research proposal on teenager pregnancy in developing countries

INTRODUCTION
This research proposal focuses on teenage pregnancy in developing countries. It also focuses on the factors contributing to early pregnancies, how to prevent early pregnancies and the adverse effects of early pregnancies on economic development of a country as well as the impacts on young mothers. PROBLEM STATEMENT
Adolescent pregnancy has long been a worldwide social and educational concern for the developed, developing and underdeveloped countries. Many developing countries continue to experience high incidence of teenage pregnancy despite the intervention strategies that have been put in place. The differences in incidence of teenage pregnancy among nations result from socio-economic factors. Teenage pregnancy is prevalent in societies characterized by poverty, low education, fewer job opportunities and families headed by mothers who gave birth to their first children in adolescence (Dryfoos, 1996; Macleod, 1999). Teenage pregnancy is also associated with other problematic behavior such as alcohol and drug use, and early initiation of sexual activity, which have been identified as predictors of pregnancy (Coley & Chase-Lansdale, 1998; National Population Unit, 2000). Plant & Plant (1992) argue that problem behaviour is associated with social disadvantage, poverty, homelessness, unemployment, and stressful life events. The youth emulate the behaviour of their parents and of their society, thus social and cultural factors influence patterns of risk taking. The factors that predispose girls to falling pregnant in their adolescent includes; personal, family and social factors.
The existing theory that gives a psychological explanation for the occurrence of pregnancy among adolescents is the Emotional Deprivation Theory (Coley & Chase-Lansdale, 1998). Individual factors often associated with teenage pregnancy include low academic achievement and poor future prospects. It is argued that teenage learners who are poor academic achievers often lack interest in schooling, and have poor future prospects. They are also more likely to fall pregnant and consequently drop out of school than their peers who perform well (Coley & Chase-Lansdale, 1998). This line of argument suggests a causal relationship between poor academic performance and adolescent pregnancy. Thus longitudinal studies need to be conducted in order to further investigate whether poor academic performance precedes pregnancy or whether adolescent’s pregnancy results in diminished interest and achievement in schoolwork. Social permissiveness towards sex outside marriage, and absence of serious social repercussions like isolation or exclusion following an out of wedlock birth, contribute to the high rate of adolescent pregnancy (Parekh & De La Rey,1997).
Even though pregnant teenagers may not officially be prevented from remaining at school, realistically, due to the demands of parenting, they may be forced to drop out of school, for example, in instances where there is no one to look after the child while the adolescent mother continues with her schooling. Sometimes the pregnant adolescent feels isolated from her peers. She may be embarrassed by her condition and have difficulty fitting in with her non-pregnant peers and as a result may drop out of school. Parenting adolescents often have to deal with strained family relationships. Sometimes parents react with anger to the pregnant adolescent. She may be blamed or ostracized for causing a problem (Cervera, 1994). Consequently, she may not get assistance and support from her family members forcing her to drop out of school in order to raise her child. The factors influencing teenage pregnancies are as outlined;
Firstly, adolescent girls are seen as vulnerable in sexual encounters because their ability to make decisions about sexual relationships is compromised by a desire to earn approval of their male friends. Secondly, there is lack of knowledge about sexuality, pregnancy and use of contraception. Thirdly, adolescents initiate sexual activity very early.

RESEARCH RATIONALE
Little attention has been given to psychological variables and processes that predict the occurrence of teenage pregnancy (Coley & Chase- Lansdale, 1998). Most literature focuses on social factors, which influence adolescents pregnancies. Pregnancy may cause psychological distress, as it is often associated with dropping out of school, either before or shortly after childbirth (Ibid). Adolescent mothers are more likely to present with symptoms of depression when compared with their non-parenting peers and older mothers (Kalil and Kunz, 2000). The transition to motherhood puts adolescents at a greater risk for psychological distress because they are socially, cognitively and emotionally immature to cope with the demands of motherhood. The current study examines the experiences of pregnant students, both in academic and personal context. It assesses how these learners are affected by the demands of co-existing motherhood and adolescence.
RESEARCH QUESTIONS
i. How does teenage pregnancy affect academic lifestyle of teenagers? ii. How can teenage pregnancy be prevented? iii. What is meant by academic progression and how does it relate to teenage pregnancy? iv. What are negative effects of teenage pregnancy on academic progression of college students?
v. What are the factors contributing to teenage pregnancy? vi. Are there any options available to prevent teenage pregnancy?

