Technology In Early Societies

The Role of Technology in Early Societies

In the absence of technology, it would be extremely difficult for early societies to expand and flourish to their full potential. Since the beginning of history, we have seen technological advances occur in all growing societies. The first example of technology was seen in the early complex societies dating from 3500 B.C.E. to 500 B.C.E. With expansion of societies, we have witnessed advances in technology from peoples from Africa, Southern Asia, Eastern Asia, and those inhabiting the Americas and Oceania. Technology is another method to help empires and dynasties posses advantages in terms of resources for expansion. As a result, technology plays a key role in the building of societies, city-states,
and economies. Technology was seen first in the development of specialized labor at the well-known neolithic settlement of Catal Huyuk located in south-central Anatolia. Discoveries dating from 7250 to 5400 B.C.E. have been made of the early manufacturing of pots, baskets, textiles, leather, stone, metal tools, wood carvings, carpets, beads, and jewelry. It is also said that the beginning of obsidian production took place at Catal Huyuk as well. Despite the production of leather, carpets, and beads, there were only three major craft industries: pottery, metallurgy, and textile production (24). Pottery was discovered around 7000 B.C.E. and aided in the storage of food, and other products. The next industry which required some form of technology was metallurgy. Early forms of the trade dealt mostly with copper, only because of its initial natural and pure form. The material could be worked with a simple stroke of the hammer. By 6000 B.C.E., societies had made technological advances with the use of furnaces to melt copper. Soon after this discovery, villages began smelting and casting copper to easily produce jewelry, decorative items, and most importantly tools like knives, axes, hoes, and weapons. Finally, copper metallurgy served as a foundation later for the working of gold, bronze, iron, and other metals (25). During the time period before history is when the first examples of technology surfaced. Just as in the early paleolithic and neolithic societies, technological advances were observed in the early societies located in Southwest Asia as well. Thanks to the advances of copper metallurgy, bronze metallurgy was developed from innovations from previous generations. Around 4000 B.C.E., craftsmen discovered that copper–in its pure form–is too soft to serve as an effective weapon or tool. Knowing this, next, Mesopotamian metal workers discovered that copper alloyed with tin produces a much stronger material more suitable for weapons and strenuous labor. Even cheaper and much more resourceful than copper and tin–iron quickly became the metal of choice for upcoming empires and dynasties. First attempted by Mesopotamian craftsmen, iron metallurgy was later refined by the Hittites. Early iron products produced by Mesopotamian metal workers proved to be too brittle for effective battle tools. Soon after this discovery, iron production spread through societies of Anatolia, Mesopotamia, Assyria, and other regions as well. Also in Southwest Asian societies, technology assisted the rise of trade networks with the building of wheeled vehicles and ships. Wheels made their first appearance around 3500 B.C.E. and assisted greatly in long distance trade. Sumerians built wheeled carts and wagons which enabled the transportation of heavy loads of bulk products–grain, bricks, and or metal ores–over long distances (40). Sumerians also dabbled in maritime ship building; however, the Phoenicians proved to be superior sailors and built the best ships. Sumerians built water crafts which enabled trade with Harappan society via the Persian Gulf and the Arabian Sea. With the domestication of horses next, along with the use of wheeled carts and wagons, societies in Southwest Asia began hitching horses to carts, wagons, and chariots. Shortly after, the Hittites produced a light-weight horse drawn war chariot. The Hittite chariot is so effective because of their invented spoke wheels as opposed to the sluggish Sumerian war chariot which is equipped with solid wooden wheels and spokes. Although these innovations took place in Southwest Asia, similar technological advances were being made around this time in early African societies. There is no major variation–with the exception of Egyptian pyramids–concerning technology when comparing early African societies to any of the other early societies. Technology found its use in the occupations held by those involved in woodworking, masonry, leather production, stone cutting, and pottery. Although there was production of metal tools and weapons on a small scale, societies of the Nile were much slower in adopting this technology than their Mesopotamian counter parts. Bronze metallurgy was not implemented in African society until after 3000 B.C.E. when the Hyksos relied on bronze weapons the impose their rule on the Nile delta (72). Egyptians equipped their own armies with bronze weapons only after the expelling of the Hyksos. Iron metallurgy in Africa was prominent. With plentiful iron ores in sub-Saharan Africa, iron metallurgy arose from local experimentation (73). Excavations in Meroe Africa show remains of mass iron production from ancient times. Before 3500 B.C.E., Egyptians traveled up and down the Nile river. With the use of sails, Egyptians found ways to navigate