Stages of Adolescent - Paper

Stages of adolescent

adolescence is a very delicate period in one 's life. It arouses various internal conflicts, as an adolescent is neither a child and nor an adult yet. It is a very challenging period for the parents too, as parenting teenagers involves coping with their moods and behavioral changes. There are basically three stages which every child goes through, although the ages at which the child experiences these and the duration of each stage varies. Here are the three stages of adolescent development.

Early Stage (12-14 years)
This is the first among the adolescent development stages. It is usually experienced between the years 12 and 14. These are the characteristics displayed by them during the early stage.

In this stage, the teens are still coming to terms with whom they are. They experience moodiness and are often irritable.
They are still developing their communication skills, so they express themselves better by actions rather than by words.
During early adolescence, the girls outperform boys and develop skills faster. There is a tendency to show off one 's skills and qualities.
Family ties are weak and parents are no longer looked up to like before. There is more trust in the friendships forged outside home.
Sense of dressing and interests depend upon that of the friends. Friendships are mostly among the same sex.
Sometimes, the teen may display childish behavior.
Teens like to experiment with their bodies and thus resort to masturbation. Teens are still discovering their sexuality and may worry whether they are sexually normal or not.
Teens may experiment with forbidden substances, such as cigarettes or alcohol.

Middle Stage (14-17 years)
This is experienced by adolescents between the years 14 and 17. Here are a few characteristics displayed by them during the middle stage.

There is a somewhat developed sense of self-identity. The focus shifts on self-improvement.
Teens lay great emphasis on the body and the outer appearance. The changes in the body due to puberty may make them self-conscious of their bodies. Sometimes, the teen might feel very inferior to others too.
Relationship with the parents becomes stressful. The teen finds his parents interfering and thus, may emotionally withdraw from them. The teen may feel that he has lost the support of his parents and this might make him feel sad and lonely.
Focus of the teen is on making new friends. The teen identifies with his peer group.
Intellectual development starts taking place. The teen starts analyzing his inner self.
The teen has a heightened sexual energy and may experience love and passion for the first time. The teen forms relationships with the opposite sex and may enter and exit relationships very quickly. The teen is still discovering his sexuality, considers both homosexuality and heterosexuality. Sex education at this stage, thus, is very essential.
A sense of morality and ethics develops in a teenager.
The teen selects his role models and even sets goals for himself.

Late Stage (17-19 years)
This stage is experienced between the years 17 and 19. Here are the characteristics displayed by adolescents.

The sense of self-identity deepens and the teen develops a sense of self-esteem.
Intellectual development progresses. Communication skills are developed and the teen is able to express himself well.
Stability in emotions and interests is exhibited. The teen starts taking his relationships with the opposite sex seriously.
The teen is able to take independent decisions and starts relying on himself rather than his parents or friends.
The teen loses the typical childhood trait of stubbornness and is able to compromise on various issues.
The teen starts thinking about the future for the first time.
The teen starts questioning his existence - about what role he is going to play in the world.
He identifies his sexual preferences and is able to express love and concern for others.
The teen starts accepting the social institutions and traditions.

If a child displays a behavior deviant from the above-mentioned stages of development, he might be facing some behavior problems. In such a scenario, consulting a psychologist is recommended.
Read more at Buzzle: http://www.buzzle.com/articles/adolescent-development-stages.html

Biology: http://www.buzzle.com/articles/adolescent-development-stages.html

below are characteristics of the "typical" child during each developmental stage from middle childhood through early and middle adolescence (ages 8-18).

Children 's progression through these stages is determined not only by biological growth and change, but also by temperament and personality, adult expectations, and social influences.

Here is a somewhat relative division on three stages on each of which there are typical milestones of physical growth and moral development factors are considered.

Also there are general tendencies in relationship evolution of a child with parents and peers shown.

MIDDLE CHILDHOOD (ages 8-11)

Physical Growth

• Period of uneven growth of bones, muscles, and organs can result in awkward appearance.

• Early onset of puberty can present difficulties for girls; for boys, it can result in adult expectations more appropriate for older boys.

• Since some adolescents begin puberty during middle childhood, children need access to information about sexuality and puberty prior to the middle-school years.

Cognitive Stage

• Logical thinking with limited ability to extend logic to abstract concepts; disdain for imaginative and illogical thinking of early childhood.

• Accumulation of much general knowledge.

• Gradual development of ability to apply learned concepts to new tasks.

• Frequent interest in learning life skills (cooking, fixing things, etc.) from adults at home and else where.

Moral Development

• Predominantly egocentric in thinking, although has developed a conscience.

• Moves from thinking in terms of "What 's in it for me" fairness, to wanting to gain social approval and live up to the expectations of people close to them - "golden rule" morality (can take perspective of others, may place needs of others over own self-interest).

• Moral thinking abilities not always reflected in children 's behaviors.

Self-Concept

• Influenced by relationships with family members, teachers, and increasingly by peers.

• Often relatively low level of concern about physical appearance (especially boys), although this is influenced by peers as well as the media.

• Many boys experience pressure to conform to "masculine" stereotype.

• Girls ' body image declines precipitously with puberty, especially with early onset.

• Early onset of puberty is also associated with lower self-control and emotional stability, especially for boys.

Psychological and Emotional Traits

• Need to develop a sense of mastery and accomplishment. (Frequent interest in making plans and achieving goals. Learning from parents and others to do, make, and fix things.)

• Tendency to be disorganized and forgetful.

Relationship to Parents and Other Adults

• Tends to be closely attached to parental figures.

• Parents commonly make most decisions, affecting child, with child involvement in decisions increasing with age.

• Most frequent conflicts over sibling quarrels and forgetfulness with respect to chores, schoolwork, and messiness, especially of child 's bedroom.

• Parental listening skills become increasingly important.

• Parent-child communication patterns can change with puberty. Many adolescents report that they can 't talk with parents about issues related to sexuality, and they don 't get needed information in sex education courses at school.
Peer Relationships

• Friendships often with same-gender peers, usually based on proximity, common interest/hobbies, or other perceived commonalities. Girls usually have fewer, but emotionally closer, friends than boys.

• Formation of exclusive "clubs" and shifting peer alliances common.

• Media influences and popular culture increasingly impact children 's peer activities and relationships.
EARLY ADOLESCENCE (ages 11-14)

Physical Growth

• Wide variation in onset of puberty and growth spurt.

• Appetite increases during growth spurts and decreases markedly between them.

• Increased need for sleep.

• Evident sexual development, voice changes, and increased body odor are common.

Cognitive Stage

• Individual variation between some children who are still focused on logic and others who are able to combine logical and abstract thinking.

• Some early adolescents can 't think ahead to consequences of their actions.

• Developing new thinking skills, such as thinking more about possibilities, thinking more abstractly, thinking more about the process of thinking itself, thinking in multiple dimensions, and seeing things as relative rather than absolute.

• Practicing new thinking skills through humor and by arguing with parents and others. Use of humor focused on satire, sarcasm, and sex (often irritating to adults).

Moral Development

• Continuing egocentrism. Often believes self to be invulnerable to negative events.

