Relationship Between Evolution And Natural Selection
Definition/comparison questions Evolution / Selection
Evolution is a slow continuous process of change that happens in plants and animals over a long period of time resulting in a change from simpler to more complex forms. This is the reason modern day plants and animals are different from those of past.
The competition for resources will favour organisms with better adaptability and certain variations over others hence leading to change in the rate of occurrence of certain traits within that population. This process is called natural selection.
Relationship between evolution and natural selection is that main theory behind evolution is natural selection. The species with variations better suited to environment will survive and reproduce …show more content…
and hence these variants will be more dominant in next generations.
Exergonic / Endothermic
Any metabolic or chemical process accompanied by release of energy is called exergonic process. These are spontaneous reactions. For example mixing of sodium and chlorine to make table salt, and chemiluminescence.
Any metabolic process accompanied by absorbance of heat energy from it's surroundings is called endothermic process. These are non-spontaneous reactions. For example photosynthesis, melting of ice in water.
Allosteric inhibition / Feedback inhibition
Enzymes consist of a site called allosteric site. Molecules such as inhibitors can bind to this site resulting in the change of enzyme's shape, as a result of which that enzyme's substrate cannot bind to the enzyme anymore and hence enzyme's function is inhibited. This is called allosteric inhibition.
Feedback inhibition is a type of allosteric regulation in which the molecule binding to allosteric site of the first enzyme in a series of enzymes is the end product of a series of enzymatic reactions to stop production.
Peripheral membrane proteins / Integral membrane proteins
Peripheral membrane proteins, also called extrinsic proteins, are attached to cytosolic face of plasma membrane or exoplasmic face of plasma membrane either indirectly through intrinsic proteins or directly through interaction with lipid polar head groups. These do not interact with hydrophobic core of plasma membrane.
Integral membrane proteins, also called intrinsic proteins, are embedded in the phospholipid bilayer of plasma membrane. These proteins span the entire phospholipid bilayer and extend into the aqueous medium on each side of the bilayer. Intrinsic proteins have phospholipid side chains which interact with hydrophobic core of plasma membrane.
Prokaryotic / Eukaryotic
Eukaryotic cells have complex and large structures(10-100um). They consist of membrane bound organelles, a true membrane bound nucleus, 80S large ribosome, chloroplasts, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum and more than one chromosomes. Cell wall is chemically simple and found in plants. For example animals and plants.
Prokaryotic cells have small and simple structures(1-10um). They do not have a nucleus and have one chromosome which is not true. They have plasmids and 70S ribosome. They lack chloroplasts, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum. Cell wall is chemically complexed with peptidoglycan. For example bacteria and cyanobacteria.
Enzymes / Ribozymes
Enzymes are protein molecules which act as catalysts. They are composed of amino acids.
Ribozymes are RNA molecules which act as catalysts. They are composed of nucleotides. They are found mostly in viruses which use RNA to store their genetic information. They interact with metal ions such as Mg2+ to function.
Short Answer/Short Essay Questions
Active membrane transport / Passive membrane transport
Active membrane transport is when ions and other molecules move across a membrane against the concentration gradient and by the utilization of ATP.
Passive membrane transport is when ions and other molecules move across a membrane down the concentration gradient without the utilization of ATP.
ATP / ADP
ATP stands for Adenosine Triphosphate. It is comprised of an adenosine atom and three inorganic phosphates, or a triphosphate. When one of these phosphates is expelled, the vitality that keeps individuals alive is created.
When one of the three phosphates are expelled the resulting compound is called ADP, Adenosine Diphosphate. ADP can be changed over once again into ATP with the goal that it can be utilized once more. Energy is required to do this, yet there is a general increase in energy when the procedure happens.
Alcohol fermentation / Lactate fermentation
Also called ethanol fermentation, alcohol fermentation is the anaerobic pathway of fermentation by which simple sugars are converted into ethanol and carbon dioxide. As a result of this fermentation, 2 ATP are produced/glucose. For example cytosol of yeast …show more content…
cells
Lactic acid fermentation takes place in the absence of oxygen and converts pyruvate formed as a result of glycolysis, into lactic acid. As a result of this fermentation, 2ATP/glucose are produced. For example this usually happens in muscles when they are over worked and oxygen is not available.
