© Springer-Verlag 1998
O R I G I NA L I N V E S T I G AT I O N
Allen T.G. Lansdowne · Stephen C. Provost
Vitamin D3 enhances mood in healthy subjects during winter
Received: 28 May 1996 / Final version: 6 May 1997
Abstract Mood changes synchronised to the seasons exist on a continuum between individuals, with anxiety and depression increasing during the winter months. An extreme form of seasonality is manifested as the clinical syndrome of seasonal a¤ective disorder
(SAD) with carbohydrate craving, hypersomnia, lethargy, and changes in circadian rhythms also evident. It has been suggested that seasonality and the symptoms of SAD may be due to changing levels of vitamin D3, the hormone of sunlight, leading to changes in brain serotonin. Forty-four healthy subjects were given 400 IU, 800 IU, or no vitamin D3 for 5 days during late winter in a random double-blind study.
Results on a self-report measure showed that vitamin
D3 signiÞcantly enhanced positive a¤ect and there was some evidence of a reduction in negative a¤ect. Results are discussed in terms of their implications for seasonality, SAD, serotonin, food preference, sleep, and circadian rhythms.
Key words Seasonality · Seasonal a¤ective disorder ·
Vitamin D3 · Serotonin · Circadian rhythms
Introduction
Increased levels of anxiety and depression during winter months occur in the normal population and appears to be related to the shortened photoperiod and lower light levels (Schlager et al. 1993). This seasonality exists on a continuum between individuals from no change across the seasons to its extreme form in the syndrome of seasonal a¤ective disorder (SAD or winter depression) (Spoont et al. 1991). In SAD, symptoms of
A.T.G. Lansdowne · S.C. Provost (*)
Department of Psychology, The University of Newcastle,
University Drive, Callaghan NSW 2308, Australia e-mail : provost@psychology.newcastle.edu.au
sadness,
References: Adrien J (1995) The serotonergic system and sleep-wakefulness regulation. In: Kales A (ed) Pharmacology of sleep. Springer, Berlin Avery D, Dahl K (1993) Bright light therapy and circadian neuroendocrine function in seasonal a¤ective disorder. In: Schulkin J (ed) Hormonally induced changes in mind and brain. Academic Press, San Diego Baumgarten HG (1993) Control of vigilance and behavior by Celio MR (1990) Calbindin D-28k and parvalbumin in the rat nervous system. Neuroscience 35 : 375– 475 Charney DS, Woods SW, Krystal JH, Heninger GR (1990) Chertow BS, Sivitz WI, Baranetsky NG, Clark SA, Waite A, DeLuca HF (1983) Cellular mechanisms of insulin release: the e¤ect of vitamin D deÞciency and repletion on rat insulin secretion. Endocrinology 113 : 1511–1518 Clark LA, Watson D (1988) Mood and the mundane: relations Cronbach LJ (1951) Coe¦cient alpha and the internal structure of tests Curzon G (1990) Serotonin and appetite. Ann N Y Acad Sci 600 : 521–531 DeLuca HF (1979) Vitamin D: metabolism and function. Springer, Berlin 323 Eastman CI (1990a) What the placebo literature can tell us about light therapy for SAD. Psychopharmacol Bull 26 : 495–504 Eastman CI (1990b) Natural summer and winter sunlight exposure Ettigi PG (1983) Anterior pituitary function in depression. In: Bhatnagar AS (ed) The anterior pituitary gland New York Fernstrom J, Wurtman RJ (1971) Brain serotonin content: increase Hannah SS, Norman AW (1994) 1a,25(OH)2Vitamin D3-regulated expression of the eukaryotic genome Holick MF (1994) McCollum Award Lecture, 1994: vitamin D – new horizons for the 21st century Inouye ST, Kawamura H (1979) Persistence of circadian rhythmicity in a mammalian hypothalamic “island” containing the suprachiasmic nucleus 5962–5966 Insel TR, Zohar J, Benkelfat C, Murphy DL (1990) Serotonin in Ann N Y Acad Sci 600 : 587– 600 Jimerson DC, Lesem MD, Hegg AP, Brewerton TD (1990) Kanner AD, Coyne JC, Schaefer C, Lazarus RS (1981) Comparison of two modes of stress measurement: daily hassles and uplifts (1992) The relationship between daily events and mood: the mood measure may matter Levin ME, Boisseau VC, Avioli LV (1976) E¤ects of diabetes mellitus on bone mass in juvenile and adult-onset diabetes. N Engl J Med 294 : 241–245 Manalagos SC, Yu X-P, Hustmyer FG, Mocharla H, Girasole G, Bellido T, Crabb D (1991) The immunomodulating properties De Gruyter, Berlin McEachron DL, Schull J (1993) Hormones, rhythms, and the blues. McKinley MJ, OldÞeld BJ (1990) Circumventricular organs. In: Paxinos G (ed) The human nervous system San Diego Meltzer HY (1990) Role of serotonin in depression Sci 600 : 486 –500 Morin LP, Cummings LA (1981) E¤ect of surgical or photoperiodic castration, testosterone replacement or pinealectomy on male hamster running rhythmicity. Physiol Behav 26 : 825–838 Morin LP, Michel KM, Smale L, Moore RY (1990) Serotonin regulation of circadian rhythmicity 600 : 418– 426 Neer RM (1985) Environmental light: e¤ects on vitamin D synthesis and calcium metabolism in humans JC (1993) Light therapy of late luteal phase dysphoric disorder: an extended study. Am J Psychiatry 150 : 1417–1419 Rosenthal NE, Wehr TA (1987) Seasonal a¤ective disorders. Davenport Y, Mueller PS, Newsome DA, Wehr TA (1984) Seasonal a¤ective disorder Rosenthal NE, Sack DA, James SP, Parry BL, Mendelson WB, Tamarkin L, Wehr TA (1985) Seasonal a¤ective disorder and phototherapy. Ann N Y Acad Sci 453 : 260 –269 Rusak B (1977) The role of the suprachiasmic nuclei in the generation of circadian rhythms in the golden hamster, Mesocricetus auratus. J Comp Physiol 118 : 123–133 Schlager D, Schwartz JE, Bromet EJ (1993) Seasonal variations Sonnenberg J, Luine VN, Krey CR, Christakos S (1986) 1,25Dihydroxyvitamin D3 treatment results in increased choline acetyltransferase activity in speciÞc brain nuclei