• Increasing ability to take perspective of others into account with own perspective.

• In addition to concern about gaining social approval, morals begin to be based on respect for the social order and agreements between people: "law and order" morality.

• Begins to question social conventions and re-examine own values and moral/ethical principles, sometimes resulting in conflicts with parents.

Self-Concept

• Self-image can be challenged by body changes during puberty and social comparisons.

• Youth begin long-term process of establishing own identity separate from family.

• With the onset of puberty, many girls experience pressure to conform to gender stereotypes, might show less interest in math and science.

• With puberty, normal increases in girls ' body fat can impact body image and self-concept negatively for many. Both boys and girls might be concerned with skin problems, height, weight, and overall appearance.

Psychological and Emotional Traits

• Intense self-focus. (Worrying about what others think about them. Increased desire for privacy and sensitivity about body.)

• Frequent mood swings with changes in activities and contexts. Too much time spent alone can contribute to moodiness.

• Height of forgetfulness.

Relationship to Parents and Other Adults

• Changes in own and parental expectations alter previous patterns of relationships with parents, often resulting in greater conflict.

• Greater focus on peer friendships as youth develops an identity outside of the role of a child in a family.
• Often rebuffs physical affection (but still needs it).

• Increased interest in making own decisions; benefits from increased opportunities to make own decisions within scope of current abilities.

• Youth objects more often to parental limitations (but still needs some), resulting in conflict.

• New thinking abilities are practiced in increased use of humor and arguments (or "talking back") with parents/other adults, which may result in conflicts.

• Parental listening skills and nurturing continue to be important.

Peer Relationships

• Changes due to puberty and peer reactions commonly alter peer relationships.

• Friendships still begin with perceived commonalities, but increasingly involve sharing of values and personal confidences.

• Might develop cliques of three to six friends (usually same gender), providing greater sense of security. Antisocial cliques can increase antisocial behaviors.

• Romantic crushes common, and some dating begins.
MIDDLE ADOLESCENCE (ages 15-18)

Physical Growth

• Most youth have entered or completed puberty.

• Less variation in levels of growth and sexual development.

• Many youth have achieved their full adult height and other adult physical development milestones.

Cognitive Stage

• Major broadening of thinking abilities for many youth: can think abstractly and hypothetically; can discern the underlying principles of various phenomena and apply them to new situations; and can think about the future, considering many possibilities and logical outcomes of possible events.

• Greater perspective-taking ability can result in increased empathy and concern for others, and new interest in societal issues for many.

Moral Development

• Less egocentric with age. Increased emphasis on abstract values and moral principles.

• Increased ability (for some) to take another 's perspective; can see the bigger societal picture and might value moral principles over laws: "principled" morality.

• Different rates of cognitive and emotional development. For example, often advocates for specific values and violates them at the same time.

Self-Concept

• Process of identity formation is intense. Experimentation with different roles: looks, sexuality, values, friendships, ethnicity, and especially occupations.

• Some girls might experience obsessive dieting or eating disorders, especially those who have higher body fat, are chronically depressed, or who have highly conflicted family relationships.

• Minority youths might explore several patterns of identity formation:

* a strong ethnic identity
* bi-cultural identity
* assimilation into the majority culture
* alienation from the majority culture

Psychological and Emotional Traits

• For some, increased ability to empathize with others; greater vulnerability to worrying, depression, and concern for others, especially among girls.

• Many show an increase in responsible behaviors.

Relationship to Parents and Other Adults

• Conflicts with parents often decreases with age. (Improved ability to see parents as individuals and take their perspectives into account. Most maintain good relationship with parents.)

• Greater interest in taking on "adult-type" responsibilities (own checking account, doing own laundry, buying own clothes, cooking meals, making repairs, etc.).

• Commonly makes most of own decisions, preparing for eventual family.

• Needs balance between time spent with adults and with peers.

• Continue to benefit from some parental limits and monitoring, while often objecting to them.

• Common conflicts over money, curfews, chores, appearance, and activities with peers.

Peer Relationships

• Peers help youth explore and develop own identity.

• Cross-gender friendships become more common.

• Antisocial peer groups can increase antisocial behaviors.

• Close friendships help youth with process of developing an individual identity separate from that of a child in a family.

Biology: http://www.babyart.org/teen/stages-of-adolescence.html

stages

To help you keep your expectations in line with the normal changes of adolescent growth, what follows is a brief description of the adolescent process, with common problems parents often encounter in each of the four stages along the way.
1. Early Adolescence
Early adolescence usually unfolds between ages nine and 13, and problems are characterized by these common changes. The adolescent: * Develops a negative attitude. * Shows increased dissatisfaction at being defined and treated as a child. * Shows less interest in traditional childhood activities and more boredom and restlessness from not knowing what to do. * Feels a new sense of grievance about unfair demands and limits that adults in life impose. * Resists authority more, with questioning, arguing, delaying compliance, and ignoring normal home and school responsibilities. * Experiments more to see what he or she can get away with, including such activities as shoplifting, vandalizing, prank calls, and the beginning of substance experimentation.
2. Midadolescence
Midadolescence usually unfolds between ages 13 and 15, and problems are characterized by these common changes. The adolescent: * Fights more with parents over social freedom. * Lies more often to escape consequences from wrongdoing or to get to do what you have forbidden. * Feels more peer pressure to go along with risk taking in order to belong, including more pressure to use illegal substances to be accepted.
3. Late Adolescence
Late adolescence usually unfolds between ages 15 and 18, and problems are characterized by these common changes. The adolescent: * Gains more independence by doing grown-up activities — part-time employment, driving a car, dating, and recreational substance use at social gatherings. * Experiences more significant emotional (and often sexual) involvement in romantic relationships. * Feels grief over the gradual separation from old friends (and perhaps leaving family) and more anxiety at his or her unreadiness to undertake more worldly independence.
ESSENTIAL
Maintain realistic expectations about your child 's passage through adolescence, and you will reduce the likelihood of overreacting when normal problems occur and helpful disciplinary support is required.
4. Trial Independence
Trial independence usually unfolds between ages 18 and 23, and problems are characterized by these common changes. The adolescent struggling to be adult: * Has lower self-esteem from a sense of incompetence, not being able to adequately support all the demands and keep all the commitments of adult responsibility at this “grown-up”age. * Feels anxious over not having a clear sense of direction in life. * Is easily distracted by peers who are confused about direction, too, partying more to deny problems or escape responsibility, as the period of maximum exposure to drug and alcohol use begins. * Readjusting Expectations * Substance Abuse
Biology: http://www.netplaces.com/positive-discipline/disciplining-the-teenager/the-four-stages-of-adolescence.htm