Light dependent reactions / Light independent reactions
Photosynthesis takes place in two parts namely light independent reactions and light dependent reactions.
During light dependent reactions, chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH is harnessed from light energy which is absorbed by photosystems 1 and 2 present in thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts.
During light independent reactions, carbohydrates are formed from carbon dioxide using ATP and NADPH produced during light dependent reactions.
Explain the theory of endosymbiosis. What is the evidence in favour of this theory?
The theory of endosymbiosis suggests that mitochondria in eukaryotic cells have actually evolved from an aerobic bacterium and chloroplasts in algae and plants have evolved from a cyanobacterium living with a mitochondria containing eukaryotic host cell. The evidence for this theory is as follows:
• Mitochondria and chloroplasts arise from already existing mitochondria and chloroplasts. DNA codes for only a few proteins used to construct them.
• Mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own DNA which resembles bacterial DNA and not nuclear DNA.
• Mitochondria and DNA have their own protein-synthesizing factory which resembles that of bacteria and not of eukaryotes.
Explain the panspermia hypothesis. What evidence supports it?
Panspermia literally mean 'seeds everywhere'. The theory of panspermia suggests that life came from space and different planets exchanged life. It suggests that life could have originated on some other planet and came to earth. The evidence supporting this theory includes bacteria able to survive UV radiations, proton bombardments and cold of space, proof that meteorites contain life and that bacteria can live for a long time is sleeping state until awakened.
Compare and contrast the types of molecules transported by simple diffusion, by osmosis, and by facilitated diffusion. How are these types of movement different from active transport?
In simple diffusion, tiny non-charged molecules or lipid solvent particles travel between the phospholipids to enter or leave the cell, moving from zones of high concentration to regions of low concentration (they move down their concentration gradient). Oxygen and carbon dioxide and most lipids enter and leave cells by simple diffusion.
Osmosis is a kind of simple diffusion in which water particles diffuse through a selectively permeable layer from regions of high water concentration to regions of lower water concentration.
In facilitated diffusion, particles pass in and out of cell through protein channels. Charged or polar molecules use this route.
These type of movements differ from active transport in a way that they move down the concentration gradient and don't use ATP whereas active transport moves against concentration gradient and uses ATP.
Currently the earth’s atmosphere has more than 20% oxygen. What is the origin of that oxygen, and how has the content of the atmosphere changed over time?
During the early days, after the escape of helium, hydrogen and other hydrogen containing compounds Earth was left with no atmosphere. The first atmosphere was formed by the gasses released during volcanic eruptions.
Life eventually started having impacts on the atmosphere once photosynthetic organisms evolved.
Blue--green algae were the first photosynthetic organisms. they started eating up CO2 and converted it into marine sediments. While they reduced CO2 from atmosphere they started producing oxygen. For a long time the oxygen produced was absorbed by the rocks that is why it did not build up in the atmosphere. To this time, most of the early oxygen produced is locked in the red bed and banded rock. About 1 billion years ago these rocks became saturated and free oxygen started accumulating in the atmosphere. Once oxygen was present in the atmosphere, UV light broke the molecules to form
ozone.
The evolution of atmosphere can be divided into four parts. First three steps that are origin, chemical era, microbial era are explained in the previous paragraph then comes the biological era era in which there was a decrease in atmospheric CO2 and increase in atmospheric oxygen. oxygen increased in different stages. Firstly by photolysis of water vapours and carbon dioxide using. Secondly, when there was sufficient oxygen in the atmosphere UV light broke up the molecules to convert them into ozone. thirdly, the presence of oxygen gave rise to efficiency and once life began oxygen was produced in bulk.
Describe the structure, organization, and functions of microtubules.
Microtubules have a diameter of 25nm and are made of monomers tubulin. Each tubulin consists of an alpha tubulin and a beta tubulin. These tubulins are arranged to form a tube like structure. Tubulin monomers are linked both by sides and by ends, hence they are very strong lengthwise.
