Summary of History of English Language

SUMMARY HISTORY OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE
CHAPTER 3 : OLD ENGLISH * Old English is a first English language that spoken by Germanic tribes ( Anglo , Saxons , Jutes, Frisians ) from 450 S until 1150 S.
(The period which full inflection because during most of this period the endings of the noun, the verb and the adjective are preserved more or less unimpaired) * Old English has 4 main dialects => Northumbrian , Mercian , West Saxon , Kentish
Northumbrian & Mercian are found in the region north of the Thames settled by the Angles.
Kentish is known from still scantier remains & it’s the dialect of Jutes in the southeast.
West Saxon (WS) is the only dialect which has an extensive collection of text and it’s the dialect of WS Kingdom in the southwest. * The tenses, Verb and nouns are simpler
Pronunciation: The pronunciation of old English words commonly differs somewhat from that of their modern equivalents. The long vowels in particular have undergone considerable modification. Thus the old English word stan is the same word as modern English stone, but the vowel is different. Old English made use of two characters to represent the sound of th:
Vocabulary: The vocabulary of old English is almost purely Germanic. A large part of this vocabulary, moreover, has disappeared from the language.
Grammar: Inflectional languages fall into 2 classes: synthetic and analytic. (Synthetic: one that indicates the relation of words in a sentence largely by means of inflections endings of noun, verb and adjective. Analytic: languages that make extensive use of preposition and auxiliary verbs and depend upon word order to show other relationship) Modern English is an analytic, old English a synthetic language. In its grammar old English resembles modern German. The noun and adjective inflected for 4 cases in the singular and 4 in the plural although the forms are not always distinctive, and in addition the adjective has separate forms for each of the three genders The inflection of the verb is less elaborate that of Latin verb, but there are distinctive endings for the different person, numbers, tenses, and moods.
The Noun: indicates distinction of number (singular and plural) and case.
Grammatical Gender: As in Indo-Europan languages generally, the gender of old English noun is not depend upon consideration of sex. (stan or stone is masculine, mona or moon is masculine, sunne or sun is feminine, as in German)
The Adjective: the development of a twofold declension. (strong and weak declension) god mann and se goda mann
The Verb: the division into two great classes (weak and strong or regular and irregular verbs) * The important literature in Old English Era are : - Beowulf , Caedmon’s Hymn , The Anglo saxon chronicle , biblical translitions , etc ) Beowulf is a poem of some 3000 lines belonging to the type known as the folk epic. * Old English are influenced by foreign language: Celtic Romans . Normand Anglo – Saxon ( Germanic ) Scandinavian

CHAPTER 4 : FOREIGN INFLUENCES On OLD ENGLISH In the course of the first of its existence in England , an old English was brought into contact with at least three other languages , the languages of the celts , the romans , and the Scandinavians . the introduction of christianity meant the building of churches and the establishment of monasteries . Latin , the language service and of ecclesiastical learning was once more heard in England .
Danish riders first began to settle in England start in 865 . many of the more common words of the two language were identical . the Scandinavian and the English were being used side by side. The effect of influences is Latin be dominan than other languages .
Celtic Influence The number of Celtic loanwords is of a remarkably lower order than either Latin or Scandinavian. Celtic influence is mainly seen in place-names in England: Arden, Avon, Exe, Leeds, and Severn. There are hundreds of compound names which contain a Celtic component.
Latin Influence
Latin was the lingua franca of Europe at the time. A large percentage of the educated and literate population (monks, clerics, etc.) were competent in Latin. There were at least three notable periods of Latin influence: Zero period (continental borrowing), First period (Latin trough Celtic Transmission), Second period (The Christianizing in Britain). The second began when the Anglo-Saxons were converted to Christianity in the late sixth and seventh centuries, and Latin-speaking priests became widespread. The greatest influence of latin upon old English was occasioned by the introduction of Christianity into Britain in 597. The introduction of Christianity meant the building of churches and the establishment of monasteries. From the introduction of Christianity in 597 to the close of the old English period is a stretch of over five hundred years. During all this time Latin words must have been making their way gradually into the English language.
Scandinavian Influence
Old Norse - North Germanic language, spoken by the Vikings who settled mainly in the north-east and the east coast down to London (Danelaw).Old Norse was related to Old English: both derived from the same ancestral Proto-Germanic language. It spread during the Viking invasions of the ninth and tenth centuries. Its influence was reflected in place names, items of basic vocabulary, and words concerned with particular administrative aspects of the Danelaw . The large number of places that bear is evidence of the extensive Scandinavian settlement in England.
Danes in England
The Danish invasions were not like the introduction of Christianity, bringing the English into contact with a different civilization and introducing them to many things, physically as well as spiritual.