Adolescent Stages of Development

87
Adolescence: The Last Step Before Becoming An Adult
Children must pass through several stages, or take specific steps, on their road to becoming adults. For most people, there are four or five such stages of growth where they learn certain things: infancy (birth to age two), early childhood (ages 3 to 8 years), later childhood (ages 9 to 12) and adolescence (ages 13 to 18). Persons 18 and over are considered adults in our society. Of course, there are some who will try to act older than their years. But, for the most part, most everybody grows in this same pattern. Parents learn much about taking care of their babies and young children. At the hospital or with the doctor, you might pick up information about what to feed them or how long they should sleep. Later, school staff may remind you about the importance of talking and reading to your young children. You can also see how your friends or relatives treat their kids. You cannot say the same thing about learning to talk with teenagers (adolescents). It seems like everyone, even teachers and neighbors, have problems understanding them. Giving up, you might turn to doing and saying the same things your parents did with you. But those were other times!
You can begin to understand this age group if you look at its place on the growth sequence. Notice how it’s right next to the adult stage, the last step before being an adult. This is a time for adolescents to decide about their future line of work and think about starting their own families in a few years. One of the first things they must do is to start making their own decisions. For example adolescents can begin to decide what to buy with their own money or who will be their friend. To do this they must put a little distance between themselves and their parents. This does not mean that you can’t continue to “look after them” or help them when needed. You should, as much as possible, let them learn from the results of their actions. Adolescents also need to be around other adults, both male and female. These can be relatives, neighbors, or teachers. Of course, they should be positive role models. Your teenagers can learn from them about things like how to fix the car, getting along with others, or ideas for future jobs. Finally, don’t worry if they want to spend time alone. Adolescents can “spend hours” day dreaming about their future life. They might be planning the things they can do or will buy “when they grow up.” Remember, to travel far, one begins with the first few steps!
[Publication Date: 1998 Publisher/Institutional Source: ERIC Clearinghouse on Rural Education]

Models of Adolescent Transition by William A. Borgen and Norman E. Amundson
Overview
Adolescents face a range of developmental issues. Havighurst (1952) suggested that two important areas included work and relationships. Levinson (1978) focused on changing relationships and on exploration, while Erikson (1968) commented on intimacy and commitment to goals. Super (1963) indicated that exploring and crystallizing vocational choice are important to older adolescents and young adults. What seems evident is that older adolescents and young adults enter transitions with the goal of becoming independently functioning adults, as they strive to meet evolving personal and career related needs. Rapid and escalating changes in labor market and post-secondary educational opportunities mean that adolescents now are confronted with the challenge of meeting their personal and career needs when neither can offer certainty or a sense of personal control.
Transition From High School
A longitudinal study by Amundson, Borgen, and Tench (in press) found that young people left high school unprepared for current career realities and that both the career and personal areas of their lives were in a state of change and uncertainty. At the end of their final year of high school, young people in the study expressed optimism about entering the career area of their choice and they expected to be successful workers in challenging jobs which offered personal satisfaction. About half the respondents indicated some concern about meeting post-secondary entrance standards. Approximately 9 and 18 months following graduation, depression, self-esteem, and anxiety were correlated with a range of perceived problems, including money, lack of support from family and friends, internal attribution of general transition problems, external attribution of career/employment difficulties, and lack of job satisfaction.
At the end of the study, some of the young people were interviewed. They were asked about factors that helped or hindered the post-high-school transition. Positive factors included supportive family and friends, making money, satisfying leisure activities, personal achievements, and educational success. Negative factors included relationship problems, career confusion, financial difficulties, unemployment, lack of satisfying work, lack of post-secondary educational opportunities, and difficulty in adjusting to post-secondary educational demands.
Developmentally, the young people were trying to meet personal and career-related needs, which were in a state of flux and uncertainty. It was apparent that a lack of progress in one area could have a negative influence on the other (e.g., an inability to gain post-secondary educational admission or paid work could drastically alter one’s ability to move from being a dependent adolescent to an independent adult).
An Expanded View of Career Counseling: Engendering Competence
The above study suggests a need for a broader view of career counseling; counseling which recognizes the developmental needs of young people, the influence of social and economic changes, and the importance of basing intervention strategies on personal and career competence, all within a context of diminished and changing opportunities for choice. In order to address this broader range of issues, we have employed a competence model with eight main areas (Amundson, Borgen & Tench, in press): purpose, problem solving, communication skills, theoretical knowledge, applied knowledge, organizational adaptability, human-relations skills, and self-confidence. We also have developed a number of counseling strategies that facilitate a smoother transition: * Developing Multiple Plans. Many young people leave high school with a narrow plan of action and with few alternatives. They fully expect to be successful with the plan and are not prepared to face any barriers. Developing flexibility in career planning requires a sense of purpose, problem solving skills, and several plans. Helpful strategies include visualization, lateral thinking, assessing options, and decision making in a context of uncertainty (Gelatt, 1989). * Self-Advocacy and Marketing. As young people move towards further education, or into the labor market, it is critical for them to market and advocate for themselves. With scarce opportunities and confusing bureaucracies, there is a need to develop communication skills, self-confidence, organizational adaptability, and effectiveness in human relations. This requires activities such as mentoring, role-played practice, and ongoing economic, emotional, and informational support. * Managing Changing Relationships. The emotional and social changes adolescents experience can challenge young people as they try to cope with barriers in the education system and labor market. Friends provide emotional support, but this is a time when friendship patterns are changing. Parents are needed for emotional, material, and information support, but, at the same time, they need to allow young people sufficient room to develop their own sense of identity. Coping with relationship issues can be facilitated through communication, human relationship training, and problem solving, which blurs most of the traditional distinction between career and personal counseling. * Meeting Basic Needs. Young people have a strong need for community. Other central needs include having a sense of meaning in life, physical and emotional security, and basic structure in relationships and living. As young people mover beyond high school, many of these basic needs require revaluation. In addition to changing relationships, questions emerge as to how to make a living, how to plan meaningful activities, and how to effectively manage time. To facilitate these changes, young people need to establish a sense of purpose and understand how they are meeting their current and future needs. Counselors can help clarify these issues. Without this type of developmental assistance, young people often lack the resilience to maneuver within increasingly competitive educational and labor market environments. * Coping with Stress. Adolescence is a period of considerable stress. While much of the stress can by minimized through support, persistence, and active decision making and planning, there still will be times when young people find themselves in difficult situations. Coping with stress is associated with various competencies such as organizational adaptability, human relations, problem solving, and self-confidence. Particular strategies for stress management include relaxation techniques, managing ‘self talk,’ focusing, and using support systems. * Coping with Loss. We were surprised at the extent to which young people were influenced by various personal losses. These losses involved death in the family (usually grand parents) and the experience of parental separation and divorce. The impact of these losses upon career events was considerable, suggesting a definite need for youth to develop competence in handling loss and grieving. Counseling in this domain blurs many of the traditional distinctions between the personal and career areas. * Bridging Programs. Many young people lack “hands-on” experience as they attempt to enter the world of work. Many also are unfamiliar with, and fearful of, moving into post-secondary education. To address this concern, counselors need to develop work experience and co-op education programs to help young people acquire the necessary experience. Post-secondary education entry programs can also play an important role in easing transition difficulties. * Information and Information Access. The challenge in the information age is not only how to gather information, but how to turn information into personally relevant knowledge. Young people need up-to-date information on careers, education programs, and market trends. They must also develop skills to assess the relevance of information. Acquiring these skills involves both theoretical and applied knowledge. Counseling strategies within this domain include helping young people develop research, interviewing, and critical analysis skills.
Conclusions
The breadth of the above components suggests that: * Career counseling needs to encompass a greater range of issues. * Personal and career issues are inextricably intertwined for young people. * The ways in which young people make some of their transition experiences greatly influence their psychological well being. * Families and friends form a strong base for support in the transition period.
REFERENCES
Amundson, N. E., Borgen, W. A., & Tench, E. (in press). “Personality and intelligence in career education and vocational guidance counseling.” In D. H. Saklofske & M. Zeidner (Eds.) International Handbook of Personality and Intelligence, New York: Plenum.
Erikson, E. H. (1968). Identity youth and crisis. New York: W. W. Norton.
Gelatt, H. B. (1989). “Positive uncertainty: A new decision making framework for counseling.” Journal of Counseling Psychology, 36, 252-256.
Havighurst, R. J. (1952). Developmental tasks and education. New York: David McKay.
Levinson, D. (1978). The seasons of a man’s life. New York: Ballantine.
Super, D. E. (1963). Career development: Essays in vocational development. New York: College Entrance Examination Board.
William Borgen and Norm Amundson are professors in the Department of Counseling Psychology.
ERIC Digests are in the public domain and may be freely reproduced and disseminated. This publication was funded by the U.S. Department of Education, Office of Educational Research and Improvement, Contract No. RR93002004. Opinions expressed in this report do not necessarily reflect the positions of the U.S. Department of Education, OERI, or ERIC/CASS.
Biology: http://childdevelopmentinfo.com/child-development/teens_stages.shtml