Microtubules function in separation of sister chromatids during mitosis, movement, engulfment of particles, transport of vesicles through cytosol and muscle contraction.
What is a sodium-potassium pump?
In nerve cells, there is an excess of Na ions outside the cells and an excess of K ions inside the cells. As a result of this specific balance, outside of cell is positive relative to inside of cell. This potential difference is necessary for generation of action potential. In order to maintain this balance, sodium-potassium pump is necessary to pump 3 Na ions outside cell and 2 K ions inside cell using ATP against concentration gradient.
What is glycolysis? Describe input and output and the two major phases
Inputs of glycolysis are glucose, 2 ATP, 2 NAD+, 4ADP + P ad outputs of glycolysis are 2 pyruvates, 4 ATP (2 net), 2 NADH + H+, 2 H20.
Glycolysis has two main phases called preparatory phase and pay-off phase. In the preparatory phase, ATP molecules are utilized to make two 3-c molecules called glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate and dihydroacetone phosphate.
In the pay-off phase, energy rich molecules such as ATP and NADPH are produced in addition to two pyruvate molecules.
What is uncoupling? How is it used physiologically by some organisms?
Uncoupling is the process in which ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN ETC becomes uncoupled to the production of ATP. Hence ETC does not produce ATP and all of the energy is lost as heat and a lot of reactive oxygen species are formed. Organisms use this physiologically during cold or hibernation, because heat is produced.
List the main points of the cell theory.
The theory states that all new cells are produced from the cells already existing and cell is the basic unit of the structure, function and organization in all living beings. During mid 1600s this theory started developing after the invention of microscope. This caused the study of cell structure, DNA and different diseases.
Briefly the main points of cell theory can be written as
1. All cells are formed from existing cells.
2. All life processes take place in cells.
3. Cells are building blocks of life.
Which property of rubisco leads to the problem of photorespiration?
The inability of rubisco to completely differentiate between O2 and CO2 lead to photorespiration. When CO2 levels drop, rubisco combines RuBP with oxygen instead of CO2 hence leading to photo respiration and wastage of energy.
Evolution is a slow continuous process of change that happens in plants and animals over a long period of time resulting in a change from simpler to more complex forms. This is the reason modern day plants and animals are different from those of past.
The competition for resources will favour organisms with better adaptability and certain variations over others hence leading to change in the rate of occurrence of certain traits within that population. This process is called natural selection.
Relationship between evolution and natural selection is that main theory behind evolution is natural selection. The species with variations better suited to environment will survive and reproduce …show more content…
and hence these variants will be more dominant in next generations.
Exergonic / Endothermic
Any metabolic or chemical process accompanied by release of energy is called exergonic process. These are spontaneous reactions. For example mixing of sodium and chlorine to make table salt, and chemiluminescence.
Any metabolic process accompanied by absorbance of heat energy from it's surroundings is called endothermic process. These are non-spontaneous reactions. For example photosynthesis, melting of ice in water.
Allosteric inhibition / Feedback inhibition
Enzymes consist of a site called allosteric site. Molecules such as inhibitors can bind to this site resulting in the change of enzyme's shape, as a result of which that enzyme's substrate cannot bind to the enzyme anymore and hence enzyme's function is inhibited. This is called allosteric inhibition.
Feedback inhibition is a type of allosteric regulation in which the molecule binding to allosteric site of the first enzyme in a series of enzymes is the end product of a series of enzymatic reactions to stop production.
Peripheral membrane proteins / Integral membrane proteins
Peripheral membrane proteins, also called extrinsic proteins, are attached to cytosolic face of plasma membrane or exoplasmic face of plasma membrane either indirectly through intrinsic proteins or directly through interaction with lipid polar head groups. These do not interact with hydrophobic core of plasma membrane.
Integral membrane proteins, also called intrinsic proteins, are embedded in the phospholipid bilayer of plasma membrane. These proteins span the entire phospholipid bilayer and extend into the aqueous medium on each side of the bilayer. Intrinsic proteins have phospholipid side chains which interact with hydrophobic core of plasma membrane.
