Society and Culture Notes

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SOCIETY & CULTURE SUMMARY

CORE TERMS
Social Literacy-A socially literate individual: is interested in, observes & asks questions about the micro
& macro world.
-Shows critical discernment towards the media.
-Is capable of informed decision making & takes consider action on social views.
-Empathises with people of different societies & cultures.
-Researches effectively & ethically.
-Communicates effectively.
-Understands continuity & change & the implications for the future in a global context.
-Shows concern for the welfare, rights & dignity of all people.
-Is self aware, with a sense of personal social & cultural identity.
Society-Patterns of relationships between people, groups, networks, institutions, organisations & systems.
Culture-The system of values & meanings shared by a group or society, including the embodiment of those values & meanings in material objects. Demonstrated by beliefs, values, customs, laws, arts, technology etc.
Environment-The physical setting of a society.
Power-The exercise of force or control over individuals or groups by other individuals or groups.
Authority-The legitimate use of power, not induced by coercion or violence. Involves the right to determine, adjudicate or settle issues.
Gender-Socially constructed categories of masculine & feminine, which a differently defined in different cultures.
Technology-Knowledge directed towards practical applications in the physical & social worlds. The manipulation of raw materials with the aim of giving them functional or useful form.
Micro World-Involves an individual’s personal experience i.e. family, peers & school.
Macro World-Involves an individuals public knowledge i.e. media, law, workplace or government.

SOCIAL & CULTURAL CONTINUITY & CHANGE
Continuity-The persistence of social & cultural elements over time with little change.
Change-Alterations to social behaviour patterns over time due to changes in social structures, organisations, processes & attitudes.
Values-The core underlying beliefs, opinions & ideas from which we operate or react from.
Tradition-A custom or value passed down from generation to generation.
Cooperation-Social interaction in which individuals or groups act together to promote common interests or shared goals.
Globalisation-The consciousness of the world as a single place brought about by world information systems, TNC’s, world tourism, world sport, and world economic systems etc.
Westernisation-A model of modernisation based on western values & influence.
Beliefs-An assertion, claim or expectation about reality that is presumed to be either true or false.
Identity-An individual’s sense of self-awareness based on culture, appearance, peers, experience etc.
Industrialisation-A process of social change whereby human society is transformed from a pre-industrial to an industrial state primarily through technological innovation.
Modernisation-A process of social change resulting from the diffusion & adoption of characteristics of apparently more advanced societies. Its many characteristics include secularisation, social & political control & transformation of social relations.
Institutions-The structural components of society. The basis of organisation e.g. the family, church, media, government. Institutionalisation means social practices are regularly & continuously repeated, legitimised & maintained by social norms.
Heritage-Social & cultural elements deemed valuable enough to be passed from generation to generation.
Conflict-Involves individuals or groups struggling with each other for some commonly prized object or value.
Empowerment-Process of gaining power. This may be through personal means e.g. education or designated from external sources.

Colonialism-process of social change through the extension of a nation’s sovereignty over territory a people outside its own boundaries to facilitate economic domination over their resources, labour & markets. It also involves the subjugation of the beliefs of the colonised nation.
Capitalism-An economic system in which most of the means of production are privately owned & operated & where investment & production, distribution & prices of goods & services are determined privately in a free market.
Bureaucratisation-The way in which the administrative execution & enforcement of rules are socially organised, characterised by regularised procedure, formal division of responsibility, hierarchy & impersonal relationships.
Secularisation-The movement away from organised religion as a result of increased rationality, technology & changing norms & values.
Conflict Theory-Theory of social change based on Karl Marx’s ideas of class struggle. It states that social change is brought about by internal tensions between competing groups in society who mobilise their resources in order to achieve their goal. It was later adapted by Raif Durendorf and Max Weber to encompass conflict over power, ideas, gender, religion etc.
Functionalist Theory-Theory of social change stressing that stability & social ordered are desired & conflict comes from external sources. In order to restore equilibrium different institutes develop to deal with the conflict then they integrate into society (differentiation & integration). Based on Talcot Parson’s “Homeostatic Model,” which says changes in one part of society result in compensatory changes in another and broadened by Merton & Vebler.