Stages of Adolescence

Adolescence, these years from puberty to adulthood, may be roughly divided into three stages: early adolescence, generally ages eleven to fourteen; middle adolescence, ages fifteen to seventeen; and late adolescence, ages eighteen to twenty-one. In addition to physiological growth, seven key intellectual, psychological and social developmental tasks are squeezed into these years. The fundamental purpose of these tasks is to form one’s own identity and to prepare for adulthood.
Physical Development
Puberty is defined as the biological changes of adolescence. By mid-adolescence, if not sooner, most youngsters’ physiological growth is complete; they are at or close to their adult height and weight, and are now physically capable of having babies.
Intellectual Development
Most boys and girls enter adolescence still perceiving the world around them in concrete terms: Things are either right or wrong, awesome or awful. They rarely set their sights beyond the present, which explains younger teens’ inability to consider the long-term consequences of their actions.
By late adolescence, many youngsters have come to appreciate subtleties of situations and ideas, and to project into the future. Their capacity to solve complex problems and to sense what others are thinking has sharpened considerably. But because they are still relatively inexperienced in life, even older teens apply these newfound skills erratically and therefore may act without thinking.
Emotional Development
If teenagers can be said to have a reason for being (besides sleeping in on weekends and cleaning out the refrigerator), it would have to be asserting their independence. This demands that they distance themselves from Mom and Dad. The march toward autonomy can take myriad forms: less overt affection, more time spent with friends, contentious behavior, pushing the limits—the list goes on and on. Yet adolescents frequently feel conflicted about leaving the safety and security of home. They may yo-yo back and forth between craving your attention, only to spin away again.
Social Development
Until now, a child’s life has revolved mainly around the family. Adolescence has the effect of a stone dropped in water, as her social circle ripples outward to include friendships with members of the same sex, the opposite sex, different social and ethnic groups, and other adults, like a favorite teacher or coach. Eventually teenagers develop the capacity for falling in love and forming romantic relationships.
Not all teenagers enter and exit adolescence at the same age or display these same behaviors. What’s more, throughout much of adolescence, a youngster can be farther along in some areas of development than in others. For example, a fifteen-year-old girl may physically resemble a young adult but she may still act very much like a child since it isn’t until late adolescence that intellectual, emotional and social development begin to catch up with physical development.
Is it any wonder that teenagers sometimes feel confused and conflicted, especially given the limbo that society imposes on them for six to ten years, or longer? Prior to World War II, only about one in four youngsters finished high school. It was commonplace for young people still in their teens to be working full-time and married with children. Today close to three in four youngsters receive high-school diplomas, with two in five graduates going on to college. “As more and more teens have extended their education,” says Dr. Joseph Rauh, a specialist in adolescent medicine since the 1950s, “the age range of adolescence has been stretched into the twenties.”
Reflect back on your own teenage years, and perhaps you’ll recall the frustration of longing to strike out on your own—but still being financially dependent on Mom and Dad. Or striving to be your own person—yet at the same time wanting desperately to fit in among your peers.
Adolescence can be a confusing time for parents, too. For one thing, they must contend with their children’s often paradoxical behavior. How is it that the same son given to arias about saving the rain forest has to be nagged repeatedly to sort the recycling? Or that in the course of an hour your daughter can accuse you of treating her “like a baby,” then act wounded that you would expect her to clear the table after dinner?
But beyond learning to anticipate the shifting currents of adolescent emotion, mothers and fathers may be struggling with some conflicting emotions of their own. The pride you feel as you watch your youngster become independent can be countered by a sense of displacement. As much as you may accept intellectually that withdrawing from one’s parents is an integral part of growing up, it hurts when the child who used to beg to join you on errands now rarely consents to being seen in public with you, and then only if the destination is a minimum of one area code away.
It’s comforting to know that feeling a sense of loss is a normal response—one that is probably shared by half the moms and dads standing next to you at soccer practice. For pediatricians, offering guidance and advice to parents makes up a considerable and rewarding part of each day.
Biology: http://www.healthychildren.org/English/ages-stages/teen/pages/Stages-of-Adolescence.aspx?nfstatus=401&nftoken=00000000-0000-0000-0000-000000000000&nfstatusdescription=ERROR%3a+No+local+token