AIMS AND OBJECTIVES
The aim of this study is to gain insight into the personal experiences of pregnant learners.
It seeks to explore the impact of pregnancy on the adolescent psychologicaell-being.
The research objectives include;
i. To analyze the Challenges faced by pregnant learners. ii. To assess the support system that pregnant learners have. iii. To identify their current feelings and perceptions about their experience. iv. To identify ways of reducing the rate of teenage conception
v. To explore the impact of pregnancy during adolescence, on the psychological processes. vi. To understand factors within an individual, which put an adolescent at greater risk of falling pregnant and how development may be affected by pregnancy during adolescence vii. To assess the knowledge, attitude and practice of youths towards family planning.

LITERATURE REVIEW
Adolescence is characterized by physical, psychological and emotional development and social changes (Erikson, 1963). Erik Erikson’s theory of development gives an understanding of the normative psychological developmental processes that take place during adolescence. He sees adolescence as a critical transitional stage from childhood to adulthood and he purports that an adolescent has a task to develop individual identity. In view of Erikson’s theory it is thus pertinent to enquire whether pregnancy during adolescence has any significant adverse impact on that process of identity formation.
Risk Factors associated with Adolescent Pregnancy
Much research has been done on adolescent pregnancy and various factors have been identified as causes (Hamburg, 1986; Hudson, 1986; Dryfoos, 1990; Russell, 1994; Macleod, 1999) of adolescent pregnancy which includes factors that are at the individual level and those that are at a social level. Some of the factors often associated with adolescent pregnancy are as follow.
Female Gender Role
Some authors have come to perceive teenage pregnancy as resulting from female gender role (Parekh & De La Rey, 1997). Adolescent pregnancy should be understood in a social context in which it occurs. Increasing evidence suggests that adolescents are strongly influenced by their environment (National Population Unit, 2000). Thus if the community in which the teenager lives, places a high value on motherhood the youth will also embrace that cultural value.
In some communities, Young girls are often coerced or forced into exploitative sexual relationships with older men (Erulkar, Beksinska & Cebekhulu,2001)
Alternative Life Career
In some communities early pregnancy is an alternative life course. Early childbearing may be a reasonable response to social and economic demands. According to Hamburg (1986), giving birth early helps the adolescents to establish the social and economic support needed when one enters the work force and also allows them entry into the world of adulthood. In South African studies, Preston-Whyte and Zondi (1992). They further report that some adolescents perceive childbearing as a normative ‘career choice’ or a ‘rite of passage’ in establishing an adult identity, particularly if they believe that the most traditional roles to adulthood are unavailable.
Socio-Economic Status
Studies conducted in South Africa and in other countries have revealed that adolescent pregnancy is often associated with low socio-economic status (Osofsky, 1968; Dryfoos,1990; Russell, 1994; 1994; Lesch and Kruger, 2005). Economically disadvantaged communities are characterised by low levels of education and lack of employment opportunities (Chillman, 1986; Dryfoos, 1990; Preston-Whyte, 2000). Certain family characteristics have also been identified as factors that put teenagers at risk of becoming pregnant in early life. Factors such as poverty, single parent families especially the female headed households, poorly educated parents and the presence of a parenting adolescent sibling or a relative have been associated with teenage pregnancy (Furstenberg, Brooks-Gunn & Morgan 1987; Russell, 1994; Miller, 1996; Coley and Chase-Lansdale, 1998)
Family Environment
In some sources it is argued that most parenting adolescents have been found to come from impoverished single parent families, which are often headed by a female (Swartz, 2002). Children raised in single parent families are more likely to have been victims of an unstable family environment, have experienced a divorce or parental conflict (Russell, 1994). Negative family environment plays a major role in contributing to early adolescent sexual experience and adolescent pregnancy (Cunningham & Boult, 1992; Macleod, 1999). A poor relationship between mother and daughter where an adolescent perceives herself as unsupported has also been associated with adolescent pregnancy (Dryfoos, 1990). The presence of a parenting adolescent sibling in the family also poses a greater risk for other adolescent girls to become pregnant (Miller, 1996).
Emotional Deprivation and Sexual Coercion
The emotional deprivation theory sees early sexuality and parenthood as an attempt to satisfy unmet emotional needs (Coley & Chase-Lansdale, 1998). It is argued that adolescent mothers are usually victims of abuse in their own families, which often starts before they even become pregnant. According to Russell (1994) early pregnancy is often experienced as stemming from the parent-child relationship, which is often perceived by the adolescents as stressful and strained. These young mothers are emotionally impoverished at home, consequently they seek attachment, bonding and nurturance in extra familiar relationships (Dryfoo,1990). Most of these girls do not want to become pregnant but they find themselves victims of sexual exploitation and coerced sex (Dickson, 2002). They are often exposed to traumatic experiences like rape (Kaufman et al., 2001). Transactional sex, in which the youth engage in sex in return for money or favours, increases the risk of becoming pregnant (loveLife, 2001).
Individual Factors