THE NATURE OF SOCIAL & CULTURAL RESEARCH METHODOLOGIES
Primary Research-research in which the raw data is obtained directly by the researcher who then constructs findings from this evidence.
Secondary Research-Research where the research interprets the findings of other researchers.
Quantitative Research-Involves methodologies, which allow data to be collected, measured & compared.(T)
Qualitative Research-Where researchers aim to understand, report & evaluate the meaning of events for people in particular situations.(L)
Reliability-The degree to which a scientific test is consistent & accurate.
Validity-Correlation between what an investigation purports to measure & what it actually measures.
Survey-using data from a sample to make estimates or test hypotheses on the population. The most common types of surveys are mail, telephone or interview.(T)
Case Study-Involves collection of data on a certain issue through a range of methodologies i.e. observation, interviews, documentary evidence.
Participant Observation-Methodology which aims to gain a close & intimate familiarly with a given group of individuals & their practices through intensive involvement with people in their natural environment.(L)
Content Analysis-Methodology involving making inferences by objectively & systematically identifying specified characteristics of forms of media.(T)
Focus Group-A qualitative methodology in which a selected group of people are asked about their attitudes towards a certain issue & discuss it with each other. A focus group is effective in that it is dynamic but some members can dominate the discussion & it can get off topic.(L)
Action Research-A problem is recognised & a plan is devised & implemented through observation, reflection, revision & reimplementation until the most desirable outcomes are achieved.(L)
Interview-A conversation between 2 people where questions are asked to obtain information on the interviewee’s opinion.(L)
Questionnaire-A type of survey handed out in paper form to a certain sample to gather information. It is quantitative & the information can be generalised & illustrated in graphs.(T)
Observation-Methodology involving watching a certain group & taking note of their actions. It is limited by the Hawthorne Effect.(L)
Ethnographic Study-The systematic collection of data derived from direct observation of the everyday life of a particular society or group. Interactive & requires the researchers immersion in the group under study.(L)
Statistical Analysis-The planning, summarising & interpreting of observations of a system.(T)
Comparative & Analogous Methods-The observation that certain patterns of certain events reoccur over time.(L)

Trend Extrapolation-Forecasting from past statistics, demographic changes.(T)
Scenarios-An exploration of an alternative future usually in the form of a written description that outlines a conceivable state of affairs given certain assumptions. It must be hypothetical, profess that it is only an outline & consider all futures.

SOCIAL & CULTURAL CHANGE IN THE USA
Education-Native American education was informal & based on the social initiation into group roles. When the British colonised they introduced a number of education schemes. The 1st two where religious teaching & boarding schools in which Native Americans were removed from their families in an attempt to subjugate their culture. These schools were very formal & disciplined, which resulted in alienation & resentment rather than the learning of new skills. In the early nineties community schools were set up to promote social & economic subsistence but the depression resulted in the closing of these schools & absorption into state schools. After the 1960s & self-determination, schools became run by indigenous people where their culture was promoted. Further progress involved the Native American
Languages Act 2002, which sought to preserve Native American languages. Continuities include its purpose as socialisation; passage of knowledge between generations; allocation of individuals to roles; & personal development.
Values, Beliefs & Lifestyles-Prior to colonisation this was based on a spiritual connection to the land from which they gained their identity and rooted their social infrastructure on. When Europeans came they brought with them values of land ownership, which resulted in the dispossession & exploitation of Native American lands. The Patriarchal views of the Europeans also disrupted the high status that Native American women held. Europeans generally saw the beliefs of Native Americans as inferior & sought to subjugate them. Continuities include the importance of indigenous values & culture, & inequality as measured by social indicators.
Preferable Future-An increase in social indicators despite ongoing inequality; groups & institutions working towards social change; increased awareness & tolerance of culture; greater self-determination & reconciliation.