CHAPTER 5: THE NORMAN CONQUEST & THE SUBJECT MATTERS The great event of settlement in England by the Norman Conqueror , William Henry II . He had succeeded to kill the King of England , Harrold in the Battle of Hestings . that’s why , there were some changes happened to the society of England , government , language & vocabulary , culture , and etc. All of those , began change of period between Anglo – saxon (old English ) and Anglo Norman (middle English ). National language in that time was French , Because Norman did not want to speak English .
CHAPTER 6 : THE REESTABLISHMENT OF ENGLISH (1200 – 1500 ) England lost its authority shortly after 1200 and got it back in 14th century. * The loss of Normandy
Because of the “ little war “ between King Edward ( England ) & Philip ( kIng of France ). It was the beginning of the lost of English language . * Hundred years war
It made England came to hate france because france could depend England. Important moment was Black Death (30% population of England died because of strange virus ) * English regained its status ( 14th Century )
English started used in many places like schools and law courts * The use of English in writing
People started to use English in 14th century alongside of French until French entirely disappear in 1489 * Middle English Literature
Many English Literature and author that appeared in this period including the greatest author Geoffrey Chaucer .

CHAPTER 7: MIDDLE ENGLISH ( 1150 – 1500 ) There had been a great change in both the grammatical system and the vocabulary of the language. The changes of this period affected English in both its grammar and vocabulary. Those in the grammar reduced English from a highly inflected language to an extremely analytic one. Those in vocabulary involved the loss of a large part of the old English word stock and the addition of thousands of words from French and latin. * The grammatical system => was disappearance of grammatical endings on words and loss of grammatical gender. (The grammar of Middle English is much closer of modern English. The changes in English grammar may be described as a general reduction of inflections. Endings of the noun and adjective marking distinctions of number and case and often of gender were so altered). * The vocabulary, there are influences of French and Latin. (This period of trilingual activity developed much of the flexible triplicate synonym of modern English). Ex: king”:kingly Old English, royal-French, and regal-Latin. * The Nouns, Middle English retains only two distinct noun-ending patterns from the more complex system of inflection in Old English. In the past tense, weak verbs are formed by adding an –ed. Strong verbs, by contrast, from their past tense by changing their steam vowel. * The pronunciation => the great vowel shift. Generally, all letters in Middle English words were pronounced. The final <e> had become silent in normal speech. * The Pronouns, Middle English inherits its pronouns from Old English, with the exception of third person plural. The first and second person pronouns in Old English survived into Middle English largely unchanged, with only minor spelling variations. * Archaic characters, Geoffrey Chaucer, known as the Father of English literature, is widely considered the greatest English poet of the Middle Ages Among his many works, which, he is best loved today for The Canterbury Tales. * Dialect in this period : 1. Kentish : originally spoken over the whole southeastern part of England . 2. Southern : spoken in the area west of Sussex and south and southwest of the thames. 3. Northen : By contrast , with these southernmost dialects , Northern Middle English evolved rapidly : the inflectional system of its noun and verbs were already sharply reduced by 1300 and syntax is also innovative. 4. Fast midland and west midland : are intermediate between the Norman and southern / Kentish extreme. * The rise standart English , the reason : 1. Flexibility of the language 2. Regional advantage 3. Because of Cambridge and oxford university 4. Influence of Chauser
CHAPTER 8 : THE RENAISSANCE (1500-1650) Renaissance is a rebirth of classical ideas. Renaissance was a time of creativity and change in many areas, political, social, economic and cultural. The revival of classical scholarship in English brought many classical Latin and Greek words into the language . the invention of printing also meant that books became cheaper and more people learned to read. Printing also brought standardization to English. Spelling and grammar became fixed and dialect of London became the standard . Towards the end of Middle English , a sudden and distinct change in pronounciation ( The great Vowel Shift ) started , with vowels being pronounced shorter and shorter. In the renaissance many inventor figures were appeared , Used the new curriculum , many universities were appeared .
Changes took place in Renaissance: During Renaissance English language got many changes
Changes in Grammar: The Renaissance period give the existence of modern grammar. It helps in the development of Synonyms and the use of classical derivation to correspond to a native noun. Examples: King-Kingly Hand-Manual Nasal-Nosey
