Sla Lecture Notes

Chapter 1: First Language Acquisition 1. Theories of First Language Acquisition 1. Behavioral approaches (BA)

- Behaviorism is a psychological theory of learning, very influential in the 1940s – 1950s, especially in the US. It was the popular model for all animal and human learning. (show a lemon to see the salivation reaction). - Traditional behaviorists believed that language learning is the result of imitation, practice, feedback on success, and habit formation. Blank slate……. - The quality and quantity of language which the child hears, as well as the consistency of the reinforcement offered by others in the environment, should have an effect on the child’s success in language learning. - The BA focused on the immediately perceptible aspects of linguistic behavior – the publicly observable responses. - BA may consider effective language behavior to be the production of correct response to stimuli. If a particular response is reinforced, it then becomes habitual, or conditioned.

2. Challenges to Behavioral approaches

- The fact is that every sentence we speak or write – with a few trivial exceptions- is novel, never before uttered by you or anyone else. These novel utterances are nevertheless created by very young children. Where such sentences come from? (if learning is by imitation? - There have been a few attempts to teach language (American Sign Language) to chimps, but failed (handouts of Chimps and kids to show this).

3. The Nativist approach - Language acquisition is innately determined & we are born with a genetic capacity that predisposes us to a systematic perception of language around us, resulting in the construction of an internalized system of language. - The innate properties enable children to master a native language in such a short time. - This innate knowledge was referred to as “Little Black Box” in the brain, or a language acquisition device - LAD. For the LAD to work, the child needs access only to samples of a natural language. These language samples serve as a trigger to activate the device. - This position is in sharp contrast to behavioral, stimulus- response (S-R) theory, which was so limited in accounting for the creativity present in child language. - Today the term LAD is not used anymore, but researchers focus on what is known as Universal Grammar (UG). - According to Chomsky, although thousands of human languages differ enormously in their surface structures, they all share a common deep structure called UG. UG rules are extremely general and abstract. - Analogically, although differences in skin color and other “surface structure” contrast are immediately apparent when we look at people from different parts of the world (black, white, yellow), it is obvious that all human beings share similar “deep structure” characteristics (eg: same organs). - Examples of UG: all languages have N, V, A…. - Unlike the behaviorists, who held that the mind of a newborn was a clean slate upon which were written all of a child’s experiences, the innatists believe that children are born with innate linguistic abilities that allow them to anticipate and develop the rules and patterns of whatever language they are exposed to as infants. - Evidence supporting Chomskyan view: Creole languages – - Creoles are languages that are developed and formed when different societies come together and are forced to devise their own system of communication. The system used by the original speakers is typically an inconsistent mix of vocabulary items known as a pidgin. As these speakers' children begin to acquire their first language, they use the pidgin input to effectively create their own original language, known as a creole. Unlike pidgins, creoles have native speakers and make use of a full grammar. - Children in some areas of Hawaii were born into families who spoke different languages, but when they lived together, they developed their own grammar.

4. Challenges to Nativist approaches - UG has long been controversial due to its strong innatist assumptions and lack of empirical basis. - It is now believed that neither behaviorist nor rationalist (i.e., Chomskyan view) extreme is entirely satisfactory in explaining the complicated phenomenon of child language acquisition.

5. A social interactionist model of L1 acquisition (Vygotsky)

- Foundation of all language learning is social interaction. This recognition does not directly contradict either the behavioral or innatist view of L learning. - The effective environment for all early learning is found in the ZPD, ie., the “zone” represents the difference between an individual child’s level of development as shaped via interaction with adults or peers.

2. Issues in First Language Acquisition 1. Competence and Performance - Competence (tri nang) refers to one’s underlying knowledge of a system, event, or fact. It is the non-observable ability to do something. Performance (hanh nang) is the overtly observable and concrete manifestation or realization of competence. It is actual doing of something: walking, dancing, speaking, …. - In reference to language, competence is one’s underlying knowledge of the system of a language – its rule of grammar, vocab,……Performance is actual production (speaking & writing) or the comprehension (listening & reading) of linguistic events. - 2. Nature or Nurture? - Nativists contend that a child is born with an innate knowledge of language, and that this innate property (LAD or UG) is universal in all human beings. - Behaviorists claim that language is a set of habits that can be acquired by a process of conditioning. However, such conditioning is too slow and inefficient to account for a phenomenon as complex as language. - Environmental factors must not be ignored. - See eg. Of Victor (How languages are learned?)

3. Universals - Much of current research is centered around what have come to be known as principles and parameters. Principles are invariable characteristics of human language that appear to apply to all languages universally. - Analogically, rules of the road in driving universally require the driver to keep to one side of the road; this is a principle. But in some countries, you must keep to the left (UK, Thailand, Japan…) and in others keep to the right (Vietnam, USA…); the latter is a parameter. So parameters vary across languages - Eg: Vietnamese a dog black (cho den – N+ A); a black dog (A + N).

Chapter 2: Age and Acquisition 1. Dispelling myths - Some people (Stern, 1970) recommended a second language teaching method or procedure on the basis of L1 acquisition (Brown, pp.54-55- handouts for illustration). This is considered a myth.