POPULAR CULTURE
The Nature of Popular Culture-being associated with commercial products.
-developing from a local to a national to a global level.
-allowing consumers to have widespread access to it.
-constantly changing & evolving.
The Creation of Popular Culture-
-Surfing-Surfing originated in Hawaii in the 15th Century. It was spread to mainland US & Australia in the early 20th century where it increased in popularity. However it was not until the establishment of the world tour in the nineties that surfing became an international phenomenon. Heroes such as Nat Young & Midget Farrelly helped establish & experiment with the movement while more recent heroes such as Mark Richards & Kelly Slater have established it as a legitimate sport.
-Grunge-Grunge originated in Seattle as retaliation to the lack of creativity being expressed there. Interest in the scene began in the late 80’s with Melody Maker’s “Seattle Rock City” article, which exposed the scene at a national level. International interest began with the release of Nirvana’s “Nevermind” album.
The Consumption of Popular Culture-
-Surfing-Originally surfing was difficult to access because of the technical limitations of boards. In the sixties back-yard factories were setup to experiment with boards to make them better to ride. The sixties also resulted in the creation of a number of associated products such as music (Beach Boys), cars (Valiant), language, films (Endless Summer) & magazines (Surfing Life) so individuals could access surfing through the lifestyle as well as the actual activity. Technology has also made it more readily acceptable through wetsuits, jet skis & fiberglass boards. With globalisation & the world circuit, surfing became marketable on a mass level resulting in widespread media coverage & a range of associated products from big industries i.e. Rip Curl.
-Grunge-Original consumption of grunge was limited to band organised gigs, locally produced fanzines, single releases on small independent record labels i.e. “Sub Pop Singles Club” and wearing the grunge fashion i.e. flannel shirts, torn jeans & converse sneakers. Mythology was based around cult figures such as Green River who founded the movement. With the advent of “Nevermind,” mass consumption

was enabled. There was mass media coverage, mass-produced & sold album, mass-produced “fashion,” world arena tours & Kurt Cobain & Eddie Vedder became labeled the spokespeople of “Generation-X.”
The Control of Popular Culture-
-Surfing-Originally control was in the hands of surfers & grass roots ownership. However a lot of this ownership has passed into the hands of corporations. The world tour is reliant on corporate sponsorship & companies control access to products. The mass media also controls the perception & coverage of the culture.
-Grunge-Initially control of perception & ownership was in the hands of the bands or small independent record companies. With is success; ownership was transferred to that of major record companies and corporations. The control of perceptions was under that of the mass media as is evident in the grunge lexicon hoax & the creation of “generation-X”
Different Perceptions of Popular Culture-
-Surfing-Surfing was originally resisted by mainstream society in that it promotion of an alternative lifestyle made many see its participants as social dropouts. However with the world tour circuit it has been accepted by mainstream as a legitimate sport & even a legitimate occupation. There has also been resistance within the movement between corporate surfers & soul surfers over the corporate ownership & exploitation of the movement at the expense of some of it core values.
-Grunge-grunge was resisted by many conservative groups within society i.e. Parent’s & Teachers Association because of its anti-establishment & anti-social values. It was also challenged by the media who saw it as this generations attempt to create a counter-culture similar to the hippies of the previous generation. There was conflict within the movement between the participants & the owners over the creative direction & exploitation of the movement.
Contribution to Social Change-
-Surfing-Promoted alternative lifestyles i.e. meditation, individualism, vegetarianism & protecting the environment. Broke down gender barriers with the acceptance of female surfers. Led to a greater sense of Australian identity involving beach life. Legitimised many similar sports.
-Grunge-Challenged the male rock stereotype. Gave a voice to a generation struggling to make sense of a world in which their needs, dreams & aspirations were unrecognised.
The Future-
-Surfing-Increased access & consumption through board & wetsuit technology, paraphernalia & media. There will more control by TNC’s & corporations increasing conflict within the movement. Surfing will be further integrated into culture resulting in a loss of identity for surfers.
-Grunge-Access to grunge through CD’s & clothing will continue but not to the same extent as before. Its anti-authoritarian stance will continue to appeal to disenfranchised teenagers. The conflict between corporate ownership & the core values of the movement ensure that it will be difficult to attain the same exposure as before.

EQUALITY & DIFFERENCE
Equality-A situation where every individual receives equal treatment regardless of status, gender, race etc.
Social Differentiation-The process of differentiating social & occupational groups within society.
Prejudice-Forming judgment on a group of people based on generalised beliefs rather than fact or evidence.
Discrimination-When actions are taken by one group against another as a result of prejudiced views.
Socioeconomic Status-
Ethnicity-People sharing specific ancestry & culture that marks them as different to others.
Race-People sharing specific biological characteristics that mark them as different to others.
Multiculturalism-Cultural diversity within the framework of national unity.
Equity-Fairness & impartiality. This means that individuals are treated differently according to their circumstances.
Class-A term used to differentiate the population on the grounds of economic considerations, such as inequality of wealth or income, or social considerations such as birth & background.
Underclass-Refers to the group at the bottom of the social hierarchy who are economically, socially & politically marginalised from the rest of society. Wilson 1991 “a marginalised economic position & a weak attachment to the labour force which is reinforced by the neighborhood or social milieu.”
Social Mobility-The changing of position in social rank. Social mobility is affected by education, family background, distribution of opportunity, motivation & occupational structure.

