Society has focused on the world of men, at the expense of the world of women.

The view that society has focused upon the world of men at the expense of the world of women is central to the core views of feminists. It is the feminists who argue that the metaphorical chains that hold women back are not biologically created, but are rather, culturally forged. For example, feminist Ann Oakley (2005) completely disregards Parsons’ (1955) view that the sexual division of labour is biological, based on men’s ‘instrumental needs’ that are satisfied in their roles of breadwinners and women’s ‘expressive needs’ which are fulfilled in their roles of mother, wife and caretaker. She examines a number of societies such as the Mbuti Pygmies of Congo and the Australian Aborigines of Tasmania in which there is no specified sexual division of labour and where both men and women share different responsibilities such as hunting and taking care of their children. She also notes that in more and comparatively developed societies such as China, Israel and Cuba, a substantial number of women are part of the armed forces, and this once again questions the validity of the functionalist view that a sexual division of labour is natural and inevitable. Feminists argue that gender roles, being culturally produced, are why gender inequality exists in many societies today. In particular, this paper aims to discuss how society centres the world of men at the expense of the world of women by using various examples such as through institutions and aspects like the family, education, employment, marriage and divorce, health, and the media. In recent years, the feminist perspective has had more influence on the study of family than any other sociological approach. They emphasise the particular ways in which men benefit from families at the expense of women. This is in line with the views of Delphy and Leonard (1992) who convey that women provide “57 varieties of unpaid services” for men which include but are not limited to unpaid domestic, sexual and reproductive work. Marxist feminist Ansley (1972) contends that women in families are like ‘sponges’ as they soak up the anger and frustration felt by their husbands working in capitalist systems. Duncombe and Marsden (1993) argue that women who are employed in the labour force face more inequality as they carry a ‘triple burden,’ which consists of housework, paid work, and emotion work.

Moreover, in many families, there is still a large focus upon the world of men by exploiting women through violence. O’ Connell (as cited in Haralambos & Holborn, 2000) suggests, “men have always used violence against women to perpetuate the gender hierarchy: to keep a woman ‘in her place,’ to stifle her right to speak, to come and go, to make decisions, and to control her sexuality.” Walby and Allen (2004) suggest that although the state has been more inclined to take action against the perpetrators of the victims of violence, it is still apparent that many women are still subject to male violence.

Correspondingly, the institution of marriage may not be ideally based on ‘romantic love’ which, as previously mentioned, satisfies the ‘expressive needs’ of women. In many developing countries such as Nepal, young girls are coerced into marrying men who are much older than them. In a UNICEF report (2012), it is estimated that more than a third of women aged 20-24 were married before turning 18. In many societies, a woman’s option to leave an empty-shell marriage is limited. In Lebanon, women who have been the subject of domestic violence are not allowed to file for divorce on the grounds of abuse without the testimony of an eyewitness. Jawad (1998) argues that in some Islamic societies, women can be forced into marriages but are not allowed to divorce. In contrast, Muslim men in certain Islamic societies who can have four wives simultaneously are allowed to divorce after a verbal renunciation in court, whereas women may face many obstacles hindering them from even seeing a judge. Rushfan (2008) argues that it is also a man’s world in court hearings in some societies. He conveys that in Bahrain, judges have total power to deny divorced women of custody of their own children for the most tyrannical motives. Women who try to defy the court rulings are sued and slandered.

The next major institution which has males as the focal point is education. Education is recognised as the path to upward mobility and economic security and success, particularly for women. However, girls in many developing countries are denied education as opposed to their male counterparts. In Afghanistan for instance, under the Taliban regime, girls are either pulled out of school once they reach puberty or are possibly completely denied any educational. In India, girls may have to abruptly put their studies to a halt if their fathers claim it is time for them to marry. In families facing poverty, there may only be enough money to support the education of one child – the male child. According to Lopez-Claros and Zahidi (2005), two thirds of the world’s illiterate adults are women. Many studies have been conducted showing that the key to reducing poverty and assisting development is by educating girls (Edmonds, 2012). Robbing girls off education does not particularly lead to benefits for society to reap, except of course for patriarchs who continue to dominate and assume power and control over social, economic and political aspects.

The following aspect that society has focused upon the world of men, literally at the expense of women, is employment. In the United Kingdom and many other industrial societies, women have become much more active in the labour market. Economic changes and growth industries have particularly contributed to the significant rise of the employment of women. However, Wilkinson (1994) and many other feminists argue that although there has been substantial progress, women have certainly not achieved equality with men in employment. They place particular emphasis on the inequalities between men and women in terms of income earned and types of occupational positions held.