2. Types of comparison and contrast - It is illogical to compare the L1 acquisition of a child with the L2 acquisition of an adult because a young child and an adult exhibit vast cognitive, affective, and physical differences. Eg of Genie to illustrate…

3. The Critical Period Hypothesis - It is generally agreed that there is a CP for language acquisition: a biologically determined period of life when language can be acquired more easily and beyond which time language is increasingly difficult to acquire (Genie eg.). Some people suggest that CPH is around puberty, some say much earlier (5 or 6). - Scovel claims that there is a CP for pronunciation- neuroplasticity/plasticity is complete at puberty, similarly in music & sport), but not for other aspects of language (Kisinger’s foreign accent example).

4. Neurobiological considerations 1. Hemispheric lateralization: - There is evidence in neurological research that as the human brain matures, certain functions are assigned, or lateralized to the left hemisphere of the brain, and certain other functions to the right hemisphere. - Intellectual, logical, and analytic functions appear to be largely located in the left hemisphere, while the right hemisphere controls functions related to emotional and social needs. - Language functions appear to be controlled mainly in the left hemisphere, although there is a good deal of conflicting evidence.

2. Biological timetable (Walsh & Diller, 1981) - Lower-order process such as pronunciation are dependent on early maturing and less adaptive macroneural circuits, which makes foreign accents difficult to overcome after childhood. - Higher-order language functions, such as semantic relations, are more dependent on late maturing neural circuits. - CP for accent only. 3. Cognitive considerations - Human cognition develops rapidly throughout the first 16 years of life and less rapidly thereafter. - Some cognitive changes are critical; others are more gradual and difficult to detect. Jean Piaget outlined the course of intellectual development in a child through the following stages: • Sensorimotor stage (Giai đoạn Giác động – giai đoạn tiền ngôn ngữ, chỉ dựa vào giác quan và vận động) (birth to 2) • Preoperational stage (Giai đoạn Tiền thao tác) (2-7) • Operational stage (Giai đoạn Thao tác) (7-16) ➢ Concrete operational stage (Giai đoạn Thao tác cụ thể) (7-11) ➢ Formal operational stage (Giai đoạn Thao tác Hình thức/mệnh đề: Bắt đầu có tư duy logic, suy diễn) (11-16) - Adult learning a L2 could profit from certain grammatical explanations and deductive thinking, but pointless for a child. -
Chapter 3: Psychological factors 1. Learning styles (Brown, pp.100-101) 2. Memories (Scovel’s handouts) 3. Personality factors 1. Left- & right-brain dominance (SS present: Brown, p.125) 2. Visual, auditory, and kinesthetic styles (SS present: p.129) - Multiple intelligences

Chapter 4: Socio-cultural factors 1. Culture: Definitions and theories - Culture is a way of life. It is the context within which we exist, think, feel, and relate to others. It is the glue that binds a group of people together, governs our behavior in groups, etc. 2. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis (Experiments with colors) 1. Language determinism: Language (in its universal & abstract form) shapes or affects thinking to some extent. 2. Language relativity: Individual language, because they differ linguistically, shape or influence thinking in different ways, depending on the language(s) involved. - There are “strong” and “weak” version: - The strong version = we are a prisoner of our language i.e., we can only think and imagine what our language allows (eg: E has only one word for “rice” while V has lúa, cơm, gạo……eg of color terms). - The weak version: Language influences thought (experiments of color grouping) - The weak version is widely supported. The strong version is too extreme.

3. Canale & Swain’s Communicative competence 1. Grammatical competence: syntax, vocab, phonology (sentence level) 2. Discourse competence: ability to connect sentences to form meaningful whole out of a series of utterances. 3. Socio-linguistic competence: knowledge of socio-cultural rules of language and discourse 4. Strategic competence: strategies to compensate for breakdowns in communication (what to do when not understand certain words)

Chapter 5: Linguistic factors 1. The Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) - Deeply rooted in the behavioristic and structuralist approaches, the CAH claimed that the principle barrier to L2 acquisition is the interference of L1 system with L2 system. - Where there is no interference, no difficulty would be experienced since one could transfer positively all other items in a language. - Eg in Japanese “I work for a “boring/bowling” company” (Japanese doesn’t have “r”) - Vietnamese with zoo, that, vision, job, thank,………., “l” at the beginning and end of a syllable…. - Tenses, vocab……. - Process of learning L2 viewed by CAH is now considered “oversimplified”. Today L1 effects are considered important – but not necessarily exclusive – factors in accounting for learner’s L2 acquisition. So what else?

