Sepoy Rebellion Research Paper
The Sepoy Rebellion of 1857 is also known as the Indian Mutiny of 1857 and India’s First War of Independence. There are several contributing factors to the spirit of rebellion that inspired the Indian Sepoys to rise up against their British Officers, the most famous of which is the lubricated cartridges in the Sepoy’s rifles. This failed rebellion marks a significant change in the social and political relationship between The United Kingdom and British Controlled India that would create the long lasting tension between the groups and would eventually lead to India’s independence.
The British East India Company, originally known as The Governor and Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East Indies, was unique in the fact that it was the only corporation to ever rule a nation. (Landow, “The British East India Company”). The corporation received its start on December 31st 1600 when a group of merchants received a royal charter from Queen Elizabeth for a monopoly on all trade in the East Indies (Lal). The formation of the company marked a difference in trade that was occurring at the time. Previously, all trade with Asia was done by land routes through the Middle East (Landow, “The British East India Company”). This all changed when the Portuguese, under the rule of Prince Henry the …show more content…
Navigator, completely revolutionized nautical technology which allowed for lengthy sea voyages (Koch, 7). After this era of invention, the Portuguese and Spanish had a monopoly on all spice trading in the East Indies up until 1588 when the British crushed the Spanish Armada, which opened up the East Indies to the Dutch, French and British (Landow, “The British East India Company”).
By the time of King James I’s rule a decade later, the company was ready to go from merely trading to taking up permanent residence in the sub-continent. The company made its first transactions for land with India in 1608 at the port of Surat. There, Sir Thomas Roe contacted the Mughal Emperor Jahangir as a representative of King James I. In 1615 he finished the negotiations which would allow the British to build a factory in Surat (Lal). The company went on to become even more influential and wealthy by establishing several trading posts and English settlements throughout India (Lal).
This expansion of territory was necessitated by a need to expand revenue in order to make ends meet. As of 1693, bribes to parliamentary officials and other important men were costing the Company about 90,000 pounds a year (Patel). These bribes were completely necessary, as without them the Company would surely have been shut down. The import of cheap South-Asian goods lined the pockets of a select few. Those involved in domestic business were actually hurt by these trades as foreign products were cheaper and thus sold better (Patel). While several acquisitions of land were made indirectly through economic means, some had to be taken by force, meaning that the Company had to build up an army (Patel).
This army was useful not only in combatting locals for those lands which contained something of value, but in combatting other foreigners who also had an interest in these valuable lands. The French in particular were a hassle to the British East India Company which is not surprising given the long time rivalry between the two nations. They managed to incite local Mughul rulers to attack the British. The French and British would often engage in direct skirmishes, such as the Siege of Arcot, in which Robert Clive defeated the French with only 500 men (Cody).
Through these wars and conquests, the British East India Company built up a considerable army which was maintained for the purpose of keeping order in the de facto colony. By 1857, this army included 200,000 Sepoys, was led by 40,000 British soldiers and controlled all of the subcontinent that Britain would ever come to control, having already kicked out the last small principalities in India (Patel). As the Company built up this territory and power, tensions began to rise. There was general resentment towards the British amongst natives due to traditional Hindu beliefs being eclipsed by the invading culture. Hindu society, especially its caste system, was being eroded due to Westernization and the missionaries popping up throughout the colony challenged the faith the nation had held since ancient times (“Indian Mutiny”). Whether this was completely a negative thing is up for argument. The British did abolish the practice of Sati, in which a widow would immolate herself onto her late husband’s funeral pyre, and also increased the standard of living for those born into lower castes and outcastes (Class Notes). What is important is not whether positive or negative changes were being made to India, but rather that there were changes being made at, changes that inspired fear and distrust.