Developmental Factors
Three developmental factors have been identified as having a bearing on the early initiation of sex and adolescent pregnancy.
a) Ego development
Ego development refers to the development of inner resources through internalisation of parental figures, so that one is able to act independently of parental figures, to master one’s impulses and to have control over one’s environment (Blos, 1989) Fluctuating ego strength puts an adolescent at risk of acting irresponsibly when confronted with a situation that may arise in sexuality (ibid.).
b) Physiological development
It is argued that girls who mature early are more likely to initiate sexual activity at an early age of 12 (Cunningham & Boult, 1992). Meanwhile, cognitively they may not be able to comprehend the relationship between menarche, sex, contraception and pregnancy. Thus girls who mature early physiologically may not yet be able to fully understand the biology of human reproduction (Hudson, 1986)
c) Social development
Preston-Whyte & Zondi (1992) found that schoolmates exerted a lot of pressure on their peers to engage in sexual relations. Adolescents’ need for approval and a desire to belong to a group makes them vulnerable to peer influence .Low self-esteem may diminish self-confidence and the ability to make individual decisions as one is more concerned about how they are perceived by others. Therefore the adolescent girl may not be in a position to negotiate safe sex or may engage in unprotected sex in order to gain the approval of her sexual partner, thus increasing the of becoming risk pregnant.
School Achievement and Motivation
It is argued that learners who do not do well at school are more likely to be unmotivated, have a negative attitude towards education and to have a low IQ (Furstenberg, Brooks-Gunn & Morgan, 1987). They are seen to be at a higher risk of becoming pregnant and in some cases they drop out of school even if they were not pregnant (Coley & Chase-Lansdale, 1998).Low levels of intellectual functioning may put adolescents at a greater risk of falling pregnant because of failure to understand the consequences of unprotected sex (Prater, 1992).
Literature suggests that adolescents are less likely to use contraceptives as preventative measures to childbirth (Programme Briefs, 2000; DHS Analytical Studies, 2003). It has been found that lack of knowledge and misperceptions about sexuality matters, as well as attitudes and beliefs held by adolescents play a significant role in determining their sexual behaviour (Hudson & Ineichen, 1991). Family planning and health services are widely accessible in most parts of the country yet the rate of usage is low.
Consequences of Adolescent Pregnancy
Adolescence pregnancy has been associated with a number of negative consequences, hence it is perceived as a social problem (Furstenberg, Brooks-Gunn & Morgan 1987; Macleod, 1999). In the medical literature it has been associated with obstetrics problems such as high infant and maternal mortality, risks of clandestine abortion, delivery complications and low infant birth weight (Dickson, 2002). Other complications for the adolescent mother are limited educational opportunities, self-determination and a poor quality of life (Prater, 1992). At the broader social level the high teenage fertility rate hasbeen found to have a negative impact on the economic development (Varga, 2003).
Some young mothers do not get support from their families. They may be rejected bytheir families and blamed for introducing a permanent crisis (Hudson & Ineichen, 1991; Cervera, 1994)
According to most sources, fathers of the children usually do not give emotional, financial or material support to the mothers of their children. (Burman, 1992). Very often they are also young, unemployed, have low levels of education, come from single parent female headed households, and live in a low socio-economic community (Coley and Chase-Lansdale, 1998)
Most fathers are adolescents themselves, immature and thus are emotionally and cognitively unprepared to cope with the responsibility of parenting (Hudson and Ineichen, 1991). Prater (1992), states that adolescent pregnancy and subsequent parenting could create major obstacles to any learner’s achievements at school. Thus, pregnant learners are impaired by their situation. The dual role of being a mother and a learner is stressful (Parekh and De La Rey, 1997) and impinges on school achievement. School attendance, is also disturbed by such things as babysitting arrangements and the health of the child.
Depression has been correlated with teenage pregnancy (Hamburg, 1986). Parenting adolescents are more likely to present with higher levels of depression when compared with non-parenting adolescents and older mothers. In most literature psychological distress among adolescent mothers is perceived as resulting from psychosocial stresses related to the adjustment into the role of being the mother (Kalil & Kunz, 2000).
It is argued that because of immaturity and inexperience adolescent mothers often lack the capacity to adequately understand and respond to the needs of their children (Hudson & Ineichen, 1991; Cunningham & Boult, 1996). Low education levels of the mother, poor socioeconomic status and negative attitudes towards child rearing are correlated with the child’s poor developmental outcome (Field et al., 1986). Cunningham & Boult (1996) also postulate that the young mother’s immaturity, social inexperience and lack of child rearing skills have a negative impact on the child.