2. Cross-linguistic influence (CLI) - The attempt to predict difficulty by means of contrastive analysis is called the STRONG VERSION of CAH, a version that Wardhaugh believed quite unrealistic & impracticable. - The WEAK VERSION (CLI) does not imply the a priori prediction of certain degrees of difficulty. It recognizes the significance of interference across languages, the fact that such interference does exist and can explain difficulties, but it also recognizes that linguistic difficulties can be more profitably explained a posteriori – after the fact. - The difference between CAH & CLI is that the former focuses on prediction, the latter influence – a posteriori. - The learning of sounds, sequences, and meanings will, according to Oller and Ziahosseiny, be potentially very difficult where subtle distinctions are required either between the target language and the native language or within the target language itself (eg of vision, job….. / present perfect, present perfect continuous). - The conclusion that great difference does not necessarily cause great difficulty underscores the significance of intralingual (within one language) errors, which are as much a factor in L2 learning as interlingual (across 2 or more languages) errors. - Conclusions: The STRONG FORM of CAH was too strong, and the WEAK FORM of CAH was too weak. CLI offers a cautious middle ground.

3. Errors in the classroom - Mistakes & errors: the former refers to a performance error & the latter is due to deficiency in performance. - One of the shortcomings of Error analysis is an overt emphasis on production data. It fails to account for strategy avoidance. - Absence of certain errors therefore does not necessarily reflect the learner’s mastery of that language area.

Chapter 6: Theories of Second Language Acquisition 1. Behaviorism - Behaviorists hold that a person learning an L2 start off with the habits formed in L1 and that these habits interfere with the new ones needed for L2. - Behaviorism was often linked to the CAH, developed by structural linguists.

2. An Innatist Model: Krashen’s Hypotheses 1. The acquisition-learning hypothesis: - According to Krashen, there are two ways for adults to internalize L2: Learning and acquisition. Learning is a conscious process of study and attention to form and rule learning; acquisition is similar to a child learning L1, ie. with no attention to language form. For him, acquisition is a more important process that can result in fluent communication. 2. The monitor hypothesis: - The “monitor” is involved in learning, not in acquisition. It is a device for “watchdogging” one’s output for editing and making alterations or corrections as they are consciously perceived. Such explicit and intentional learning, according to Krashen, ought to be largely avoided as it presumed to hinder acquisition.

3. Natural order hypothesis: - Like L1 learners, L2 learners seem to acquire features of the target language in a predictable sequences. Contrary to intuition, the rules which are easiest to state (and thus to learn) are not necessarily the first to be acquired. Eg: “s” in English.

4. The input hypothesis (cf: ZPD) - For K, Comprehensible input is the only true cause of L2 acquisition. A important condition for language acquisition to occur is that the acquirer understand (via hearing or reading) input language that contains structure “a bit beyond” his/her current level of competence. I + 1

5. Affective filter hypothesis: - The affective filter is an imaginary barrier which prevents learners from acquiring language from the available input. “Affect” refers to things as motives, needs, attitudes, and emotional states. - Depending on the learner’s state of mind, the filter limits what is noticed and acquired. Filter up = blocking input. Filter down when learners feel relaxed. - 3. A Socio-constructivist Model: Long’s Interaction Hypothesis - Long et al argue that much L2 acquisition takes place through conversational interaction. He agrees with Krashen that comprehensible input is necessary for language acquisition. However, he’s more concerned with the question of how input is made comprehensible. 1. Interactional modification makes input comprehensible; 2. Comprehensible input promotes acquisition 3. Therefore, interactional modification promotes acquisition.

List of Reading materials 1. Brown, D. H. (2007). Principles of language learning and teaching. New York: Longman. 2. Gass, S. M. & Selinker, L. (2001). Second language acquisition: An introductory course. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. 3. Lightbown, P. M. & Spada, N. (1999). How languages are learned. Hongkong: OUP. 4. Scovel, T. (2001). Learning new languages: A guide to second language acquisition. Canada: Heinle & Heinle.

Decide if the following statements are True or False.

|Before the course | |After the course |
| |An person who is good at sciences is always good at language learning. | |
| |Language learning is only a matter of imitation? | |
| |Where there are great differences between L1 & L2, learners will experience great difficulty. | |
| |It is the earlier the better for a child to learn a foreign language. | |
| |There is a critical period for language learning. | |
| |Teaching a L2 should follow the same steps as a child learns L1: listening, speaking, reading, and| |
| |writing. | |
| |Teaching L2 is just teaching vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation. | |
| |Children are always better learners of L2 than adults. | |
| |The best way to help students memorize new words is to have them listen as much as possible. | |
| |You are confident with your understanding of English language teaching principles. | |
| |If you do not see certain types of mistakes in students’ speaking and writing, it means they have | |
| |no problem with these areas of language. | |
| |We do not need to teach grammar explicitly because students can infer the rules in exactly the | |
| |same way as we learn our L1 | |
| |A good learner of foreign languages is one who can remember vocabulary and structures well when | |
| |he/she reads them. | |
| |The language input for students should be challenging so that they can learn more. | |
| |Human beings are born with language ability | |
| |Children’s mind is just a blank slate upon which the teacher can write whatever he/she wants to | |
| |write. | |
| |People who speak different languages think in different ways. | |
| |If we try to teach animals a language (eg: parrots and chimpanzees), they can learn to speak the | |
| |language as well as humans. | |
| |19)When leaners make mistakes, we should correct them immediately to avoid bad habit formation. | |