Alcohol’s Effects on AdolescentsLinda Patia Spear, Ph.D.Linda Patia Spear, Ph.D., is a Distinguished Professor and chairperson in the Department of Psychology at the Center for Developmental Psychobiology, Binghamton University, Binghamton, New York. | |
During adolescence, many people begin to experiment with alcohol, yet relatively little is known about alcohol’s effects on this critical stage of development. We do know that early initiation of alcohol use remains one of the most powerful predictors of later alcohol abuse (Grant 1998). We also know that during adolescence changes occur in the regions of the brain involved in modulating drug reinforcement, so it cannot be assumed that factors precipitating alcohol use or abuse are the same in adolescence as in adulthood. Rapidly changing body systems often are particularly vulnerable to disruption, and hence long–term consequences may result from alcohol exposure during this time of accelerated neural and endocrine system maturation (Spear 2000a). For all of these reasons, adolescence is a critical stage of development, and additional research is warranted into the effects of drinking during this important transition period. This sidebar briefly reviews findings on how alcohol affects adolescents, with a special emphasis on the impact of alcohol on neural and endocrine development. Though the research in this area is scarce, gender–specific effects are highlighted whenever possible.
Epidemiology of Drinking Among Adolescents
Results from national surveys of adolescents and young adults show that alcohol use is prevalent among both young men and women. The prevalence of drinking and binge drinking (consuming five or more drinks on a single occasion in the previous 2 weeks) is higher among male students relative to their female peers, but data from the Monitoring the Future Survey (MFS) (Johnston et al. 2002)—a nationally representative sample of 8th, 10th, and 12th graders—show that the gender gap is closing. For example, in 2001, 36 percent of 12th grade males reported binge drinking, compared with 24 percent of their female counterparts (a 12–percentage–point difference). However, in 1975 there was a 23–percentage–point difference between rates of male and female binge drinking (Johnston et al. 2002). Among females, 20.6 percent of 8th graders and 45.1 percent of 12th graders reported using alcohol in the 30 days prior to the survey (i.e., 30–day prevalence); of those 8th grade females, more than half reported binge drinking.
Early Initiation of Alcohol Use
This early alcohol use may have potentially long–lasting consequences. Early onset of alcohol or other drug use is one of the strongest predictors of later alcohol dependence (Grant 1998). Although young men are significantly more likely than young women to report using alcohol before age 13 (34.2 percent versus 24.2 percent) (Grunbaum et al. 2002), survey data suggest that, over time, the age of initiation to alcohol use among young women has decreased. For example, in 1975, 42 percent of female high school seniors reported first using alcohol before 10th grade, compared with 53 percent in 1993 (the last year for which the specific question was asked) (Johnston et al. 2001).
Two possible explanations exist to describe the relationship between early alcohol use and later dependence. First, exposure to alcohol or other drugs during adolescence may alter critical ongoing processes of brain development that occur at that time, increasing the likelihood of problems with alcohol later in life. Indeed, heavy drinking during early and mid–adolescence has been found to be associated with memory problems and other neuropsychological deficits, although the causality of this relationship has yet to be determined (Brown et al. 2000). Another interpretation for the early exposure effect is that early use of alcohol or other drugs might simply serve as a marker, not a precursor, for a later abuse disorder. For instance, a preteen’s tendency to seek out new experiences (i.e., high novelty–seeking behavior) was found to be predictive of alcohol abuse at age 27 (Cloninger et al. 1988). Strong novelty–seeking behavior is one of a number of traits that have been linked to early initiation of alcohol and other drug use (Baumrind 1987).
These two views on the significance of the early exposure effect are not necessarily mutually exclusive. For example, adolescents with conduct disorder are at higher risk for early as well as later alcohol and other drug use. Yet people with conduct disorder who begin to drink at an early age have a particularly high risk for problems with alcohol and other drugs later in life (Robins and McEvoy 1990).
Neural and Endocrine Development
Striking physical changes occur in the brain during adolescence, including the maturation of new brain constituents (such as the formation of additional connections between nerve cells) as well as a prominent loss (or pruning) of some existing connections. Adolescence–associated changes in the brain’s dopamine (DA) system may affect the way this important neural messenger communicates with the prefrontal cortex and limbic brain regions (i.e., the so–called mesocorticolimbic DA system). Changes in these systems may have a profound effect on adolescent behavior and psychological functioning (Spear 2000b). It is possible that features of the adolescent brain may predispose young people to behave in ways that place them at particular risk for trying alcohol or other drugs. In rats, the DA system has been implicated in novelty seeking (Dellu et al. 1997) and has been identified as part of a brain cell circuit involved in assigning value (i.e., “incentive salience”) to stimuli, including alcohol, and translating the decision to use alcohol into action (Kalivas et al. 1993).
Adolescence also is the time during which changes in hormone patterns begin to emerge. Sex differences in behavior appear, orchestrated in part by the rapid changes in these pubertal hormones (for more information, see the article in this issue by Emanuele and colleagues, pp. 274–281). Surprisingly, though, puberty–related increases in reproductive hormones have not been associated in any simple way with other characteristic behavioral features of adolescence (Susman et al. 1987). Instead, the unique behavioral features of adolescence—such as a greater emphasis on peer interactions, increased novelty seeking, and other reckless behavior (Arnett 1992; Spear 2000b)—may be driven largely by maturational changes in the nervous system, as reviewed below.
During adolescence, the prefrontal cortex, a region thought to be involved in various goal–directed behaviors (e.g., rule learning, working memory, and spatial learning) and in emotional processing (particularly of unpleasant stimuli) undergoes substantial remodeling. For example, as demonstrated in nonhuman primates, the input from two key chemicals (i.e., neurotransmitters) involved in brain cell communication—the excitatory neurotransmitter glutamate and the inhibitory neurotransmitter gamma–aminobutyric acid (GABA)—is reduced during adolescence, while input from another neurotransmitter, DA, peaks in the prefrontal cortex during adolescence (Lewis 1997). Another region that undergoes developmental adjustment is the amygdala (Yurgelun–Todd 1998), a complex grouping of brain cells that, among other things, is thought to be involved in a person’s emotional reactions and in coordinating the body’s response to stress.
In research on another brain region, the hippocampus, which is important for learning and memory, DeBellis and colleagues (2000) used magnetic resonance imaging to evaluate the volume of this region in alcohol–abusing or alcohol–dependent adolescents (average age 17). The researchers found that hippocampal volumes were significantly smaller in the adolescents with alcohol use problems, compared with control subjects. Older age of onset of the alcohol use disorder and shorter duration of the disorder were associated with larger hippocampal volume. Although studies show that alcohol use affects neurocognitive function in adult women and men equally, female study participants’ shorter drinking histories suggest that they may be more sensitive to alcohol’s effects (Glenn et al. 1988; Nixon 1994). In addition, limited research suggests that women may be more susceptible than men to alcohol–related brain shrinkage (Hommer et al. 1996a,b).