Intervention Strategies
The WHO and governments have joined forces to meet the reproductive needs of their youths. There are a number of activities that are being implemented at the national level to educate youths about safe sexual behavior. Such strategies include peer educators programmes , youth development programs, provide contraceptive services, encouraging absenteeism, condom use and so on.

Conclusion and Recommendations
Teenage pregnancy has been investigated at both individual and at a broader social Context. Many researchers have concluded that social factors like poverty and unstable family environment are the greatest predisposing risk factors. An understanding of both the social context in which early pregnancy happens and the individual characteristics of the at-risk adolescent would provide an integrated deeper understanding of the problem.
Even though family members may help in looking after the child while the young mother goes to school, the mother is primarily responsible for looking after the child. Partners of adolescent mothers often do not offer financial or emotional support to the adolescent mother and her child.
The government policy allowing pregnant and parenting adolescents to remain in school should be augmented by the establishing educational structures accommodating the needs of these learners, as well as by offering training for teachers to deal with factors affecting the parenting adolescent learner. Strategies should further focus on involving adolescent fathers and family members as the primary support system for the parenting adolescent girls. In addition to sexuality education at schools, school based programmes aimed at giving support to parenting learners should be developed. Y- Centers could also play a role in addressing issues around adolescent parenting as well as giving psychosocial support to parenting adolescents. In view of the fact that partners of adolescent mothers are often adolescents or young men themselves, educational programmes on sex, reproduction and parenting should cater for both parenting and non-parenting boys and girls. Parenting adolescents may be trained to give peer education and counselling to other adolescents.
REFERENCES

i. Hoyt, H. and Broom, B. (2002). School-Based Teen Pregnancy Prevention Programs: A Review of the Literature. Journal of School Nursing, v18 n1 p11-17 ii. Bierie, K.G. and Bingham, M. (1994). ‘A Working Curriculum for Gender Roles’. In S.L. Archer (ed), Interventions for Adolescent Identity Development. iii. Camerana, P.M., Minor, K., Melmer, T. and Ferrie, C. (1998). ‘The Nature and Support of Adolescent Mothers’ Life Aspirations’. Family Relations 47:129-137. iv. Chillman, S. (1986). ‘Some Psychosocial Aspects of Adolescent Sexual and Contraceptive Behaviors in a Changing American Society’. In J.B. Lancaster and B.A.
v. Hamburg (eds), School-Age Pregnancy and Parenthood. vi. Welman J.C. & Kruger S.J. & Mitchell (2002). Research Methodology. Oxforduniversity Press. Cape Town

References: i. Hoyt, H. and Broom, B. (2002). School-Based Teen Pregnancy Prevention Programs: A Review of the Literature. Journal of School Nursing, v18 n1 p11-17 ii. Bierie, K.G. and Bingham, M. (1994). ‘A Working Curriculum for Gender Roles’. In S.L. Archer (ed), Interventions for Adolescent Identity Development. iii. Camerana, P.M., Minor, K., Melmer, T. and Ferrie, C. (1998). ‘The Nature and Support of Adolescent Mothers’ Life Aspirations’. Family Relations 47:129-137. iv. Chillman, S. (1986). ‘Some Psychosocial Aspects of Adolescent Sexual and Contraceptive Behaviors in a Changing American Society’. In J.B. Lancaster and B.A. v. Hamburg (eds), School-Age Pregnancy and Parenthood. vi. Welman J.C. & Kruger S.J. & Mitchell (2002). Research Methodology. Oxforduniversity Press. Cape Town