Reconstruction False Dawn

To what extent was the era of Reconstruction a “false dawn” for African Americans in the Southern state of the United States of America? 1863 - 1877

During the era of construction, African Americans were led to believe that things were about to change for them. The emancipation proclamation introduced by Lincoln had been passed in 1863, which immediately entitled freedom to 50,000 slaves. They were now free, no longer tied down by the restrictions of slavery, which meant things could be done to improve their lives, economically, socially and politically, hopefully leading to their equal presence in society. In the North, this may have been the case, whose victory in the Civil War had led to the end of slavery in America, with the establishment of the Freedman’s Bureau leading to a better life for many, however in the South, their plans for the newly freed slaves was something entirely different.

The era of reconstruction saw the very first use of violence from white supremacist groups on African Americans. The Ku Klux Klan was established in 1886, in Tennessee, where they would use violence and intimidation, not only against black people, but also against supporters of Reconstruction in the South. Numerous attacks were made through 1866, to 1870, from the Memphis riots, where 46 blacks who
had served in the Northern Army were killed, to Mississippi, where Klansmen mutilated a leading black Republican, and finally in Georgia, where three scallywag Republicans were also murdered. Spiller notes that “Jack Dupree, black and politically active in Mississippi, who had spoken out in favour of equal rights, had his throat cut by the Klan and was disembowelled in front of his wife.” Each of these murders committed, were not only against African Americans, but also against those who were in support of the North. It would have been easy enough for the Klan to excuse the attacks, by saying that they were attacking based on principle – they don’t want to associate with people who had turned their backs on the South in support of the North. It was visible that there was still tension between the North and the South, making it a likely idea that the South would have done anything to rid their area of foreign bodies.

The period of Reconstruction also saw the introduction of new laws which were made to keep black people subordinate to whites. First of all, there were the Black Codes, which had been implemented from 1865-1866, and restricted both the rights and civil liberties of the African Americans. Some of these Black Codes included that employment was required of all freedmen and if they refused, they would face vagrancy charges, also, they were not taught to read or write, which constantly kept them in a more subordinate position than any white person, as their opportunity for employment outside of agricultural work was very limited. Jim Crow laws, which were then introduced in 1876, were in many ways a follow on from the Black Codes which had now become dated. The laws had a “separate but equal” status for the African Americans, however this was incredibly unlikely to work. These laws prioritised segregation, and ways in which black people could believe they were being equally treated, but the state still managed to keep them subordinate to whites. For example, segregation could be found within: public schools, public transportation, restrooms, restaurants and even within the US military army. How could African Americans and Americans be equal beings, if each aspect of their lives were kept separate?

However, some acts were passed to try and counter the black codes by denying the discrimination of black people in society, and this included bills such as the Civil Rights Act 1866. Within this Act, it stated that black citizens of the United States were allowed the same protection of the law as white people. This was quite radical, especially in the South, where black people were still kept in subordinate positions despite the passing of the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863. The second Civil Rights Act came in 1875, five years after it had been introduced by Charles Sumner and Benjamin Butler, which shows us just how hard people had to try to get equality acts passed. This act promised that “all persons, regardless of race, colour, or previous condition of servitude, were entitled to full and equal accommodation in inns, public conveyances on land or water, theatres and other places of public amusement”. This was another large step forward in the struggle of civil rights, and years later, it was even labelled unconstitutional as it said that Congress didn’t have the power to regulate actions of individuals. The 14th amendment was ratified in 1868 and stated that all persons born or naturalised in the United States were citizens to the nation and their states, and also guaranteed that if a state denied suffrage to any male citizens, its representation in Congress would be proportionately reduced. This meant that if Southern states attempted to stop black males from voting, they would be punished by having their voices silenced. Of course, the South rejected this amendment. The 15th amendment prohibited the denial of suffrage to all adult males, however this time the South accepted, because as Field points out, it clearly had its loopholes, for example the introduction of voting restrictions such as owning property and having to take literacy tests, which would be virtually impossible for an African American male who earned little money, and so couldn’t afford their own properties or even an education.

Now although these acts were a major progression in the attempts at equality for black people, they had their pitfalls, and this was mainly down to the Supreme Court, who would regularly throw out these acts when deciding on a verdict for the suspect, especially when it came to black males on trial for the alleged rapes of white women. This just shows how unwilling people were to change, including those in the public eye who were authority figures. Not only were judges discriminatory, but so were the police – a force who should have been attempting to increase equality, but instead aided in widening the gap between black people and white people.