Responses to Stress
Gender differences in the body’s hormonal response to stress also begin to emerge late in adolescence. For example, compared with males, prepubescent female rats show elevated levels of corticosterone (analogous to cortisol in humans)—a key stress hormone (Ramaley and Olson 1974; Cirulli et al. 1996).
In addition, many of the same neural systems known to undergo developmental changes during adolescence are activated by stress, including DA projections to the prefrontal cortex as well as to mesolimbic brain regions (Abercrombie et al. 1989)—areas thought to be critical in modulating the pleasurable response that follows alcohol use (Koob 1992). In studies with rats, important docking molecules (i.e., receptors) for the stress hormone corticosterone have been identified on DA cell bodies in the ventral tegmental area and the substantia nigra as well as in DA terminal regions, including the nucleus accumbens and the prefrontal cortex (Ahima and Harlan 1990; Cintra et al. 1994). Increases in corticosterone may play a critical role in activating DA transmission, as evidenced by the fact that, in rodents, DA levels in the nucleus accumbens (Piazza et al. 1996) and prefrontal cortex (Imperato et al. 1989) increase with corticosterone treatment and decrease with removal of the adrenals (the area where corticosterone is produced). In a similar fashion, adrenalectomy or pharmacologically induced blockade of stress–hormone synthesis suppresses alcohol consumption in laboratory animals (Fahlke et al. 1994).
The results of this basic research suggest that stress–induced increases in stress hormones may interact with mesocorticolimbic brain regions to facilitate alcohol use behavior. Further research into the effects of stress on the development of alcohol problems is crucial. Investigations of stress effects in adolescents will be especially important given the dramatic changes taking place in the brain during that time.
Likewise, further examination of how stress, anxiety, and depression interact in this age group is important. Adolescence often is characterized as an emotionally stormy period. Though most children navigate this transitional period without serious problems, about one–third to one–half of adolescents report significant depressed mood or affective disturbances that could be described as “inner turmoil” or “feeling miserable” (Compas et al. 1995; Rutter et al. 1976). Adolescents also tend to show greater extremes in mood than adults (for a review, see Larson and Richards 1994; Arnett 1999); in addition to this emotional volatility, anxiety and self–consciousness also appear to peak at this time (see Buchanan et al. 1992).
Pubertal maturation in girls is associated with emotional difficulties, depression, and problems with self–image, as well as an increase in risk–taking behaviors (for a review, see Steinberg and Belsky 1996). During early adolescence, girls may be especially vulnerable to stress, perceiving events to be more stressful at that time than at any other (Ge et al. 1994; Wagner and Compas 1990; also see Vik and Brown 1998 for further discussion of gender differences in perceived stressfulness during adolescence).
This anxiety and stress may play an important part in adolescents’ initiation of alcohol or other drug use (Pohorecky 1991; Wagner 1993). In her review of the literature on stress effects on alcohol consumption in humans, Pohorecky (1991) found that stress clearly influences alcohol consumption in adolescence, but not necessarily in adults. Indeed, the level of perceived stress was found to be the most powerful predictor of adolescent alcohol and other drug use, after peer substance use (Wagner 1993).
Researchers need more information about the hormonal, behavioral, and neural interactions that take place in response to stress during adolescence. Understanding why young people use alcohol to cope with stress within a developmental timeframe also is important. The relationship between stress and adult drinking may be far different from the relationship between these variables in adolescence, the time when most people begin drinking.
Tolerance and Sensitivity to Alcohol’s Effects
Evidence suggests that alcohol may affect adolescents differently than adults. Studies using animals have shown that, compared with other age groups, adolescents do not experience the same degree of incoordination and sleepiness when drinking alcohol as do adults (that is, they are relatively resistant to the motor–impairing and sedative effects of alcohol) (Silveri and Spear 1998). Adolescents do, however, appear to be more sensitive to alcohol–induced disruptions in spatial memory (Markwiese et al. 1998). Research is needed to determine when young people in this age group are most susceptible to alcohol’s effects, what mechanisms underlie this differential age responsiveness, and whether female adolescents differ from males in alcohol sensitivity at this critical time. Understanding tolerance and sensitization is particularly important given that research suggests that a less intense reaction to alcohol may increase the likelihood that a person will drink more heavily and more often, setting the stage for the development of alcohol problems (Schuckit 1995).
Conclusion
Research on alcohol’s effects on the developing adolescent is still in its infancy, despite the fact that this is the time during which many people begin drinking. There is evidence that people who begin drinking at an early age may have problems with alcohol later in life. Research also has shown that adolescence is a time when remarkable changes are taking place in the brain. Just how alcohol use impacts this development or whether these developmental changes influence alcohol use is unknown.
It also is unclear how gender differences may influence the way that alcohol affects the developing adolescent brain and other body systems. Researchers have shown that chronic alcohol consumption can disrupt developmental changes in hormones associated with puberty in both males (Cicero et al. 1990) and females (Dees et al. 1990). It also is clear that gender influences the perception of stress, a factor that has been shown to lead to higher rates of alcohol use among this age group. Just how these endocrine–related changes influence alcohol use is not fully understood.
Most importantly, future research efforts must examine why early exposure to alcohol is apparently associated with considerably more adverse consequences than later use, and why this age group seems at particular risk for alcohol’s deleterious effects.
References
ABERCROMBIE, E.D.; KEEFE, K.A.; DIFRISCHIA, D.S.; and ZIGMOND, M.J. Differential effect of stress on in vivo dopamine release in striatum, nucleus accumbens, and medial frontal cortex. Journal of Neurochemistry 52:1655–1658, 1989.
AHIMA, R.S., and HARLAN, R.E. Charting of type II glucocorticoid receptor–like immunoreactivity in the rat central nervous system. Neuroscience 39:579–604, 1990.
ARNETT, J. Reckless behavior in adolescence: A developmental perspective. Developmental Review 12:339–373, 1992.
ARNETT, J.J. Adolescent storm and stress, reconsidered. American Psychologist 54:317–326, 1999.
BAUMRIND, D. A developmental perspective on adolescent risk taking in contemporary America. In: Irwin, C.E., Jr., ed. Adolescent Social Behavior and Health. San Francisco: Jossey–Bass, 1987. pp. 93–125.
BROWN, S.A.; TAPERT, S.F.; GRANHOLM, E.; and DELIS, D.C. Neurocognitive functioning of adolescents: Effects of protracted alcohol use. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 24(2):164–171, 2000.