This sense of distrust and distaste first came to a head among Sepoy troops stationed in Meerut in 1857, aggravated by the issue of cartridge coatings (Landow, “The 1857 Indian Mutiny”). Sepoys had long believed that their British commanders were purposefully trying to besmirch their faiths and convert them to Christianity, and that even amongst those who had little interest in the spread of Christianity, there was a lack of respect for Indian ways and beliefs. This was not an ungrounded belief as those in power in the British army often used their position in order to spread their faith. Some examples were Commandant Wheeler, who was known as an extremely vocal preacher, and Halliday who had the Bible printed in Urdu and Nagri and then distributed amongst the Sepoys (Argawal, 146). Local missionaries were sometimes met with violent opposition by local religious figures. As the missionaries were usually British citizens, the government came in to protect them, giving a message of official support for the spread of Christianity (Kuah). There were also several rumors saying around that the British were trying to break caste, like the rumor that ground cow bone was being mixed with the chuppati flour (Mason).
For this reason, rumors that the new Pattern 1853 Enfield Musket Rifle , whose cartridges used a mixture of pig’s and cow’s tallow for the required lubrication caught readily and spread through an already disgruntled army (Argawal, 147). Unlike French or American designs of the time, the cartridges used by the British had no annular grease rings so it had to be wrapped in a strip of greased paper to facilitate loading (Argawal, 147). The cartridges themselves were also greased with a thin layer of beeswax and tallow for waterproofing purposes (Argawal). Sepoys were mostly Hindu and Muslim and such a mixture offended them both. Pig is haraam, or forbidden to Muslims as it is considered unclean and repulsive. The cow is a sacred animal and many Hindus are forbidden from consuming it (Patel). A large number of men in the faction who started the rebellion were Brahmins. Many Brahmins are completely vegetarian and refuse to touch or consume animal flesh in any form (Argawal). This is why it was considered such an outrage that the back of the cartridges had to be bitten off before the rifle could be properly loaded as it involved the contact of such forbidden materials with the mouth.
In the April of 1857, Sepoys stationed in Meerut were given the new rifle to test and several Sepoys refused them (“Indian Mutiny”). Those who showed opposition were given lengthy prison sentences as punishment. This angered many of their comrades who broke them free from jail on May 10th and went on to storm the European settlement, slaughtering those who resided within (Kuah). These soldiers then went on to seize Delhi where there were no European troops stationed (“Indian Mutiny”). This spread the spirit of rebellion throughout India. Many factions rebelled against their British Officers throughout India including in Calcutta, Berhampore, Barrackpore, Allahad, Agra and Amballa (Patel).
These mutineers were responsible for several massacres in Delhi, Kanpur and elsewhere (“Indian Mutiny”). The widespread rape, torture and murder spreading throughout the subcontinent shocked Brits, as extended media coverage kept those in Britain more connected and informed than they were in previous imperial struggles (Patel). Karl Marx, who is famous for his theories on class struggles, wrote extensively on the Rebellion, using it as evidence in support of his theory of the bourgeois manipulating those below him(Patel). The atrocities were not all committed by one side. Many British officers were known to commit horrendous acts in order to squash the rebellion even before the ferocious nature of the mutinous Sepoy’s attacks was known (“Indian Mutiny”). British officers slaughtered Sepoy’s by the hundreds in a variety of gruesome ways such as bayonetting or being strapped to a canon before it was fired (“Indian Mutiny”). Whole villages were hanged or burned for alleged sympathy to the mutineers cause and looting by British soldiers brought in to quell the rebellion was widespread and even encouraged by some officers (Kuah).
After the rebellions were put down, Britain saw the need to fix their system of rule in India to assure it wouldn’t happen again.
Despite the arguments of The British East India Company’s lawyer, John Stuart Mill, the corporation was disbanded (Lal). The India Office in London controlled India directly, working through a Viceroy and reorganized its extensively (Kuah). The army and financial sectors were especially revolutionized to deal with the after effects of the mutiny (“Indian Mutiny”). The Indian colony became known as the Raj and it was ruled in this way until the colony gained its independence in 1947 when it split into the sovereign nations of India and Pakistan
(Kuah).