Murphy believed that “a greater failing of the Reconstruction period was in social matters”. Without a suitable education, money, or a home to live in, African Americans began to experience a new type of inferiority in society. With their newly found freedom, ex-slaves found it difficult to find work, which not only paid well, but also allowed them to gain experience that they had not been able to achieve in previous years through education. To the plantation owners in the South, this was perfect, as they tricked former slaves into sharecropping, while still making them believe they had their freedom. However, this was not the case. They would often have to sign contracts keeping them in their place, and one of the biggest aspects of slavery was still very prominent – according to Murphy, sharecroppers had a “dependence on whites” as they would struggle to make it on their own.

During Reconstruction, certain individuals played a great part in both the hindrance and help of Civil Rights. Andrew Johnson, Lincoln’s successor “wished to reabsorb the former Confederate states into the union on the most generous terms possible” says Jenkins. Johnson was originally from the South, born into a poor, white family and “made his way in the world purely by his own intelligence and strength of will” says Hill. Although he held a personal grudge against the planter aristocracy of the South, he had no desires to make black people equal either. After Lincoln’s death, Johnson had attempted to continue his moderate policy towards to South , however when trying to do so, he ended up in a “violent collision” with the Radicals, as he lacked Lincoln’s skills in overcoming his opposition. Also, because he was a Republican who in previous years had been a Democrat, he couldn’t win support from either party and this is what led to his constant obsession with trying to re-unifying the Union into one.

However, all was not bad. Towards the end of the Civil War, the Freedman’s Bureau was established by the federal government as a way of giving food, shelter, medical aid and land to ex-slaves who had no idea how to live their new lives. According to C.P. Hill, “some Negroes believed that life was now to be one long holiday: others used freedom to rob and plunder: many rushed straight from the plantations to the towns in a vain hope of finding work.” But Hill sums it up perfectly when he states that, “very few had any real idea of how best to use their freedom.” This was where the Freedman’s Bureau stepped in. In 1866, a Freedman’s Bureau act was passed and this extended the work of the Bureau, which included the right of military courts in the South to hear cases of racial discrimination. Although this may have worked for a short period of time, it was difficult to change the minds of the South who were dead set against the equality of black people in society. The Freedman’s Bureau was also responsible for the large advancement in education services, as they managed to improve literacy rates of black people throughout America. The Bureau spent 17 million dollars on establishing 100 hospitals, and 4,000 schools, not to mention the first ever black institutions of higher education. Clearly, the Freedman’s Bureau had a huge effect on the progress of the African American’s equality, by giving them the same chance in life as the white Americans, a liberty which they should have had years long before then. By 1876, there were 70,000 blacks in schools in the South compared to none in 1860, which was great, as the previous attempts at giving black people a fair chance at success or a life similar to a white person was virtually unheard of, especially in Southern states. In 1865, 95% of Southern blacks could not read or write, and by 1870 it had lowered to 81% and continued to decrease as time went on.

One major weakness of the Reconstruction period is that it was during this time that black people became okay with the idea of being separate to white people. This largely happened within education, where black teachers would teach black students, as white teachers would often refuse. Rather than protesting against their subordinate positions within society, they accepted it, which is the most upsetting part, as they obviously realised that attempting to equalise their position was a lost cause. They were okay with the fact that schools, hospitals and transport were segregated, most probably because the less fuss they made about their position in society, the less likely they were to get beaten, punished, and killed by members of the mobs.

Overall, Reconstruction was most definitely a ‘false dawn’ for the African Americans.
At its start, Reconstruction seemed like an exciting new aspect which would bring black people the new life which they deserved, and had deserved for the past 100 years. However unfortunately this was not the case. As they were expecting life to now be easy, they were faced with even harsher restrictions and barriers in society that meant they were now even worse off than they may have been whilst they were slaves. However the period was not a complete failure. Numerous acts were passed which meant that former slaves now had opportunities to establish themselves as now free
individuals.

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[ 1 ]. African Americans After The Civil War – John Spiller
[ 2 ]. Civil Rights In America 1865-1980 – Ron Field
[ 3 ]. United States 1776-1992 – Derrick Murphy, et al
[ 4 ]. A History Of The United States, Third Edition – Philip Jenkins
[ 5 ]. A History Of The United States, Third Edition – C.P. Hill
[ 6 ]. A History Of The United States, Third Edition – C.P. Hill
[ 7 ]. A History Of The United States, Third Edition – C.P. Hill