BUCHANAN, C.M.; ECCLES, J.S.; and BECKER, J.B. Are adolescents the victims of raging hormones? Evidence for activational effects of hormones on moods and behavior at adolescence. Psychological Bulletin 111:62–107, 1992.
CICERO, T.J.; ADAMS, M.L.; O’CONNOR, L.; et al. Influence of chronic alcohol administration on representative indices of puberty and sexual maturation in male rats and the development of their progeny. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics 255:707–715, 1990.
CINTRA, A.; ZOLI, M.; ROSÉN, L.; et al. Mapping and computer–assisted morphometry and microdensitometry of glucocorticoid receptor immunoreactive neurons in the rat central nervous system. Neuroscience 62:843–897, 1994.
CIRULLI, F.; TERRANOVA, M.L.; and LAVIOLA, G. Affiliation in periadolescent rats: Behavioral and corticosterone response to social reunion with familiar or unfamiliar partners. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior 54:99–105, 1996.
CLONINGER, C.R.; SIGVARDSSON, S.; and BOHMAN, M. Childhood personality predicts alcohol abuse in young adults. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 12:494–505, 1988.
COMPAS, B.E.; HINDEN, B.R.; and GERHARDT, C.A. Adolescent development: Pathways and processes of risk and resilience. Annual Review of Psychology 46:265–293, 1995.
DEBELLIS, M.D.; CLARK, D.B.; BEERS, S.R.; et al. Hippocampal volume in adolescent–onset alcohol use disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry 157(5):737–744, 2000.
DEES, W.L.; SKELLEY, C.W.; HINEY, J.K.; and JOHNSTON, C.A. Actions of ethanol on hypothalamic and pituitary hormones in prepubertal female rats. Alcohol 7:21–25, 1990.
DELLU, F.; PIAZZA, P.V.; MAYO, W.; et al. Novelty seeking in rats—biobehavioral characteristics and possible relationship with the sensation–seeking trait in man. Neuropsychobiology 34:136–145, 1997.
FAHLKE, C.; ENGEL, J.A.; ERIKSSON, C.J.P.; et al. Involvement of corticosterone in the modulation of ethanol consumption in the rat. Alcohol 11:195–202, 1994.
GE, X.; LORENZ, F.O.; CONGER, R.D.; et al. Trajectories of stressful life events and depressive symptoms during adolescence. Developmental Psychology 30:467–483, 1994.
GLENN, S.W.; PARSONS, O.A.; SINHA, R.; and STEVENS, L. Effects of repeated withdrawals from alcohol on the memory of male and female alcoholics. Alcohol and Alcoholism 23(5):337–342, 1988.
GRANT, B.F. The impact of a family history of alcoholism on the relationship between age at onset of alcohol use and DSM–IV alcohol dependence: Results of the National Longitudinal Alcohol Epidemiologic Survey. Alcohol Health & Research World 22:144–147, 1998.
GRUNBAUM, J.A.; KANN, L.; KINCHEN, S.A.; et al. Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance: United States, 2001. MMWR: Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 51(SS04):1–62, 2002.
HOMMER, D.; MOMENAN, R.; RAWLINGS, R.; et al. Decreased corpus callosum size among alcoholic women. Archives of Neurology 53(4):359–
363, 1996a.
HOMMER, D.; MOMENAN, R.; RAGAN, P.; et al. Changes in CSF, ventricular, gray and white matter volumes in female alcoholics measured by automated segmentation of MRI images. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 20(Suppl. 2):33A, 1996b.
IMPERATO, A.; PUGLISI–ALLEGRA, S.; CASOLINI, P.; et al. Stress–induced enhancement of dopamine and acetylcholine release in limbic structures: Role of corticosterone. European Journal of Pharmacology 165:337–338, 1989.
JOHNSTON, L.D.; O’MALLEY, P.M.; and BACHMAN, J.G. Monitoring the Future: National Survey Results on Drug Use, 1975–2001: Volume I. Secondary School Students. NIH Pub. No. 01–4924. Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2001.
JOHNSTON, L.D.; O’MALLEY, P.M.; and BACHMAN, J.G. Monitoring the Future: National Survey Results on Drug Use, 1975–2001: Volume I. Secondary School Students. NIH Pub. No. 02–5106. Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2002.
KALIVAS, P.W.; CHURCHILL, L.; and KLITENICK, M.A. The circuitry mediating the translation of motivational stimuli into adaptive motor responses. In: Kalivas, P.W., and Barnes, C.D., eds. Limbic Motor Circuits and Neuropsychiatry. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, 1993. pp. 237–287.
KOOB, G.F. Neural mechanisms of drug reinforcement. Annals of the New York Academy of Science 654:171–191, 1992.
LARSON, R., and RICHARDS, M.H. Divergent Realities: The Emotional Lives of Mothers, Fathers, and Adolescents. New York: Basic Books, 1994.
LEWIS, D.A. Development of the prefrontal cortex during adolescence: Insights into vulnerable neural circuits in schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology 16:385–398, 1997.
MARKWIESE, B.J.; ACHESON, S.K.; LEVIN, E.D.; et al. Differential effects of ethanol on memory in adolescent and adult rats. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 22:416–421, 1998.
NIXON, S.J. Cognitive deficits in alcoholic women. Alcohol Health & Research World 18(3):228–232, 1994.
PIAZZA, P.V.; BARROT, M.; ROUGÉ–PONT, F.; et al. Suppression of glucocorticoid secretion and antipsychotic drugs have similar effects on the mesolimbic dopaminergic transmission. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA 93:15445–15450, 1996.
POHORECKY, L.A. Stress and alcohol interaction: An update of human research. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 15:438–459, 1991.
RAMALEY, J.A., and OLSON, J. Adrenal function in rats given PMS before puberty: Response to ether stress. Neuroendocrinology 14:1–13, 1974.
ROBINS, L.N., and MCEVOY, L. Conduct problems as predictors of substance abuse. In: Robins, L.N., and Rutter, M., eds. Straight and Devious Pathways from Childhood to Adulthood. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990. pp. 182–204.
RUTTER, M.; GRAHAM, P.; CHADWICK, O.F.D.; and YULE, W. Adolescent turmoil: Fact or fiction? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 17:35–56, 1976.
SCHUCKIT, M.A. A long–term study of sons of alcoholics. Alcohol Health & Research World 19:172–175, 1995.
SILVERI, M.M., and SPEAR, L.P. Decreased sensitivity to the hypnotic effects of ethanol early in ontogeny. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 22:670–676, 1998.
SPEAR, L.P. Adolescent period: Biological basis of vulnerability to develop alcoholism and other ethanol–mediated behaviors. In: Noronha, A.; Eckardt, M.; and Warren, K.; eds. Review of NIAAA’s Neuroscience and Behavioral Research Portfolio. National Institute on Alcohol Abuse and Alcoholism (NIAAA) Research Monograph No. 34. Bethesda, MD: NIAAA, 2000a.
SPEAR, L.P. The adolescent brain and age–related behavioral manifestations. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 24:417–463, 2000b.
STEINBERG, L., and BELSKY, J. An evolutionary perspective on psychopathology in adolescence. In: Cicchetti, D., and Toth, S.L., eds. Rochester Symposium on Developmental Psychopathology: Vol. 7, Adolescence: Opportunities and Challenges. Rochester, NY: University of Rochester Press, 1996. pp. 93–124.
SUSMAN, E.J.; INOFF–GERMAIN, G.; NOTTLEMANN, E.D.; et al. Hormones, emotional dispositions, and aggressive attributes in young adolescents. Child Development 58:1114–1134, 1987.
VIK, P., and BROWN, S.A. Life events and substance abuse during adolescence. In: Miller, T.W., ed. Children of Trauma. Madison, CT: International Universities Press, 1998. pp. 179–204.
WAGNER, B.M., and COMPAS, B.E. Gender, instrumentality, and expressivity: Moderators of the relation between stress and psychological symptoms during adolescence. American Journal of Community Psychology 18:383–406, 1990.
WAGNER, E.F. Delay of gratification, coping with stress, and substance use in adolescence. Experiments in Clinical Psychopharmacology 1:27–43, 1993.
YURGELUN–TODD, D. “Brain and Psyche: The Neurobiology of Self.” Paper presented at the Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA, June 11, 1998.
Prepared: June 2003