Prokaryotic / Eukaryotic
Eukaryotic cells have complex and large structures(10-100um). They consist of membrane bound organelles, a true membrane bound nucleus, 80S large ribosome, chloroplasts, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum and more than one chromosomes. Cell wall is chemically simple and found in plants. For example animals and plants.
Prokaryotic cells have small and simple structures(1-10um). They do not have a nucleus and have one chromosome which is not true. They have plasmids and 70S ribosome. They lack chloroplasts, Golgi apparatus, mitochondria and endoplasmic reticulum. Cell wall is chemically complexed with peptidoglycan. For example bacteria and cyanobacteria.
Enzymes / Ribozymes
Enzymes are protein molecules which act as catalysts. They are composed of amino acids.
Ribozymes are RNA molecules which act as catalysts. They are composed of nucleotides. They are found mostly in viruses which use RNA to store their genetic information. They interact with metal ions such as Mg2+ to function.
Short Answer/Short Essay Questions
Active membrane transport / Passive membrane transport
Active membrane transport is when ions and other molecules move across a membrane against the concentration gradient and by the utilization of ATP.
Passive membrane transport is when ions and other molecules move across a membrane down the concentration gradient without the utilization of ATP.
ATP / ADP
ATP stands for Adenosine Triphosphate. It is comprised of an adenosine atom and three inorganic phosphates, or a triphosphate. When one of these phosphates is expelled, the vitality that keeps individuals alive is created.
When one of the three phosphates are expelled the resulting compound is called ADP, Adenosine Diphosphate. ADP can be changed over once again into ATP with the goal that it can be utilized once more. Energy is required to do this, yet there is a general increase in energy when the procedure happens.
Alcohol fermentation / Lactate fermentation
Also called ethanol fermentation, alcohol fermentation is the anaerobic pathway of fermentation by which simple sugars are converted into ethanol and carbon dioxide. As a result of this fermentation, 2 ATP are produced/glucose. For example cytosol of yeast …show more content…
cells
Lactic acid fermentation takes place in the absence of oxygen and converts pyruvate formed as a result of glycolysis, into lactic acid. As a result of this fermentation, 2ATP/glucose are produced. For example this usually happens in muscles when they are over worked and oxygen is not available.
Light dependent reactions / Light independent reactions
Photosynthesis takes place in two parts namely light independent reactions and light dependent reactions.
During light dependent reactions, chemical energy in the form of ATP and NADPH is harnessed from light energy which is absorbed by photosystems 1 and 2 present in thylakoid membranes of chloroplasts.
During light independent reactions, carbohydrates are formed from carbon dioxide using ATP and NADPH produced during light dependent reactions.
Explain the theory of endosymbiosis. What is the evidence in favour of this theory?
The theory of endosymbiosis suggests that mitochondria in eukaryotic cells have actually evolved from an aerobic bacterium and chloroplasts in algae and plants have evolved from a cyanobacterium living with a mitochondria containing eukaryotic host cell. The evidence for this theory is as follows:
• Mitochondria and chloroplasts arise from already existing mitochondria and chloroplasts. DNA codes for only a few proteins used to construct them.
• Mitochondria and chloroplasts have their own DNA which resembles bacterial DNA and not nuclear DNA.
• Mitochondria and DNA have their own protein-synthesizing factory which resembles that of bacteria and not of eukaryotes.
Explain the panspermia hypothesis. What evidence supports it?
Panspermia literally mean 'seeds everywhere'. The theory of panspermia suggests that life came from space and different planets exchanged life. It suggests that life could have originated on some other planet and came to earth. The evidence supporting this theory includes bacteria able to survive UV radiations, proton bombardments and cold of space, proof that meteorites contain life and that bacteria can live for a long time is sleeping state until awakened.
Compare and contrast the types of molecules transported by simple diffusion, by osmosis, and by facilitated diffusion. How are these types of movement different from active transport?
In simple diffusion, tiny non-charged molecules or lipid solvent particles travel between the phospholipids to enter or leave the cell, moving from zones of high concentration to regions of low concentration (they move down their concentration gradient). Oxygen and carbon dioxide and most lipids enter and leave cells by simple diffusion.
Osmosis is a kind of simple diffusion in which water particles diffuse through a selectively permeable layer from regions of high water concentration to regions of lower water concentration.