Changes in Pronunciation: The letter a was pronounced before the consonants k, f th , and as long a .Example: bath, father, rather, ask, task, flask, master, craft, etc.* For the long pronunciation of a the sound of l is silent in some words. Example: Palm, Half, Calf, Calm, etc.
The pronunciation of word a became ei in some words: Example- Cake, Ale, Dame, Fame, etc.* Orthographically the Middle English long vowel e was represented by ee, ie, ea. Example: feet, seek, deep, heat, seat, cat, field, believe, etc.
By the end of the sixteenth century the long i had completed the process of diphthongization to ai . Example: fire, write, light, life, blind, etc. * The Middle English long u had become the diphthong au. Examples: house, mouse, cow, etc.
Graphical Representation:
Changes in Spelling: It is one of remarkable results in Renaissance.
Growth of Vocabulary: During the English Renaissance, (1500–1650), some 10,000 to 12,000 words entered the English lexicon, including lexicon. Examples: aberration, allusion, anachronism, democratic, dexterity, enthusiasm, imaginary, juvenile, pernicious, sophisticated. Many of these words were borrowed directly from Latin, both in its classical and medieval forms. In turn, Late Latin also included borrowings from Greek.
Conclusion: The vast impact of Renaissance carried out a flood of new thoughts and knowledge. It helps in artificiality and made a distinction between literary and spoken English.
CHAPTER 9 : THE APPEAL TO AUTHORITY 1650-1800
The appeal to authority is mainly about changes in some aspects of English such as vocabularies , grammar , references of standard English etc. . The expansion of English empire in some regions affects its vocabularies . English “ takes “ those vocabularies from America , South Africa , and many others . English has some developments in grammar also . Progressive & progressive passive forms begin to exist in the 18th century . Johnson’s dictionary is the reference of standard English in 1755. Standardizations were appeared . 1. Language "Ascertainment" 1. Reduce language to rules and establish standards of correct usage 2. Refine language by removing "defects" and introducing improvements 3. Preserve language in its improved form 2. England & the "Age of Reason" 4. Royal Society, founded 1662: "In all reports of experiments to be brought into the Society, the matter of fact shall be barely stated, without any prefaces, apologies, or rhetorical flourishes." 1. Italy, Accademiq della Crusca (1582); France, l'Académie Française (1635) both sought to study and improve national language. 2. The Royal Society (1662) sought to facilitate communication among scientists, and they recognized that to do so would benefit from a "plain style." 5. Trend moved from rhetoric (language intended to persuade, often by appealing to emotion) to a simple style emphasizing content. 3. England & Neo-Classicism 1. The NC movement in art & literature led to the notion that English grammar should be modeled on Latin and Greek 1. Dictionaries 1. Dictionaries tend to be conservative and prescriptive. In addition to listing words, they often comment on usage ("low," "rarely used," etc.) 2. Johnson's Dictionary, 1755 1. 2 vol.; took almost 7 years to complete, mostly single handed; illustrated its words with quotations from English classics. 2. Fraught with ludicrous etymologies; "marred by prejudice and caprice" 1. Two Kinds of Grammarians: 3. From 1700-1750, one finds fewer than 50 grammars & linguistic theory; from 1750-1800, over two hundred 4. Prescriptive grammarians sought to eliminate inconsistency in usage by applying logic and "studying" etymologies 5. Descriptive grammarians applied scientific empirical method to language 3. Lowth Lays Down the Law! 1. Robert Lowth (1710-1787). His tremendously popular Short Introduction to English Grammar (1762) established many prescriptive rules of English grammar 6. 45 editions by 1800, including German translation. (more than one a year.) 2. "The English Language, as it is spoken by the politest part of the nation, and as it stands in the writings of our most approved authors, often offends against every part of Grammar." 3. Negatives: as in mathematics, double negatives cancel each other out. 4. Prepositions: since these are "pre" position words, they cannot come at the ends of a sentence or clause. 5. Infinitives: wrong to split an infinitive verb 6. Usage quirks 7. Different from vs. different than 8. between = 2; among > 2 9. lay vs. lie 10. shall vs. will 4. Priestly Pummels Prescriptivists! 7. Joseph Priestly (1733-1804). Rudiments of English Grammar (1761). 11. Priestly is more often remembered as "the father of chemistry" because of his experiments isolating various gases, including oxygen, ammonia, nitrous oxide, sulfur dioxide, and carbon monoxide. Among his other accomplishments, however, is 12. A scientist, Priestly was used to observing and describing rather than judging (like a clergyman?). Like Lowth, he was also a clergyman. 8. In language, "the general prevailing custom, where ever it happen to be, can be the only standard for the time it prevails."