up and down the Nile; and eventually explored areas of the Red Sea, Mediterranean Sea, Gulf of Aden, and the western portion of the Arabian Sea. The Bantu people of central Africa migrated by way of canoes through the Niger, Congo, and other rivers. Like in South Asia, Bantu peoples mostly used iron for tools in agriculture and cultivation; although, the use of iron tools did help Bantu people in the defense against adversaries. Early societies in South Asia relied primarily on agriculture and trade. Around 1000 B.C.E. Aryans learned how to produce iron tools. Axes and hoes with iron tips were used around this time by Aryans for deforestation purposes. In South Asia horses were quite valuable–they did not breed well in India. This meant that the societies that held horses in their possession could make great use of horse power when hitched to carts, wagons, and chariots. War chariots proved to be devastating in battle. Houses in South Asia represented the differences in social classes; however, some of the larger, grand scale buildings and houses required a great deal of technological innovations in the creation. Some houses in Mohenjo-Daro around 2800 B.C.E. resemble atrium style houses–where there is an interior courtyard. Also, the foundation of these houses are based with thick wood to accommodate for stability of the structures on the upper floors. Harappa and Mohenjo-Daro are cities who housed large city walls, fortified citadels, marketplaces, temples, public buildings, streets schemed east, west, north, and south, and in Mohenjo-Daro–a large pool. These structures required dedicated planning and architectural knowledge similar to those structures in East Asia. Technological advances in East Asia can be divided into three different times–the dynasties of the Xia, Shang, and Zhou.
Written records were only found for the dynasties of Shang and Zhou; the Xia dynasty failed to leave behind any written documents. Bronze metallurgy which migrated from Southwest Asia to East Asia, is one of the technological advances that helped displace the Xia dynasty; for the Xia dynasty made little use of bronze tools and weapons. Unlike the Xia dynasty, the Shang dynasty not only implemented bronze tools, but monopolized the material as a whole. As a result, the Shang dynasty controlled access to all copper and tin ores and eventually easily overpowered the Xia who used weapons made of stone, wood, and bone. Mass production of bronze axes, spears, knives, and arrowheads enabled the Shang dynasty to enforce their rule on agricultural societies. This is one example of empires and societies who lack technology; as a result, they are unable to maintain enforcing their rule. Along with bronze metallurgy, horses, wheeled vehicles, and horse-drawn chariots traveled to China as early as 2000 B.C.E. but definitely by 1200 B.C.E. (112). The Shang also used bronze to make fittings for their horse-drawn chariots. Although bronze was the reason for the upcoming of the Shang dynasty, Iron played a role in the fall of the Zhou dynasty. The Zhou dynasty created swords made from iron which proved to be more lethal benefitting from longer and stronger shafts. Iron ores in China are cheaper and way more accessible and therefore almost impossible to monopolize. In the end, subordinates of the Zhou–and their armies–were all equipped with iron weapons; this made it difficult to impose a central rule which resulted in gradual collapse of the Zhou
dynasty. Lastly, early societies in the Americas and Oceania, demonstrated complex technological advances. Although these early societies lacked more of the basic technologies such as the wheel and horsepower, advances were made in irrigation and plumbing. The all areas of the Americas receive plentiful amounts of rainfall, which made it unnecessary for irrigation systems. However, Olmec communities created elaborate drainage systems to prevent massive floods. Some Olmec drainage systems remain active and visible today (136). Lacking in draft animals, societies in the early Americas relied on human labor–dragging and pulling large boulders. Contrary to the wheel, Olmecs used rafts to float materials from place to place. This inconvenience made it more difficult in the creation of massive structures like tombs, temples, pyramids, altars, and the infamous stone-sculptures often found in early Olmec societies. Located in modern day southern Mexico, Maya priests studied in mathematics and astronomy. With this knowledge, the Maya society developed and devised an accurate account of the length of a solar year. This calendar is said to be seventeen seconds off of modern day figures; recorded at 365.242 days (140). Technology in Mesoamerica lacked some of the technological advances other early societies possessed. There is no question that technology played a major role in the development of early societies. Bronze metallurgy proved to be a major advance in technology for those societies in East Asia, South Asia, Southwest Asia, and Africa. The amount of writing available about the development of early societies in the Americas is limited; but it did appear to lack technology in the working of metals. In addition, the wheel served as a major technological advance in a fair number of the early societies. Technology affects everything in the development of societies; it affects major industries, trade, economics, and it also increases the workload. It has been proven that societies that lack advances in technology, are those societies that are subjugated.