telescope

The concept of utilitarianism is that any action should create the most amount of happiness for the most number of people. Utilitarian’s believe in the principle of utility as the one universal moral code. Act utilitarianism states that it is the right action that brings the greatest happiness to the greatest number of people. It is a concept that believes that the morality of an action is determined by its usefulness to most of the people, that this act is in accordance with the moral rules since it brings greater good or happiness. Rule utilitarianism tells us that we should follow certain rules in order to achieve the most desired consequence. It adheres to the belief that the correctness of an action is determined by the correctness of its rules and that if the correct rule is followed, the greatest good or happiness is achieved. Mill and Bentham each believe in their own type of Utilitarianism and have their own theories. Bentham focuses on pleasure whereas Mill focuses on happiness. Similarly, they are both searching to maximize happiness. Bentham is concerned for the individual alone, but Mill suggests we should protect a common good. Bentham suggests a means for quantitive pleasure with his Hedonic Calculus, but Mill suggests qualitative views with higher or lower pleasures. Bentham believed that what is pleasurable is good and what is painful is bad. According to act-utilitarianism, it would be morally wrong to waste time on leisure activities such as watching television, since our time could be spent in ways that produced a greater social benefit, such as charity work. According to this theory, it is the value of the consequences of a particular act that counts while determining whether an act is morally correct or not. The value of consequences of an act is determined by the number of positive outcomes that can result for the greatest number of people. His moral theory is based on the hedonic calculator, which is used to discover and evaluate which action would allow for the greatest good. To determine how one should act actions must be measured according to their duration, their nearness, certainty, intensity, fruitfulness, purity and extent. He also argued that pleasure and happiness is the ultimate goal and anything that helps gain that happiness or pleasure and avoid pain has intrinsic value. Bentham concludes that all pleasures are qualitively equal. The only difference is the quantity. This means that if two experiences contained equal amount of pleasure then no matter what other differences there might be between the experiences neither one or the other is better or worse than the other.
Mill defines utilitarianism as a theory based on the principle that "actions are right in proportion as they tend to promote happiness, wrong as they tend to produce the reverse of happiness." Mill also defines happiness as pleasure and the absence of pain. Mill argues that sacrificing happiness is only desirable if it will lead to more happiness generally He argues that pleasure can differ in quality and quantity, and that pleasures that are rooted in one's higher faculties should be weighted more heavily than lower pleasures. People who employ higher faculties are often less content, because they have a deeper sense of the limitations of the world. A pleasure is of higher quality if people would choose it over a different pleasure even if it is accompanied by discomfort, and if they would not trade it for a greater amount of the other pleasure. Mill argues that people's achievement of goals should be counted as part of their happiness. He believes that happiness is the sole basis of morality, and that people never desire anything but happiness. He supports this claim by showing that all the other objects of people's desire are either means to happiness, or included in the definition of happiness. I have made a promise to meet a friend who is on his deathbed; on my way to meet him, I find a woman who is wounded (but curable) and needs my help (no one else is around). Should I keep my promise? These actions involve either promise keeping or helping others, and both keeping promises and helping others maximize happiness in general. Thus, we are faced with a dilemma (see below). Result: EITHER: One can argue that, since helping the woman is an immediate matter of life and death, and the rule of helping others maximizes happiness IN GENERAL, I should help the woman. OR: One could argue that the rule of keeping promises maximizes happiness, and keep his or her promise. Problem: If we pick the action that maximizes happiness IN THIS CASE, aren't we back to Act Utilitarianism, which makes Rule Utilitarianism pointless? And if we can just pick either rule and be a rule utilitarian, then Rule Utilitarianism is arbitrary - it allows you to do whatever action you wish, as long as you can come up with a rule that seems to maximize happiness in general. Telescopes
The three main advantages of reflecting telescopes over refracting telescopes are quit obvious. One being that reflector telescopes do not suffer chromatic aberration because all wavelengths will reflect off the mirror in the same way. Second the mirror is along the back side allowing it to be very HUGE. Lastly they are cheaper than refractors of the same size.
Today in the telescope world there are four huge telescopes. Right now the Gran Telescopio is the largest with a 10.4 mirror. Second is the two 10 meter keck and keck II. Then comes the 10 meter Salt. From there we move to the 9.2 meter Hobby Elberly.
The advantages and disadvantages of radio astronomy compared to optical observations are as follows. Radio telescopes are much bigger than optical telescopes because radio wavelengths are longer. Longer wavelengths mean the radio waves have lower energy than light waves. Radio telescopes detect the emission from cool clouds. Radio telescopes are larger than optical telescopes because radio wavelengths are longer. Both optical and radio telescopes reflectors use a parabolic shape.
One special technique used in radio astronomy is called interferometry. Astronomers can combine data from two telescopes. This means radio telescope arrays can see incredibly small details.
X rays were discovered in 1895 by Wilhelm Rontgen. Astronomical x-rays are usually imaged in a different way. They are used in hospitals mainly. Sometimes if x rayed wrong the image will become a shadow image. In Astronomy they image the source itself.