CHAPTER 10 : NINETEENTH CENTURY AND AFTER * Discovery of Vocabulary
We are found many new vocabulary and give the influence in the future * Change of meaning * Development English in country
In this century English was used in many country , like America , south Europe , etc . * Impact to the language and grammar : - pidgin and chreols * Spelling reform
That attitude majority of people * Gender issues and llinguistic change

* Oxford dictionary
Become standart of English language

CHAPTER 11 : THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE IN AMERICA
English is also spoken in America because the British person bring the English language to America in 7th century.
English at America devided by several dialect such as : 1. Eastern New England 2. New York City 3. Upper North 4. Lower North 5. Upper south 6. Lower south 7. General America 8. Black English Vernacular
The difference between America & British English are very minor such as vocab , pronoun and accents .
American English is the most influence language in the worldwide.
Three stages of settlement and influence can be discerned:
Beginning with the English settlement of Jamestown in 1607 and the landing of the Puritans in Massachusetts in 1620 (though the Pilgrims encountered Native Americans who were already speaking a pidgin English: Dillard 9ff.), the English language is established in America (along with Dutch, German, French, and other tongues).

The American Revolution creates a separate political identity, and along with it an expressed desire for a distinct linguistic identity. The Louisiana Purchase and the consequent expansion westward, accelerated by the discovery of gold in California contribute to linguistic intermingling and dialect leveling in the West.
The period of European immigration to the U. S. after the Civil War marks the next stage of large-scale linguistic infusions. Since the vast majority of these immigrants settled in the North, that is arguably the region where the greatest linguistic impact of immigration was also felt (see Carver 96-7).
Early American English
The greatest linguistic influence results from first period of immigration and the establishment of the settlements of the original thirteen colonies:
Northern
New England was first settled by English speakers between 1620-1640. After the Puritans settle the Massachusetts Bay Colony in 1620, a second settlement center is established in 1635 in the Lower Connecticut River Valley (on the western side of the river).
The Mid-Atlantic States: New York was first settled by the Dutch in 1614, but the colony was seized by the British in 1664, when fewer than 10,000 Dutch settlers were living there; Pennsylvania was settled by a mix of English, Welsh, Scots-Irish, and Germans (the Pennsylvania "Dutch"). From Philadelphia, Scots-Irish immigrants spread westward, settling extensively in the Appalachians.
Southern
Virginia was the first area to be settled in the South Atlantic States. The region attracted a variety of social outcasts of one kind or another: criminals, royalists, indentured servants, and Puritans from England; religious and political refugees from France (Huguenots/Calvinists); and inland, Scots-Irish, and Germans. One kind of argument for the distinctive character of Southern speech, then, is that it was peopled by inhabitants from the "fringes" of the British insular domain, and thus, perhaps, those with less standardized pronunciations and usages. Black English is increasingly regarded as another influence on the development of Southern speech (see especially Dillard's chapter on "The Development of Southern").
The language variations that develop from these broad early influences will be examined in more detail below.
Linguistic Nationalism
As perception of the country as a nation separate from England grew, so too did perception of language differences. In January 1774, and anonymous writer (possibly John Adams) issued a proposal in the Royal American Magazine for a national academy.
A few years later (September 5, 1780), John Adams wrote to the president of Congress from Amsterdam proposing that Congress establish an "American Academy for correcting, improving and ascertaining the English language".