Works Cited
1. Agrawal, Lion M. G. Freedom fighters of India. 3. Delhi: ISHA Books, 2008. EBook. .
2. Cody, David. "British India." The Victorian Web. N.p., 21 May 2003. Web. 23 Feb 2013. .
3. "Enfield Rifle, Sepoy Mutiny, 1857." India Netzone. Jupiter Infomedia, 29 Feb 2012. Web. 23 Feb 2013. .
4. “Indian Mutiny.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. Web. 23 Mar. 1998. .
5. Kaul, Chandrika. "From Empire to Independence: The British Raj in India 1858-1947." BBC History. N.p., 03 Mar 2011. Web. 23 Feb 2013. .
6. Koch, Richard M. “Age of Recovery and Discovery.” Blackboard. N.p., Web. 29 Jan 2013. .
7. Kuah, Desmond. "The Epic of Race: The Indian Mutiny, 1857." The Victorian Web. N.p., 06 Nov 2000. Web. 23 Feb 2013. .
8. Lal, Vinay. "The East India Company." Manas. N.p.. Web. 23 Feb 2013. .
9. Landow, George P. "The 1857 Indian Mutiny (also known as the Sepoy Rebellion, the Great Mutiny, and the Revolt of 1857)." The Victorian Web. N.p., 07 Aug 2007. Web. 22 Feb 2013. .
10. Landow, George P. "The British East India Company — the Company that Owned a Nation (or Two)." The Victorian Web. N.p., 06 Apr 2010. Web. 23 Feb 2013. .
11. Mason, Phillip. A Matter of Honor. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1974. Print.
12. Nelson, Phil. Flag of the British East India Company. 2000. Flags of the World. Web. 23 Feb 2013. .
13. Patel, Nilesh. "Sepoy Mutiny of 1857." Postcolonial Studies @ Emory. N.p., June 2012. Web. 22 Feb 2013. .
14. PlaneMad . Indian states during Revolt of 1857. 2006. New World Encyclopedia. Web. 22 Feb 2013. .
15. Salmon, Thomas. Luogo degli Inglesi a Suratte. 1751. Lithograph. Columbia University, Venice. Web. 23 Feb 2013.
The British East India Company, originally known as The Governor and Company of Merchants of London Trading into the East Indies, was unique in the fact that it was the only corporation to ever rule a nation. (Landow, “The British East India Company”). The corporation received its start on December 31st 1600 when a group of merchants received a royal charter from Queen Elizabeth for a monopoly on all trade in the East Indies (Lal). The formation of the company marked a difference in trade that was occurring at the time. Previously, all trade with Asia was done by land routes through the Middle East (Landow, “The British East India Company”). This all changed when the Portuguese, under the rule of Prince Henry the …show more content…
Navigator, completely revolutionized nautical technology which allowed for lengthy sea voyages (Koch, 7). After this era of invention, the Portuguese and Spanish had a monopoly on all spice trading in the East Indies up until 1588 when the British crushed the Spanish Armada, which opened up the East Indies to the Dutch, French and British (Landow, “The British East India Company”).
By the time of King James I’s rule a decade later, the company was ready to go from merely trading to taking up permanent residence in the sub-continent. The company made its first transactions for land with India in 1608 at the port of Surat. There, Sir Thomas Roe contacted the Mughal Emperor Jahangir as a representative of King James I. In 1615 he finished the negotiations which would allow the British to build a factory in Surat (Lal). The company went on to become even more influential and wealthy by establishing several trading posts and English settlements throughout India (Lal).
This expansion of territory was necessitated by a need to expand revenue in order to make ends meet. As of 1693, bribes to parliamentary officials and other important men were costing the Company about 90,000 pounds a year (Patel). These bribes were completely necessary, as without them the Company would surely have been shut down. The import of cheap South-Asian goods lined the pockets of a select few. Those involved in domestic business were actually hurt by these trades as foreign products were cheaper and thus sold better (Patel). While several acquisitions of land were made indirectly through economic means, some had to be taken by force, meaning that the Company had to build up an army (Patel).
