education in your society. ;;)!j~1~?i~rrl;i e:le1F,e: '",,"0 0 Ukaonu, W. U., Sociology of Nigerian Education for Universities. Owerri: New African Publishing Company Ltd, 1984. Chudi, C.N., Sociology of Education. Uruowulu-Obosi: Pacific Correspondence College & Press' Ltd., 1991. Ezewu, E., Sociology of Education. Lagos: Longman Nig. Ltd., 1984. Adesina, S. et al., Foundations Studies in Education. lbadan: University Press, 1985. Fafunwa A. B., History of Eduction in Nigeria. Ibadan: Samadex Nigeria Commercial Ent. Ltd., 1985. Index Academics, 7 Achievement, 7, 26, 62, 65, 69 Ideas, 32, 41 Acquisition 21 66 Independence, 42, 46, 47 Age, 7,61 , , Informatio~,4,37,67 Akinpelu, I.A., 6 Interpretation, 6, 7 Approaches, 4 Knowledge, 2, 3,21, 35-37, 42, 58, 61, 67-70
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Behaviour, 10, 12, 15-17,26,37,69 Kobiowu, S.V., 6, 64 Beliefs, 2, 4, 40, 69 Bernstein 7 Language, 2, 4, 41 , Body,10,21 Leamer(s),3,6, 11, 12, 18, 19,21,23,29,31 Learning, 1418,21-27,34,35 Caste 65 66 Life, 2, 6, 37-39 , , Children, 6, 7, 39,41, 43, 65, 66, 69, 70 Christianity, 41, 42 Management, 42, 55, 56 Citizen(s),6,7, 8,37,61 Materials, 12, 17,23 Class (also see caste) Maturation, 21, 23 Cornmission(s), 42,45 Methods, 4, 11,21,23,35 Cornmunity, 37,42,48,62,64 Mind, 10,21 Culture, 61, 69, 70 Missionaries, 41, 45,58 Cwriculum, 31,40,46,62 Motivation, 17,23-28 Mushin Education (see education) Defmition(s), 10,15,56 Democritus,10 Nigeria, 7,41-48,50-53,53-57 Descartes, 1O Development, 10,47,50,58,61 Objectives,2,6, 10, 15,21,25,30,34,40,45,50,53,58, Discipline, 10,37 61,65,69 Document, 56 Opportunity(s), 6, 64-67 Education, 2, 3, 6,11,33-48,50-55,60-63,68-71 Parents, 7, 61, 69 Education; Pavlov, 16-18 -Innovation in 52-56 Performance, 66 -Levels of, 50 Philosophers, 10,37 -Mushin,41 Philosophy, 1-4, 10 -Traditional, 40 Policies, 3, 39, 48, 60 -Types of, 40-43 Population, 7,61 -Western, 41, 42 Principles, 3,10,16,17,21,31,60 Environment, 6, 7,10,15,34,65,66,69,70 Problems, 2, 3, 6,11,30,58 Experience(s), 2, 22, 23, 65 Programmes, 6, 47,66 Experiment, 16 Psychologist, 10,23 Psychology, 9-13,15,33 Family(s),6,7,61,62, 65 Pupils, 17,20,31,62,66 Goals, 3,46, 47 Qua1ification(s) 7, 61 God, 2, 41 Question(s)2,10,32 Government, 6-8,44-48,61,70 Quran, 41 Health, 6, 61 Reinforcement, 17 Higher Education, 51 Religious Organisations, 62 Human Beings 4 1O 1726Research, 11 ",, Index 73 Resources, 6 UBE, 7, 55, 56, 61 Response, 18,21 UPE,47,53-56 UNESCO, 34 Schools, 3,7,22,37,41,62, 66 Universe, 2 Skills, 15,21,22,30,34-36,40,61,67 Society, 4, 34 Values, 3, 34, 3-7,61,65,66,70 Sociologist, 66 Soul, lOW ealth, 66, 67 Stimulus, 17, 18,21 Webster Marx, 62 Strategies, 6-8, 30, 4fJ, 61 Welfare, 67, 70
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Stratification, 65-67 Western Education, (see education) Students, 2, 3, 17,27,31 Wisdom, 2 System, 61, 67 World, 2, 3,4,34,67 Worship, 41,45 Task, 21,23, 30, 69 Teacher(s),2,3,7, 12, 18-20,25,28,30,31,57-59,65 Years, 7,61,62 Teaching Aids, 12 Youths, 46 Theories, 3, 10, II, 14-18,25-27 Thorndike Edward, 16- 18,21 Zero transfer, 30 Tradition, 34, 70 Traditional Education (see education)

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