References: ABERCROMBIE, E.D.; KEEFE, K.A.; DIFRISCHIA, D.S.; and ZIGMOND, M.J. Differential effect of stress on in vivo dopamine release in striatum, nucleus accumbens, and medial frontal cortex. Journal of Neurochemistry 52:1655–1658, 1989. AHIMA, R.S., and HARLAN, R.E. Charting of type II glucocorticoid receptor–like immunoreactivity in the rat central nervous system. Neuroscience 39:579–604, 1990. ARNETT, J. Reckless behavior in adolescence: A developmental perspective. Developmental Review 12:339–373, 1992. ARNETT, J.J. Adolescent storm and stress, reconsidered. American Psychologist 54:317–326, 1999. BAUMRIND, D. A developmental perspective on adolescent risk taking in contemporary America. In: Irwin, C.E., Jr., ed. Adolescent Social Behavior and Health. San Francisco: Jossey–Bass, 1987. pp. 93–125. BROWN, S.A.; TAPERT, S.F.; GRANHOLM, E.; and DELIS, D.C. Neurocognitive functioning of adolescents: Effects of protracted alcohol use. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 24(2):164–171, 2000. BUCHANAN, C.M.; ECCLES, J.S.; and BECKER, J.B. Are adolescents the victims of raging hormones? Evidence for activational effects of hormones on moods and behavior at adolescence. Psychological Bulletin 111:62–107, 1992. CINTRA, A.; ZOLI, M.; ROSÉN, L.; et al. Mapping and computer–assisted morphometry and microdensitometry of glucocorticoid receptor immunoreactive neurons in the rat central nervous system. Neuroscience 62:843–897, 1994. CIRULLI, F.; TERRANOVA, M.L.; and LAVIOLA, G. Affiliation in periadolescent rats: Behavioral and corticosterone response to social reunion with familiar or unfamiliar partners. Pharmacology Biochemistry and Behavior 54:99–105, 1996. CLONINGER, C.R.; SIGVARDSSON, S.; and BOHMAN, M. Childhood personality predicts alcohol abuse in young adults. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 12:494–505, 1988. COMPAS, B.E.; HINDEN, B.R.; and GERHARDT, C.A. Adolescent development: Pathways and processes of risk and resilience. Annual Review of Psychology 46:265–293, 1995. DEBELLIS, M.D.; CLARK, D.B.; BEERS, S.R.; et al. Hippocampal volume in adolescent–onset alcohol use disorders. American Journal of Psychiatry 157(5):737–744, 2000. DEES, W.L.; SKELLEY, C.W.; HINEY, J.K.; and JOHNSTON, C.A. Actions of ethanol on hypothalamic and pituitary hormones in prepubertal female rats. Alcohol 7:21–25, 1990. DELLU, F.; PIAZZA, P.V.; MAYO, W.; et al. Novelty seeking in rats—biobehavioral characteristics and possible relationship with the sensation–seeking trait in man. Neuropsychobiology 34:136–145, 1997. FAHLKE, C.; ENGEL, J.A.; ERIKSSON, C.J.P.; et al. Involvement of corticosterone in the modulation of ethanol consumption in the rat. Alcohol 11:195–202, 1994. GE, X.; LORENZ, F.O.; CONGER, R.D.; et al. Trajectories of stressful life events and depressive symptoms during adolescence. Developmental Psychology 30:467–483, 1994. GLENN, S.W.; PARSONS, O.A.; SINHA, R.; and STEVENS, L. Effects of repeated withdrawals from alcohol on the memory of male and female alcoholics. Alcohol and Alcoholism 23(5):337–342, 1988. GRUNBAUM, J.A.; KANN, L.; KINCHEN, S.A.; et al. Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance: United States, 2001. MMWR: Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report 51(SS04):1–62, 2002. HOMMER, D.; MOMENAN, R.; RAWLINGS, R.; et al. Decreased corpus callosum size among alcoholic women. Archives of Neurology 53(4):359– 363, 1996a. HOMMER, D.; MOMENAN, R.; RAGAN, P.; et al. Changes in CSF, ventricular, gray and white matter volumes in female alcoholics measured by automated segmentation of MRI images. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 20(Suppl. 2):33A, 1996b. IMPERATO, A.; PUGLISI–ALLEGRA, S.; CASOLINI, P.; et al. Stress–induced enhancement of dopamine and acetylcholine release in limbic structures: Role of corticosterone. European Journal of Pharmacology 165:337–338, 1989. JOHNSTON, L.D.; O’MALLEY, P.M.; and BACHMAN, J.G. Monitoring the Future: National Survey Results on Drug Use, 1975–2001: Volume I. Secondary School Students. NIH Pub. No. 01–4924. Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2001. JOHNSTON, L.D.; O’MALLEY, P.M.; and BACHMAN, J.G. Monitoring the Future: National Survey Results on Drug Use, 1975–2001: Volume I. Secondary School Students. NIH Pub. No. 02–5106. Bethesda, MD: National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2002. KOOB, G.F. Neural mechanisms of drug reinforcement. Annals of the New York Academy of Science 654:171–191, 1992. LARSON, R., and RICHARDS, M.H. Divergent Realities: The Emotional Lives of Mothers, Fathers, and Adolescents. New York: Basic Books, 1994. LEWIS, D.A. Development of the prefrontal cortex during adolescence: Insights into vulnerable neural circuits in schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology 16:385–398, 1997. MARKWIESE, B.J.; ACHESON, S.K.; LEVIN, E.D.; et al. Differential effects of ethanol on memory in adolescent and adult rats. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 22:416–421, 1998. NIXON, S.J. Cognitive deficits in alcoholic women. Alcohol Health & Research World 18(3):228–232, 1994. POHORECKY, L.A. Stress and alcohol interaction: An update of human research. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 15:438–459, 1991. RAMALEY, J.A., and OLSON, J. Adrenal function in rats given PMS before puberty: Response to ether stress. Neuroendocrinology 14:1–13, 1974. ROBINS, L.N., and MCEVOY, L. Conduct problems as predictors of substance abuse. In: Robins, L.N., and Rutter, M., eds. Straight and Devious Pathways from Childhood to Adulthood. New York: Oxford University Press, 1990. pp. 182–204. RUTTER, M.; GRAHAM, P.; CHADWICK, O.F.D.; and YULE, W. Adolescent turmoil: Fact or fiction? Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry 17:35–56, 1976. SCHUCKIT, M.A. A long–term study of sons of alcoholics. Alcohol Health & Research World 19:172–175, 1995. SILVERI, M.M., and SPEAR, L.P. Decreased sensitivity to the hypnotic effects of ethanol early in ontogeny. Alcoholism: Clinical and Experimental Research 22:670–676, 1998. SPEAR, L.P. The adolescent brain and age–related behavioral manifestations. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews 24:417–463, 2000b. SUSMAN, E.J.; INOFF–GERMAIN, G.; NOTTLEMANN, E.D.; et al. Hormones, emotional dispositions, and aggressive attributes in young adolescents. Child Development 58:1114–1134, 1987. VIK, P., and BROWN, S.A. Life events and substance abuse during adolescence. In: Miller, T.W., ed. Children of Trauma. Madison, CT: International Universities Press, 1998. pp. 179–204. WAGNER, B.M., and COMPAS, B.E. Gender, instrumentality, and expressivity: Moderators of the relation between stress and psychological symptoms during adolescence. American Journal of Community Psychology 18:383–406, 1990. WAGNER, E.F. Delay of gratification, coping with stress, and substance use in adolescence. Experiments in Clinical Psychopharmacology 1:27–43, 1993. YURGELUN–TODD, D. “Brain and Psyche: The Neurobiology of Self.” Paper presented at the Whitehead Institute for Biomedical Research, Cambridge, MA, June 11, 1998.