This army was useful not only in combatting locals for those lands which contained something of value, but in combatting other foreigners who also had an interest in these valuable lands. The French in particular were a hassle to the British East India Company which is not surprising given the long time rivalry between the two nations. They managed to incite local Mughul rulers to attack the British. The French and British would often engage in direct skirmishes, such as the Siege of Arcot, in which Robert Clive defeated the French with only 500 men (Cody).
Through these wars and conquests, the British East India Company built up a considerable army which was maintained for the purpose of keeping order in the de facto colony. By 1857, this army included 200,000 Sepoys, was led by 40,000 British soldiers and controlled all of the subcontinent that Britain would ever come to control, having already kicked out the last small principalities in India (Patel). As the Company built up this territory and power, tensions began to rise. There was general resentment towards the British amongst natives due to traditional Hindu beliefs being eclipsed by the invading culture. Hindu society, especially its caste system, was being eroded due to Westernization and the missionaries popping up throughout the colony challenged the faith the nation had held since ancient times (“Indian Mutiny”). Whether this was completely a negative thing is up for argument. The British did abolish the practice of Sati, in which a widow would immolate herself onto her late husband’s funeral pyre, and also increased the standard of living for those born into lower castes and outcastes (Class Notes). What is important is not whether positive or negative changes were being made to India, but rather that there were changes being made at, changes that inspired fear and distrust.
This sense of distrust and distaste first came to a head among Sepoy troops stationed in Meerut in 1857, aggravated by the issue of cartridge coatings (Landow, “The 1857 Indian Mutiny”). Sepoys had long believed that their British commanders were purposefully trying to besmirch their faiths and convert them to Christianity, and that even amongst those who had little interest in the spread of Christianity, there was a lack of respect for Indian ways and beliefs. This was not an ungrounded belief as those in power in the British army often used their position in order to spread their faith. Some examples were Commandant Wheeler, who was known as an extremely vocal preacher, and Halliday who had the Bible printed in Urdu and Nagri and then distributed amongst the Sepoys (Argawal, 146). Local missionaries were sometimes met with violent opposition by local religious figures. As the missionaries were usually British citizens, the government came in to protect them, giving a message of official support for the spread of Christianity (Kuah). There were also several rumors saying around that the British were trying to break caste, like the rumor that ground cow bone was being mixed with the chuppati flour (Mason).
For this reason, rumors that the new Pattern 1853 Enfield Musket Rifle , whose cartridges used a mixture of pig’s and cow’s tallow for the required lubrication caught readily and spread through an already disgruntled army (Argawal, 147). Unlike French or American designs of the time, the cartridges used by the British had no annular grease rings so it had to be wrapped in a strip of greased paper to facilitate loading (Argawal, 147). The cartridges themselves were also greased with a thin layer of beeswax and tallow for waterproofing purposes (Argawal). Sepoys were mostly Hindu and Muslim and such a mixture offended them both. Pig is haraam, or forbidden to Muslims as it is considered unclean and repulsive. The cow is a sacred animal and many Hindus are forbidden from consuming it (Patel). A large number of men in the faction who started the rebellion were Brahmins. Many Brahmins are completely vegetarian and refuse to touch or consume animal flesh in any form (Argawal). This is why it was considered such an outrage that the back of the cartridges had to be bitten off before the rifle could be properly loaded as it involved the contact of such forbidden materials with the mouth.
In the April of 1857, Sepoys stationed in Meerut were given the new rifle to test and several Sepoys refused them (“Indian Mutiny”). Those who showed opposition were given lengthy prison sentences as punishment. This angered many of their comrades who broke them free from jail on May 10th and went on to storm the European settlement, slaughtering those who resided within (Kuah). These soldiers then went on to seize Delhi where there were no European troops stationed (“Indian Mutiny”). This spread the spirit of rebellion throughout India. Many factions rebelled against their British Officers throughout India including in Calcutta, Berhampore, Barrackpore, Allahad, Agra and Amballa (Patel).