In the labour market, there exists two types of gender segregations – vertical and horizontal segregation. Vertical segregation is where men and women work in the same occupation but the senior and highest ranks tend to be male dominated. Many feminists use the concept of the ‘glass ceiling’ which is an invisible barrier of prejudice and discrimination against women in the workplace from reaching the top most occupational positions. Horizontal segregation on the other hand, refers to gender stereotyped jobs. It is no surprise then that more of the ‘inferior’ occupations such as receptionists and cleaners are mainly women-stereotyped while males assume the more skilled and prestigious jobs such as doctors, lawyers, engineers and pilots.

Additionally, Walby (as cited in Fulcher and Scott, 2003) identifies how women and men do the same work and it is still often the case that women are paid less than men. This can be illustrated by recent statistics from the US Census which suggests that women make only about 77 percent of what men earn for the same amount of work (National Committee on Pay Equity, 2012). Although legislation has been passed in many countries (for example, Britain’s Equal Pay Act) to make it illegal to pay women less than men when they do the same work, these policies are not practised effectively. For Marxist feminists Benston and Ansley (1972), women in capitalist societies are a ‘reserve army of labour’ and are often the last to be hired but the first to be fired. They are often part time workers who are paid low wages and denied many benefits.

The Human Capital theory (Becker, 1994) suggests that employers are reluctant to give women positions of responsibility and authority because they are not a good economic investment. Women are far more likely than their male counterparts to take career breaks or even abandon their career altogether because of commitments to children and families. Feminists, however, reject this approach once again because it is seen as being part of patriarchal culture, clearly revolving around the world of men at the expense of the world of women.

With regards to the aspect of health, it is certain that in some societies, men benefit much more than women when it comes to health and health care services. According to Kwaak (as referenced in Tanzim, 2011), a woman’s health is not only determined by biological factors, but by psychological factors as well. Based on this definition, it is no wonder that feminists have contributed greatly in the sociology of health. First of all, Wach and Reeves (2000) suggest that women in Sub-Saharan Africa are increasingly contracting HIV/AIDS because many of them do not have the power or legal authority to leave their marriages even though their husbands are committing adulterous acts and engaging in extra marital affairs. Another example of the subordination of women takes place in Saudi Arabia, where women are forbidden from driving cars or being in cars with men they are not closely related to. Amongst developing countries, this has led to approximately 500,000 deaths of women during childbirth per year (World Health Organisation, 2013) and may have easily been avoided had these women been allowed to leave their homes to receive medical care. Millar and Glendinning (1989) argue that the lower pay that women receive and the higher rates of poverty experienced by women explain why women are more likely to suffer from being ill compared to men.

It is also possible to illustrate how the media in all its forms very effectively depicts how society has focused upon the world of men at the expense of the world of women. Tuchman and McRobbie (as cited in Fulcher & Scott, 2003) in their separate studies of media representation of women, provide evidence of how women are almost always portrayed in very limited and limiting ways; mainly on the grounds of sexual attractiveness and a limited number of roles such as housewives, mothers, appendages to men’s arms, or sexual playthings. This reinforces in society how girls and women alike should be; inferior to men who McRobbie also discovers are represented as strong, aggressive, dominant, and assertive in the media. The mass media is certainly an important agency of socialisation and much of its content is a reflection of patriarchal ideology, protecting and promoting the interests of men.

In spite of all the evidence showing how society focuses on men at the expense of the world of women, it is very important to recognise that great changes have been made in the world of women and many of them are progressing. For example, Somerville (2000) argues that many women in modern societies have more opportunities to make decisions in the family and that a substantial number of men advocate gender equality in the family. Changing family structures also contribute to the undermining of the notion of women oppression in families, and are demonstrated by how women in post-industrial societies such as Sweden, choose to have babies without marrying a man. Mitsos and Browne (1998) suggest that women’s self-esteem and ambitions have been raised and consequently, more girls, especially in modern societies, are being increasingly educated in order to be able to support themselves. Hakim (2000) uses the preference theory to explain how the great majority of women are completely content with performing their roles as wives and mothers, and the reason why most women work either part time or not at all is because that is their preference. Healthcare is seen as much more accessible to members of society, and infant mortality rates as well as mothers’ death rates at childbirth are decreasing over time. Finally, in many Western societies, there is evidence that changes are being made to represent women in a more encouraging and equal interpretation. It must not be ignored, however, that despite the progress achieved by women, it is undeniable that in certain societies in different parts of the world, the world of men is still protected and promoted by patriarchal values, at the expense of the world of women.