In facilitated diffusion, particles pass in and out of cell through protein channels. Charged or polar molecules use this route.
These type of movements differ from active transport in a way that they move down the concentration gradient and don't use ATP whereas active transport moves against concentration gradient and uses ATP.
Currently the earth’s atmosphere has more than 20% oxygen. What is the origin of that oxygen, and how has the content of the atmosphere changed over time?
During the early days, after the escape of helium, hydrogen and other hydrogen containing compounds Earth was left with no atmosphere. The first atmosphere was formed by the gasses released during volcanic eruptions.
Life eventually started having impacts on the atmosphere once photosynthetic organisms evolved.
Blue--green algae were the first photosynthetic organisms. they started eating up CO2 and converted it into marine sediments. While they reduced CO2 from atmosphere they started producing oxygen. For a long time the oxygen produced was absorbed by the rocks that is why it did not build up in the atmosphere. To this time, most of the early oxygen produced is locked in the red bed and banded rock. About 1 billion years ago these rocks became saturated and free oxygen started accumulating in the atmosphere. Once oxygen was present in the atmosphere, UV light broke the molecules to form
ozone.
The evolution of atmosphere can be divided into four parts. First three steps that are origin, chemical era, microbial era are explained in the previous paragraph then comes the biological era era in which there was a decrease in atmospheric CO2 and increase in atmospheric oxygen. oxygen increased in different stages. Firstly by photolysis of water vapours and carbon dioxide using. Secondly, when there was sufficient oxygen in the atmosphere UV light broke up the molecules to convert them into ozone. thirdly, the presence of oxygen gave rise to efficiency and once life began oxygen was produced in bulk.
Describe the structure, organization, and functions of microtubules.
Microtubules have a diameter of 25nm and are made of monomers tubulin. Each tubulin consists of an alpha tubulin and a beta tubulin. These tubulins are arranged to form a tube like structure. Tubulin monomers are linked both by sides and by ends, hence they are very strong lengthwise.
Microtubules function in separation of sister chromatids during mitosis, movement, engulfment of particles, transport of vesicles through cytosol and muscle contraction.
What is a sodium-potassium pump?
In nerve cells, there is an excess of Na ions outside the cells and an excess of K ions inside the cells. As a result of this specific balance, outside of cell is positive relative to inside of cell. This potential difference is necessary for generation of action potential. In order to maintain this balance, sodium-potassium pump is necessary to pump 3 Na ions outside cell and 2 K ions inside cell using ATP against concentration gradient.
What is glycolysis? Describe input and output and the two major phases
Inputs of glycolysis are glucose, 2 ATP, 2 NAD+, 4ADP + P ad outputs of glycolysis are 2 pyruvates, 4 ATP (2 net), 2 NADH + H+, 2 H20.
Glycolysis has two main phases called preparatory phase and pay-off phase. In the preparatory phase, ATP molecules are utilized to make two 3-c molecules called glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate and dihydroacetone phosphate.
In the pay-off phase, energy rich molecules such as ATP and NADPH are produced in addition to two pyruvate molecules.
What is uncoupling? How is it used physiologically by some organisms?
Uncoupling is the process in which ELECTRON TRANSPORT CHAIN ETC becomes uncoupled to the production of ATP. Hence ETC does not produce ATP and all of the energy is lost as heat and a lot of reactive oxygen species are formed. Organisms use this physiologically during cold or hibernation, because heat is produced.
List the main points of the cell theory.
The theory states that all new cells are produced from the cells already existing and cell is the basic unit of the structure, function and organization in all living beings. During mid 1600s this theory started developing after the invention of microscope. This caused the study of cell structure, DNA and different diseases.
Briefly the main points of cell theory can be written as
1. All cells are formed from existing cells.
2. All life processes take place in cells.
3. Cells are building blocks of life.
Which property of rubisco leads to the problem of photorespiration?
The inability of rubisco to completely differentiate between O2 and CO2 lead to photorespiration. When CO2 levels drop, rubisco combines RuBP with oxygen instead of CO2 hence leading to photo respiration and wastage of energy.