These mutineers were responsible for several massacres in Delhi, Kanpur and elsewhere (“Indian Mutiny”). The widespread rape, torture and murder spreading throughout the subcontinent shocked Brits, as extended media coverage kept those in Britain more connected and informed than they were in previous imperial struggles (Patel). Karl Marx, who is famous for his theories on class struggles, wrote extensively on the Rebellion, using it as evidence in support of his theory of the bourgeois manipulating those below him(Patel). The atrocities were not all committed by one side. Many British officers were known to commit horrendous acts in order to squash the rebellion even before the ferocious nature of the mutinous Sepoy’s attacks was known (“Indian Mutiny”). British officers slaughtered Sepoy’s by the hundreds in a variety of gruesome ways such as bayonetting or being strapped to a canon before it was fired (“Indian Mutiny”). Whole villages were hanged or burned for alleged sympathy to the mutineers cause and looting by British soldiers brought in to quell the rebellion was widespread and even encouraged by some officers (Kuah).
After the rebellions were put down, Britain saw the need to fix their system of rule in India to assure it wouldn’t happen again.
Despite the arguments of The British East India Company’s lawyer, John Stuart Mill, the corporation was disbanded (Lal). The India Office in London controlled India directly, working through a Viceroy and reorganized its extensively (Kuah). The army and financial sectors were especially revolutionized to deal with the after effects of the mutiny (“Indian Mutiny”). The Indian colony became known as the Raj and it was ruled in this way until the colony gained its independence in 1947 when it split into the sovereign nations of India and Pakistan
(Kuah).
Works Cited
1. Agrawal, Lion M. G. Freedom fighters of India. 3. Delhi: ISHA Books, 2008. EBook. .
2. Cody, David. "British India." The Victorian Web. N.p., 21 May 2003. Web. 23 Feb 2013. .
3. "Enfield Rifle, Sepoy Mutiny, 1857." India Netzone. Jupiter Infomedia, 29 Feb 2012. Web. 23 Feb 2013. .
4. “Indian Mutiny.” Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica Online Academic Edition. Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. Web. 23 Mar. 1998. .
5. Kaul, Chandrika. "From Empire to Independence: The British Raj in India 1858-1947." BBC History. N.p., 03 Mar 2011. Web. 23 Feb 2013. .
6. Koch, Richard M. “Age of Recovery and Discovery.” Blackboard. N.p., Web. 29 Jan 2013. .
7. Kuah, Desmond. "The Epic of Race: The Indian Mutiny, 1857." The Victorian Web. N.p., 06 Nov 2000. Web. 23 Feb 2013. .
8. Lal, Vinay. "The East India Company." Manas. N.p.. Web. 23 Feb 2013. .
9. Landow, George P. "The 1857 Indian Mutiny (also known as the Sepoy Rebellion, the Great Mutiny, and the Revolt of 1857)." The Victorian Web. N.p., 07 Aug 2007. Web. 22 Feb 2013. .
10. Landow, George P. "The British East India Company — the Company that Owned a Nation (or Two)." The Victorian Web. N.p., 06 Apr 2010. Web. 23 Feb 2013. .
11. Mason, Phillip. A Matter of Honor. Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1974. Print.
12. Nelson, Phil. Flag of the British East India Company. 2000. Flags of the World. Web. 23 Feb 2013. .
13. Patel, Nilesh. "Sepoy Mutiny of 1857." Postcolonial Studies @ Emory. N.p., June 2012. Web. 22 Feb 2013. .
14. PlaneMad . Indian states during Revolt of 1857. 2006. New World Encyclopedia. Web. 22 Feb 2013. .
15. Salmon, Thomas. Luogo degli Inglesi a Suratte. 1751. Lithograph. Columbia University, Venice. Web. 23 Feb 2013.