Hybrid Society-A society that comprises a range of social & cultural influences, rather than having homogenous identity. The mixing together of different cultural elements to create new meanings & identities.
Affirmative Action-A policy or program providing access to systems for people of a minority group who have traditionally been discriminated against with aims of creating a more egalitarian society.
Wedge Politics-a social or political issue used by politicians as a ploy to split an opposing political parties support base, enticing the supporters over to their party. Often involves scapegoating minority groups.
Institutionalisation-when inequality is regularly & continually practiced so that it becomes legitimised & maintained by social institutions.
The Nature & Extent of Inequality-
-The Underclass-The underclass are those with “a marginalised economic position & a weak attachment to the labour force which is reinforced by the neighborhood or social milieu.” It includes the unemployed, homeless, aged, aborigines, rural families, working poor & while all these groups have different experiences, attitudes, aspirations etc there is commonality in that they are all marginalised, alienated, powerless, lacking access to resources etc. Characteristics of the underclass include unemployment, unskilled workers, poor health, crime rates, low income, child abuse, poor education, and wasted talent.
-Women-Discrimination occurs mainly in the areas of employment where 55% of females work compared to 73% of males; women earn 84% of what men earn; 32% are employed in casual or marginal work; & 80% of all acts lodged under the Sex Discrimination Act are employment related. Much of this inequality exists because of perceptions that women’s work should consist of nursing, teaching, clerical work & family duties. Another perception is the glass ceiling, an invisible barrier based on attitudinal or organisational bias, which prevents women from advancing to leadership positions, which is obvious in the 3% of top management positions that are held by women.
Ways to Reduce Inequality-
-Underclass-The provision of various support schemes & services such as Centrelink, Rent Assistance, Childcare Assistance, Medicare & Pharmaceutical Benefits scheme have increased access to socially valued resources. Reports into the underclass such as the Henderson Report into Poverty in 1972 & the Vinson Report 2002 brought attention to the situation & encouraged institutions to act. Community initiatives & media initiatives such as Roy & HG & Live Aid have also reduced inequality.
-Women-Inequality has been reduced through anti-discriminatory legislation such as the Anti-Discrimination Act 1997 (NSW), Sex Discrimination Act 1984 (Cwth), Human Rights & Equal Opportunity Act 1986 (Cwth), Equal Opportunity for Women in the Workplace Act (Cwth) & anti-discriminatory government bodies such as the Anti-Discrimination Board (NSW) & Human Rights & Equal Opportunity Commission (Cwlth). The government has also implemented a number of schemes such as the “Return to Work Program,” which encourages those who have been out of the workforce for over 2 years as unpaid carers to return to work & the “Small Business Enterprises Program,” which provides leadership training for women operating small businesses.
Conflict & Cooperation-
-Underclass-Much conflict is brought about by the concept of wedge politics where a political party scapegoats minority group to avoid responsibility for the problem i.e. Tony Abbot’s comments “we can’t end poverty because people always drink, smoke & gamble too much.” The media further affects this negative perception of the underclass.
-Women-The government has cooperated through providing legislation, bodies & support schemes. However it has come into conflict through substantial funding cuts to bodies, making childcare more difficult to find & pay for, & increasing up front university fees. The media also continues to scrutinize women transcending traditional roles e.g. “who’s at home watching the kids.”
Power & Authority-
-Underclass-The underclass’ marginalisation means they have little access to social mechanisms & so little power. The powerful have legitimised their position over time through legislation. The underclass needs to be empowered through positive discrimination and access to social mechanisms.
-Women-As a result of living in a patriarchal society men dominate in the areas of business, law & politics, which are the main institutes by which power is designated within society. This has given them the ability to legitimise their position over time through legislation that perpetuates the inequality. Women need to be empowered through legitimate means such as legislation or greater access to social mechanisms.

The Future-
A preferable situation involves the group being truly equal in terms of opportunities & access to social mechanisms. They should also be free form any negative or untrue perceptions. In order to achieve this an integrative approach is required involving legislation, government, the media & the community working together to promote equality.